Fresnel lens - Knowledge (XXG)

822: 1280: 623:(younger brother of Alan) went a step beyond Fresnel with his "holophotal" lens, which focused the light radiated by the lamp in nearly all directions, forward or backward, into a single beam. The first version, described in 1849, consisted of a standard Fresnel bull's-eye lens, a paraboloidal reflector, and a rear hemispherical reflector (functionally equivalent to the Rogers mirror of 60 years earlier, except that it subtended a whole hemisphere). Light radiated into the forward hemisphere but missing the bull's-eye lens was deflected by the paraboloid into a parallel beam surrounding the bull's-eye lens, while light radiated into the backward hemisphere was reflected back through the lamp by the spherical reflector (as in Rogers' arrangement), to be collected by the forward components. The first unit was installed at North Harbour, 1253: 1484: 1296: 1265: 1221: 1197: 627:, in August 1849. Stevenson called this version a "catadioptric holophote", although each of its elements was either purely reflective or purely refractive. In the second version of the holophote concept, the bull's-eye lens and paraboloidal reflector were replaced by a catadioptric Fresnel lens—as conceived by Fresnel, but expanded to cover the whole forward hemisphere. The third version, which Stevenson confusingly called a "dioptric holophote", was more innovative: it retained the catadioptric Fresnel lens for the front hemisphere, but replaced the rear hemispherical reflector with a hemispherical array of annular prisms, each of which used 1209: 646: 1237: 1181: 3749: 372:('lenses by steps') to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light. Another report by Fresnel, dated 29 August 1819 (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 15–21), concerns tests on reflectors, and does not mention stepped lenses except in an unrelated sketch on the last page of the manuscript. The minutes of the meetings of the Commission go back only to 1824, when Fresnel himself took over as Secretary. Thus the exact date on which Fresnel formally recommended 1169: 31: 1392: 745: 311: 1507:. The "meatball" light aids the pilot in maintaining proper glide slope for the landing. In the center are amber and red lights composed of Fresnel lenses. Although the lights are always on, the angle of the lens from the pilot's point of view determines the color and position of the visible light. If the lights appear above the green horizontal bar, the pilot is too high. If it is below, the pilot is too low, and if the lights are red, the pilot is very low. 441:, giving eight rotating beams—to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7 degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a 1539: 1531: 3981: 834: 1319:. Imaging Fresnel lenses use segments with curved cross-sections and produce sharp images, while non-imaging lenses have segments with flat cross-sections, and do not produce sharp images. As the number of segments increases, the two types of lens become more similar to each other. In the abstract case of an infinite number of segments, the difference between curved and flat segments disappears. 4001: 1449: 729: 4011: 3991: 555:('lighthouse map'), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes called "orders" (the first being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (16 panels). 542:) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive. The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825. However, due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan. 40:, Paris. In this case the dioptric prisms (inside the bronze rings) and catadioptric prisms (outside) are arranged to concentrate the light from the central lamp into four revolving beams, seen by sailors as four flashes per revolution. The assembly stands 2.54 metres (8.3 ft) tall and weighs about 1.5 tonnes (3,300 lb). 1480:) to tint the light or wire screens or frosted plastic to diffuse it. The Fresnel lens is useful in the making of motion pictures not only because of its ability to focus the beam brighter than a typical lens, but also because the light is a relatively consistent intensity across the entire width of the beam of light. 1476:, to increase or decrease the size of the light beam. As a result, they are very flexible, and can often produce a beam as narrow as 7° or as wide as 70°. The Fresnel lens produces a very soft-edged beam, so is often used as a wash light. A holder in front of the lens can hold a colored plastic film ( 719:

patented a method of making lenses from pressed and molded glass. The company made small bull's-eye lenses for use on railroads, steamboats, and docks; such lenses were common in the United States by the 1870s. In 1858 the company produced "a very small number of pressed flint-glass sixth-order

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entering the UK and Republic of Ireland (and vice versa, right-hand-drive Irish and British trucks entering mainland Europe) to overcome the blind spots caused by the driver operating the lorry while sitting on the wrong side of the cab relative to the side of the road the car is on. They attach to

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A non-imaging spot Fresnel lens uses ring-shaped segments with cross sections that are straight lines rather than circular arcs. Such a lens can focus light on a small spot, but does not produce a sharp image. These lenses have application in solar power, such as focusing sunlight on a solar panel.

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The development of hyper-radial lenses was driven in part by the need for larger light sources, such as gas lights with multiple jets, which required a longer focal length for a given beam-width, hence a larger lens to collect a given fraction of the generated light. The first hyper-radial lens was

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in the planar Fresnel element. These lenses conferred many practical benefits upon the designers, builders, and users of lighthouses and their illumination. Among other things, smaller lenses could fit into more compact spaces. Greater light transmission over longer distances, and varied patterns,

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eliminated the need for filters by inventing the "group-flashing" lens, in which the dioptric and/or the catadioptric panels were split so as to give multiple flashes—allowing lighthouses to be identified not only by frequency of flashes, but also by multiplicity of flashes. Double-flashing lenses

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The day before the test of the Cordouan lens in Paris, a committee of the Academy of Sciences reported on Fresnel's memoir and supplements on double refraction—which, although less well known to modern readers than his earlier work on diffraction, struck a more decisive blow for the wave theory of

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catadioptric first-order lens, installed at Pointe d'Ailly in 1852, also gave eight rotating beams plus a fixed light at the bottom; but its top section had eight catadioptric panels focusing the light about 4 degrees ahead of the main beams, in order to lengthen the flashes. The first fully

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based on their size and focal length. The 3rd and 4th orders were sub-divided into "large" and "small". In modern use, the orders are classified as first through sixth order. An intermediate size between third and fourth order was added later, as well as sizes above first order and below sixth.

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in London. Later, to ease manufacturing, Chance divided the prisms into segments, and arranged them in a cylindrical form while retaining the property of reflecting light from a single point back to that point. Reflectors of this form, paradoxically called "dioptric mirrors", proved particularly

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In some lenses, the curved surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces, with a different angle in each section. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a circular fashion with steeper prisms on the edges and a flat or slightly convex center. In the first (and largest) Fresnel

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The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have an infinite number of sections. In each section, the overall thickness is decreased compared to an equivalent

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High-quality glass Fresnel lenses were used in lighthouses, where they were considered state of the art in the late 19th and through the middle of the 20th centuries; most lighthouses have now retired glass Fresnel lenses from service and replaced them with much less expensive and more durable

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The first stage of the development of lighthouse lenses after the death of Augustin Fresnel consisted in the implementation of his designs. This was driven in part by his younger brother Léonor—who, like Augustin, was trained as a civil engineer but, unlike Augustin, had a strong aptitude for

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Fresnel acknowledged the British lenses and Buffon's invention in a memoir read on 29 July 1822 and printed in the same year. The date of that memoir may be the source of the claim that Fresnel's lighthouse advocacy began two years later than Brewster's; but the text makes it clear that

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2, vol. 17, pp. 102–111 (May 1821), 167–196 (June 1821), 312–315 ("Postscript", July 1821); reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–1870, vol. 1, pp. 609–648; translated as "On the calculation of the tints that polarization develops in crystalline plates, & postscript",

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A non-imaging linear Fresnel lens uses straight segments whose cross sections are straight lines rather than arcs. These lenses focus light into a narrow band. They do not produce a sharp image, but can be used in solar power, such as for focusing sunlight on a pipe, to heat the water

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Fresnel lens design allows a substantial reduction in thickness (and thus mass and volume of material) at the expense of reducing the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise imaging applications such as photography usually still use larger conventional lenses.

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The use of Fresnel lenses for image projection reduces image quality, so they tend to occur only where quality is not critical or where the bulk of a solid lens would be prohibitive. Cheap Fresnel lenses can be stamped or molded of transparent plastic and are used in

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with a ratio of almost 500:1. This allows the active solar-cell surface to be reduced, lowering cost and allowing the use of more efficient cells that would otherwise be too expensive. In the early 21st century, Fresnel reflectors began to be used in

3949: 519:, becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary, albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief. Late that year, being increasingly ill, he curtailed his fundamental research and resigned his seasonal job as an examiner at the 2804: 1350:, using straight segments with circular cross-section, focusing light on a single line. This type produces a sharp image, although not quite as clear as the equivalent simple cylindrical lens due to diffraction at the edges of the ridges. 1279: 1252: 1196: 393:

With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, found a way to remove defects by reheating and remolding the glass. Arago assisted Fresnel with the design of a modified

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under Fresnel's supervision—in part by Fresnel's own hands. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. As expected, the light was visible to the horizon, more than 32 kilometres (20 mi) out.

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cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular) prisms—and so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels

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without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet.

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In late 1825, to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then

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projection. The collimator lens has the lower focal length and is placed closer to the light source, and the collector lens, which focuses the light into the triplet lens, is placed after the projection image (an

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lenses" for use in lighthouses—the first Fresnel lighthouse lenses made in America. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors.

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lens, lit in 1844, was only partly catadioptric; it was similar to the Cordouan lens except that the lower slats were replaced by French-made catadioptric prisms, while mirrors were retained at the top. The first

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In 1825 Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.

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cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment.

349:'s employer, the Corps of Bridges and Roads. As the members of the commission were otherwise occupied, it achieved little in its early years. However, on 21 June 1819—three months after winning the physics 3034: 757:

lenses, each section was actually a separate prism. 'Single-piece' Fresnel lenses were later produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times,

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have used Fresnel lenses to reduce the size of telephoto lenses. Photographic lenses that include Fresnel elements can be much shorter than corresponding conventional lens design. Nikon calls the technology

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suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time. These designs were intended not for lighthouses, but for

890: in) and stands about 2.59 m (8 ft 6 in) high, and 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. The smallest (sixth) order has a focal length of 150 mm (6 in) and a height of 433 mm ( 849: 1433:, where they can shape the roughly parallel beam from the parabolic reflector to meet requirements for dipped and main-beam patterns, often both in the same headlamp unit (such as the European 1414:

elements, arrayed in faceted domes above and below the central planar Fresnel, in order to catch all light emitted from the light source. The light path through these elements can include an

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the metal rings seen in the photographs. While the inner elements are sections of refractive lenses, the outer elements are reflecting prisms, each of which performs two refractions and one

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total internal reflections to turn light diverging from the center of the hemisphere back toward the center. The result was an all-glass holophote, with no losses from metallic reflections.

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Fresnel lenses are usually made of glass or plastic; their size varies from large (old historical lighthouses, meter size) to medium (book-reading aids, OHP viewgraph projectors) to small (

2797: 1264: 3008: 1220: 1472:. The entire instrument consists of a metal housing, a reflector, a lamp assembly, and a Fresnel lens. Many Fresnel instruments allow the lamp to be moved relative to the lens' 563:

off the second surface, then refraction through the third surface. The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In 1826 he assembled a small model for use on the

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cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.

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in 1789. Behind each lamp was a back-coated spherical glass mirror, which reflected rear radiation back through the lamp and into the lens. Further samples were installed at

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simple lens. This effectively divides the continuous surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same curvature, with stepwise discontinuities between them.

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Shishavanf, Amir Asgharzadeh; Nordin, Leland; Tjossem, Paul; Abramoff, Michael D.; Toor, Fatima (2016), Engheta, Nader; Noginov, Mikhail A.; Zheludev, Nikolay I (eds.),

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cm and indicates that the first panel was tested on 31 October 1820; cf. Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. xxxii & xxxiv, and Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, p.

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Most modern Fresnel lenses consist only of refractive elements. Lighthouse lenses, however, tend to include both refracting and reflecting elements, the latter being

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Since plastic Fresnel lenses can be made larger than glass lenses, as well as being much cheaper and lighter, they are used to concentrate sunlight for heating in

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made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in contrast to the rest of his body, for dramatic and comic effect. In the

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By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called

3921: 657:. The three dioptric panels (inside the brass rings) and three catadioptric panels (outside) are partly split in two, giving three double-flashes per rotation. 2509: 1180: 289:

prisms, ground as steps in a single piece of glass,to reduce weight and absorption. In 1790 (although secondary sources give the date as 1773 or 1788), the

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modified Thomas Stevenson's all-glass holophotal design by arranging the double-reflecting prisms about a vertical axis. The prototype was shown at the

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lens—for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below. Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of

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J. Elton, 2009, "A Light to Lighten our Darkness: Lighthouse Optics and the Later Development of Fresnel's Revolutionary Refracting Lens 1780–1900",

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of a lens attached to the rear window permits examining the scene behind a vehicle, particularly a tall or bluff-tailed one, more effectively than a

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in Hawaii. Rather than order a new lens, the huge optic construction, 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall and with over a thousand prisms, was used there.

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As lighthouses proliferated, they became harder to distinguish from each other, leading to the use of colored filters, which wasted light. In 1884,

3560: 3225: 3278: 1700:, to increase the perceived brightness of the image projected by a lens onto the ground glass, thus aiding in adjusting focus and composition. 282: 199: 595:, France; these were fixed third-order lenses whose catadioptric rings (made in segments) were one metre in diameter. Stevenson's first-order 187:

which reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections.

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A. Fresnel, 1822, "Mémoire sur un nouveau système d'éclairage des phares", read 29 July 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–1870, vol. 3,

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as well as refraction to capture more oblique light from the light source and add it to the beam, making it visible at greater distances.

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The first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens was apparently the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, who proposed the idea to

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Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became feasible in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the

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about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (

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camera screens, micro-optics). In many cases they are very thin and flat, almost flexible, with thicknesses in the 1 to 5 mm (

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Lighthouses, Lenses, Illuminants, Engineering, & Augustin Fresnel: A Historical Bibliography on Works Published Through 2007

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under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel, and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. using French glass; it entered service at the

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was heat-resistant, making it suitable for use in the lens. The prototype, finished in March 1820, had a square lens panel 55

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208) notes that although the Skerryvore lens was lit on 1 February 1844, the catadioptric portion was yet to be added.

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design). For reasons of economy, weight, and impact resistance, newer cars have dispensed with glass Fresnel lenses, using

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management. Léonor entered the service of the Lighthouse Commission in 1825, and went on to succeed Augustin as Secretary.

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The first fixed lens to be constructed with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer

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A. Fresnel, "Note sur le calcul des teintes que la polarisation développe dans les lames cristallisées" et seq.,

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use Fresnel lenses, as they allow a thinner and lighter form factor than regular lenses. Newer devices, such as the

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59. The biconvex shape may be inferred from Buffon's description, quoted in Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, at p.

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First-order lens from Destruction Island WA, built in France 1888. Currently at Westport Maritime Museum.

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lenses. However, Fresnel lenses continue in wide use in automobile tail, marker, and reversing lights.

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Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by

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The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century

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Fresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular entertainment. The British rock artist

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Because of its use in lighthouses, it has been called "the invention that saved a million ships".

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Levitt, 2013, pp. 59–66. Levitt gives the size of the eight-panel version as 720 mm (

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used to heat water for domestic use. They can also be used to generate steam or to power a

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Soon after this demonstration, Fresnel published the idea that light, including apparently

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First-order group-flashing Fresnel lens, on display at the Point Arena Lighthouse Museum,

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hypothesis. Shortly after the Cordouan lens was lit, Fresnel started coughing up blood.

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light. Between the test and the reassembly at Cordouan, Fresnel submitted his papers on

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Cross-section of a first-generation Fresnel lighthouse lens, with sloping mirrors

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and his entourage—from 32 kilometres (20 mi) away. The apparatus was stored at

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useful for returning light from the landward side of the lamp to the seaward side.

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A. Fresnel (ed. H. de Sénarmont, E. Verdet, and L. Fresnel), 1866–1870,

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is the same (cylindrical symmetry), the light is spread evenly around the horizon.

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Another automobile application of a Fresnel lens is a rear view enhancer, as the

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is unknown. Much to Fresnel's embarrassment, one of the assembled commissioners,

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features a Fresnel lens in the scenes where the protagonist watches the musical

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Fourth order lens from Cape Arago Lighthouse. Currently at Coos History Museum.

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1: Cross-section of Buffon/Fresnel lens. 2: Cross-section of conventional

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Buchwald, 1989, pp. 260, 288–290, 297; cf. Born & Wolf, 1999, p.

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A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse

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First-order rotating catadioptric Fresnel lens, dated 1870, displayed at the

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G.-A. Boutry, 1948, "Augustin Fresnel: His time, life and work, 1788–1827",

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Close-up view of a flat Fresnel lens shows concentric circles on the surface

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240, is a transcription error, inconsistent with the primary source cited.)

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Perhaps the most widespread use of Fresnel lenses, for a time, occurred in

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Lighthouse in 1887. In the same year, Barbier installed a hyper-radial at

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portable CRT TV, which enlarges the vertical aspect of the display only

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International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology

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Elton, 2009, pp. 199, 200, 202; Levitt, 2013, pp. 104–105.

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Fresnel, 1866–1870, vol. 1, pp. 713–718, 731–751, 767–799.

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alone. Fresnel lenses have been used on rangefinding equipment and

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Fresnel designed six sizes of lighthouse lenses, divided into four

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was the first to replace a convex lens with a series of concentric

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Comparison of first- and fourth-order lenses (Key West Lighthouse)

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in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original

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Levitt, 2013, pp. 108–110, 113–116, 122–123. Elton (2009, p.

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Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 5–14; on the date, see p.

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Dictionary of Machines, Mechanics, Engine-work, and Engineering

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camera used a Fresnel reflector as part of its viewing system.

1558:. Fresnel lenses have been used to increase the visual size of 1456:

Glass Fresnel lenses also are used in lighting instruments for

1104:

Breakwaters, river and channel lights, Small islands in sounds

3592: 3443:

19 August 2016. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.)

3045:, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers: 99180C, 1725: 758: 127: 81: 3271:"Phase Fresnel – The "PF" in Nikon's New 300mm f/4E PF ED VR" 1503:

and naval air stations typically use Fresnel lenses in their

1085:

Shoals, reefs, harbor lights, islands in rivers and harbors

398:

with concentric wicks (a concept that Fresnel attributed to

2903:"Fresnel Lens Orders, Sizes, Weights, Quantities and Costs" 1696:

cameras can utilize a Fresnel lens in conjunction with the

1534:

A plastic Fresnel lens sold as a TV-screen enlarging device

1039:

Seacoast sounds, river entry, bays, channels, range lights

164: 155: 118: 112: 69: 63: 3576:"Seeing the Light: Lighthouses on the western Great Lakes" 3420:, vol. 79, no. 2 (July 2009), pp. 183–244; 2771:

A. Finstad, "New developments in audio-visual materials",

1867: 1865: 1863: 1861: 465:

on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the Commission—and by

3145:"What Tech is Inside of a VR Headset? (Quest 2 Teardown)" 2615:"Appareil catadioptrique, Appareil du canal Saint-Martin" 2138: 2136: 1340:

when the ridges are microscopic, at the wavelength scale.

670:(Sri Lanka) in 1875, and a triple-flashing lens at 355:

of the Academy of Sciences for his celebrated memoir on

3090:

Lowe's Transport Manager's and Operator's Handbook 2012

2758:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 1 March 2021; 1452:

A Fresnel lantern with the lens open to show the ridges

202:, and independently reinvented by the French physicist 2738:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 28 February 2021; 1664:

Multi-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of

876:

A first-order lens has a focal length of 920 mm (

513:

In May 1824, Fresnel was promoted to Secretary of the

225:

The design allows the construction of lenses of large

3588:

The Fresnel Lens: the Invention That Saved 1000 Ships

3535: 3437:"Memoir upon a new system of lighthouse illumination" 1346:

A cylindrical Fresnel lens is equivalent to a simple

390:

and made of multiple prisms for easier construction.

176: 161: 149: 136: 115: 106: 90: 78: 66: 57: 3439:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 26 August 2017; 3041:, Metamaterials, Metadevices, and Metasystems 2016, 2848:, Michigan Lighthouse Conservancy, 31 January 2008, 2086:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; 2060:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 22 August 2017; 1988:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; 1580:

Fresnel lenses are used in left-hand-drive European

167: 152: 121: 109: 72: 60: 3950:

International Association of Lighthouse Authorities

3935: 3904: 3858: 3827: 3756: 3712: 3660: 3653: 2118: 2116: 2114: 2112: 158: 103: 54: 1737:). Fresnel lenses are also used as collimators in 765:might be used to manufacture more complex lenses. 3322:"Soitec's high-performance Concentrix technology" 2938:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 1724:, and one collector) are used in commercial and 434:Fresnel's involvement began no later than 1819. 2779:15 (1 April 1952), pp. 176–178, at p. 2688:Elton, 2009, pp. 227–230; Levitt, 2013, p. 2032: 2030: 1720:Fresnel lenses of different focal lengths (one 1657:design due to its smaller form factor and less 426:, and went on to consider the implications for 3960:International Lighthouse and Lightship Weekend 3230:VR Expert | Enterprise VR/AR Hardware Supplier 3170:"How Lenses for Virtual Reality Headsets Work" 2178:Levitt, 2013, pp. 51, 53; Elton, 2009, p. 498:(9 December), and partial reflection and 262:cm thick at the center, were installed at the 3608: 3450:(3 vols.), Paris: Imprimerie Impériale; 2921:R. Winston, J. C. Miñano, and P. G. Benítez, 2404:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, pp. 13, 25. 2241: 2239: 2098: 2096: 1764:Fresnel lenses can concentrate sunlight onto 8: 3482:Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young 1550:Fresnel lenses are used as simple hand-held 1468:); such instruments are often called simply 1423:made it possible to triangulate a position. 1362:Fresnel lenses may be used as components of 1329:A spherical Fresnel lens is equivalent to a 856:Walking around a fresnel lens on display in 564: 550: 520: 514: 458: 373: 367: 350: 3570:(5-minute video), Vega Science Trust, 2008. 2078: 2076: 2074: 2072: 2070: 2052: 2050: 1980: 1978: 1398:lighthouse lens and drive mechanism at the 759:computer-controlled milling equipment (CNC) 736:of equivalent power. (Buffon's version was 609:beams—also of first order—was installed at 3657: 3615: 3601: 3593: 2359:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, pp. 2–4. 2022:Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences 1961:"The invention that saved a million ships" 1311:There are two main types of Fresnel lens: 917: 682:, which was in service from 1908 to 1977. 318:above and below the refractive panel 2791: 2789: 2750: 2748: 2337: 1510:Fresnel lenses are also commonly used in 1354:Non-imaging lenses can be classified as: 198:) form of the lens was first proposed by 2994:, 2nd Ed., Broadway Press, 1997, p. 2428:"Science Makes a Better Lighthouse Lens" 1370:Fresnel-Köhler (FK) solar concentrators. 1242:Fourth-order lens (Sekizaki Lighthouse, 1019:lighthouses, seacoasts, islands, sounds 473:for the winter, and then reassembled at 2211:58) gives the date only as August 1819. 1829: 1164: 666:were installed at Tampico (Mexico) and 530:In the same year he designed the first 3480:T. Young (ed. G. Peacock), 1855, 3349:"This 3D printer runs on sand and sun" 2852:from the original on 21 September 2012 2807:from the original on 21 September 2015 2701:Point Arena Lighthouse Keepers, Inc., 2182:190; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 2130:, 1879, vol. 7, pp. 486–489. 2044:, 1861, vol. 2, pp. 606–618. 1123:Pier and breakwater lights in harbors 907:The largest Fresnel lenses are called 283:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 200:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 3119:"Projected Map Display [PMD]" 3009:"Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System" 2438:5 (August 1999), pp 30–31. 2122:G. Ripley and C.A. Dana (eds.), 1912:from the original on 17 December 2013 1322:Imaging lenses can be classified as: 7: 3990: 3922:Lighthouses by century of completion 3448:Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel 3359:from the original on 1 December 2017 2725:233; Levitt, 2013, pp. 222–224. 2529:399; Boutry, 1948, pp. 601–602. 2190:xxiv. ("July 21" in Levitt, 2013, p. 686:built for the Stevensons in 1885 by 402:), and accidentally discovered that 254:in 1788. The first Rogers lenses, 53 4010: 3561:"Fresnel Lens - Maxwell Simulation" 2883:from the original on 5 October 2008 2661:Elton, 2009, pp. 209–210, 238. 2516:, 1907–12, vol. 6 (1909). 2017:Éloge de M. le Comte de Buffon 1959:Bernhard, Adrienne (21 June 2019), 1366:optics resulting in very effective 549:Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the 2901:United States Lighthouse Society, 2630:Levitt, 2013, pp. 28, 72, 99. 2417:195; Levitt, 2013, pp. 72–76. 25: 3927:Lighthouses by year of completion 3251:"AF-S NIKKOR 300mm f/4E PF ED VR" 2229:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, p. 2058:"Chronology of Lighthouse Events" 1938:(3rd ed.), Pearson Longman, 1844:(3rd ed.), Pearson Longman, 825:Description of lens orders, from 183:) is a type of composite compact 4009: 3999: 3989: 3980: 3979: 3955:Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society 3917:Lighthouses by heritage register 3747: 3536:United States Lighthouse Society 3385:, 7th Ed., Cambridge, 1999. 3296:"Soitec's Concentrix technology" 2325:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 1936:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 1842:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 1294: 1278: 1263: 1251: 1235: 1219: 1214:Close-up of a second-order lens. 1207: 1195: 1179: 1167: 386:and in one piece, Fresnel's was 145: 99: 50: 3514:U.S. Government Printing Office 3435:; translated by T. Tag as 3405:, University of Chicago Press, 3087:Lowe, David (3 December 2011), 2368:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, p. 2275:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, p. 422:light, consists exclusively of 3502:, Winter 1985, pp. 12–14. 3469:, New York: W.W. Norton, 3347:M. Margolin (24 August 2016), 3176:. 8 March 2016. Archived from 3143:Poore, Shaun (21 April 2022). 2756:"American-Made Fresnel Lenses" 2679:Elton, 2009, pp. 221–223. 2670:Elton, 2009, pp. 210–213. 2573:Elton, 2009, pp. 198–199. 2564:Elton, 2009, pp. 197–198. 2381:D. Gombert, photograph of the 2220:Levitt, 2013, pp. 56, 58. 1780:Fresnel lenses can be used to 1777:, in Hunter Valley Australia. 1: 2712:, accessed 1 March 2021. 2613:Musée national de la Marine, 2604:Levitt, 2013, pp. 79–80. 2582:Levitt, 2013, pp. 82–84. 2395:, France, 23 March 2017. 2169:Levitt, 2013, pp. 49–50. 1542:The Fresnel lens used in the 958:Major "landfall" lighthouses 639:1862 International Exhibition 3945:General lighthouse authority 3568:"How the Fresnel lens works" 1490:on US Navy aircraft carrier 1159:Used in Scotland and Canada 1141:Used in Scotland and Canada 827:Block Island Southeast Light 717:Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company 694:with various light sources. 655:Mendocino County, California 3640:Conservation of lighthouses 2617:, accessed 26 August 2017; 2389:Musée des Phares et Balises 2149:"Brewster, Sir David" 2024:for 1788, printed in 1791.) 1986:"Lens use prior to Fresnel" 1585:the passenger-side window. 1400:National Museum of Scotland 449:. Each ring, shaped like a 322:(with central segment 37:Musée national de la Marine 4069: 3484:, London: J. Murray, 3123:Rochester Avionic Archives 2302: in). Elton (2009, p. 2186:xcvii, and vol. 3, p. 1753:, in solar forges, and in 977:Two Brazilian lighthouses 611:Saint-Clément-des-Baleines 486:(16 September 1822), 306:Publication and refinement 3975: 3745: 3630: 3394:jstor.org/stable/43413515 3224:C, Mark (26 April 2022). 2796:Baiges, Mabel A. (1988), 2387:in the collection of the 1771:concentrating solar power 1418:, rather than the simple 1287:Ponce de Leon Inlet Light 1145: 1127: 1108: 1089: 1070: 1043: 1023: 1001: 981: 962: 943: 938: 935: 932: 929: 926: 923: 809:total internal reflection 709:Hyperradiant Fresnel lens 692:South Foreland Lighthouse 690:of France, and tested at 688:F. Barbier & Cie 565: 561:total internal reflection 521: 500:total internal reflection 459: 220:total internal reflection 3426:10.1179/175812109X449612 3257:15 February 2015 at the 2510:"Fresnel, Augustin-Jean" 2124:"Fresnel, Augustin Jean" 1813:Linear Fresnel reflector 1573:. They are also used in 430:and partial reflection. 18:First order Fresnel lens 3460:vol. 3 (1870) 3456:vol. 2 (1868) 3452:vol. 1 (1866) 3281:14 January 2015 at the 3253:, 6 January 2015, 2925:, Academic Press, 2005. 2708:19 January 2021 at the 2155:Encyclopædia Britannica 2036:D. Appleton & Co., 1884:Encyclopædia Britannica 1505:optical landing systems 1439:multifaceted reflectors 1228:St. Simons Island Light 919:Lighthouse lens orders 605:catadioptric lens with 206:(1788–1827) for use in 3774:Automatic lamp changer 3635:History of lighthouses 3399:J. Z. Buchwald, 1989, 2935:Chaves, Julio (2015), 2348:10.5281/zenodo.4058004 1715:projection televisions 1641:headsets, such as the 1547: 1535: 1497: 1488:Optical landing system 1453: 1402: 1188:Cape Meares Lighthouse 997:Large seacoast lights 865: 840: 830: 749: 741: 658: 651:Point Arena Lighthouse 551: 515: 374: 368: 351: 331: 41: 27:Compact composite lens 3563:, 13 April 2009. 3381:M. Born and E. Wolf, 3095:Kogan Page Publishers 2992:Photometrics Handbook 2736:"Hyper-Radial Lenses" 2514:Catholic Encyclopedia 1775:Liddell Power Station 1666:retina identification 1661:than Fresnel lenses. 1653:, have switched to a 1598:projected map display 1541: 1533: 1486: 1451: 1394: 1270:Fifth-order lens, at 855: 836: 824: 815:Lighthouse lens sizes 747: 731: 648: 516:Commission des Phares 492:circular polarization 347:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 336:Commission des Phares 313: 258:cm in diameter and 14 204:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 33: 4048:Solar thermal energy 3814:Light characteristic 3713:Navigational purpose 3545:2 March 2021 at the 3498:"The Fresnel Lens", 3465:T. H. Levitt, 2013, 3383:Principles of Optics 3328:on 23 September 2013 2908:27 June 2023 at the 2833:on 27 September 2007 2703:"Lighthouse History" 2542:198, Figure 12. 2207:6n. Levitt (2013, p. 1659:chromatic aberration 1494:Dwight D. Eisenhower 635:James Timmins Chance 375:lentilles à échelons 369:lentilles à échelons 291:Marquis de Condorcet 264:Old Lower Lighthouse 4043:Lighthouse fixtures 3912:Lighthouse builders 3556:(with photographs). 3275:The Digital Picture 3051:2016SPIE.9918E..0CA 2538:Cf. Elton, 2009, p. 2384:Optique de Cordouan 2306:193) gives it as 76 2128:American Cyclopædia 1739:overhead projectors 1711:overhead projectors 1562:displays in pocket 1416:internal reflection 1364:Köhler illumination 1272:Key West Lighthouse 920: 913:Makapuu Point Light 838:Makapuu Point Light 672:Casquets Lighthouse 523:École Polytechnique 475:Cordouan Lighthouse 3582:on 30 January 2008 3554:"The Fresnel lens" 3519:U.S. Coast Guard, 3512:, Washington, DC: 3510:Aids to Navigation 3180:on 27 October 2022 3059:10.1117/12.2237994 2877:Lighthouse Friends 2775:, vol. 8, no. 2434:, vol. 30 no. 2084:"The Fresnel lens" 1878:"Lighthouse" 1803:Fresnel zone plate 1548: 1536: 1498: 1454: 1403: 1285:Sixth-order lens ( 1226:Third-order lens ( 1186:First-order lens ( 930:Focal length (mm) 918: 866: 841: 831: 750: 742: 659: 567:Canal Saint-Martin 332: 218:elements that use 42: 4053:French inventions 4023: 4022: 3966:Lighthouse Digest 3779:Bird-cage lantern 3743: 3742: 3475:978-0-393-35089-0 3411:978-0-226-07886-1 3104:978-0-7494-6410-3 2990:Mumm, Robert C., 2952:978-1-4822-0673-9 2923:Nonimaging Optics 2871:Anderson, Kraig, 2762:21 February 2021. 2742:11 February 2021. 2014:N. de Condorcet, 1945:978-1-4058-8118-0 1851:978-1-4058-8118-0 1731:active matrix LCD 1501:Aircraft carriers 1368:nonimaging optics 1174:First-order lens. 1163: 1162: 853: 800: in) range. 734:plano-convex lens 680:Point Arena Light 428:double refraction 94:-nel, -⁠nəl 16:(Redirected from 4060: 4013: 4012: 4003: 3993: 3992: 3983: 3982: 3751: 3658: 3617: 3610: 3603: 3594: 3583: 3578:, archived from 3506:U.S. Coast Guard 3500:The Keeper's Log 3390:Science Progress 3369: 3367: 3366: 3364: 3344: 3338: 3336: 3335: 3333: 3324:, archived from 3318: 3312: 3310: 3309: 3307: 3302:on 17 April 2011 3298:, archived from 3292: 3286: 3268: 3262: 3247: 3241: 3240: 3238: 3236: 3221: 3215: 3214: 3212: 3210: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3187: 3185: 3166: 3160: 3159: 3157: 3155: 3140: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3115: 3109: 3107: 3084: 3078: 3076: 3075: 3073: 3030: 3024: 3023: 3021: 3019: 3005: 2999: 2997: 2988: 2982: 2981: 2979: 2977: 2963: 2957: 2955: 2932: 2926: 2919: 2913: 2899: 2893: 2891: 2890: 2888: 2868: 2862: 2860: 2859: 2857: 2846:"Fresnel lenses" 2842: 2836: 2834: 2829:, archived from 2827:"Fresnel lenses" 2823: 2817: 2815: 2814: 2812: 2802: 2798:"Fresnel Orders" 2793: 2784: 2782: 2778: 2773:Higher Education 2769: 2763: 2752: 2743: 2732: 2726: 2724: 2719: 2713: 2699: 2693: 2691: 2686: 2680: 2677: 2671: 2668: 2662: 2659: 2653: 2651: 2646: 2640: 2637: 2631: 2628: 2622: 2611: 2605: 2602: 2596: 2594: 2589: 2583: 2580: 2574: 2571: 2565: 2562: 2556: 2554: 2551:Levitt, 2013, p. 2549: 2543: 2541: 2536: 2530: 2528: 2523: 2517: 2506: 2500: 2498: 2493: 2487: 2485: 2482:Levitt, 2013, p. 2480: 2474: 2472: 2469:Levitt, 2013, p. 2467: 2461: 2458: 2452: 2450: 2445: 2439: 2437: 2426:B. Watson, 2424: 2418: 2416: 2411: 2405: 2402: 2396: 2379: 2373: 2371: 2366: 2360: 2357: 2351: 2341: 2330: 2321: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2293: 2286: 2280: 2278: 2273: 2267: 2265: 2261: 2258:Levitt, 2013, p. 2256: 2250: 2248: 2245:Levitt, 2013, p. 2243: 2234: 2232: 2227: 2221: 2218: 2212: 2210: 2206: 2201: 2195: 2193: 2189: 2185: 2181: 2176: 2170: 2167: 2161: 2159: 2151: 2140: 2131: 2120: 2107: 2105: 2102:Levitt, 2013, p. 2100: 2091: 2080: 2065: 2054: 2045: 2034: 2025: 2012: 2006: 2004: 2001:Levitt, 2013, p. 1999: 1993: 1982: 1973: 1971: 1970: 1968: 1956: 1950: 1948: 1934:(3 April 2008), 1928: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1917: 1896: 1890: 1888: 1880: 1869: 1856: 1854: 1840:(3 April 2008), 1834: 1755:solar collectors 1631:magnified on an 1594:rear-view mirror 1348:cylindrical lens 1298: 1282: 1267: 1255: 1239: 1223: 1211: 1199: 1183: 1171: 1056: 1055: 1051: 1048: 936:First installed 921: 903: 902: 898: 895: 889: 888: 884: 881: 854: 799: 798: 794: 789: 788: 784: 704:Tory Island 621:Thomas Stevenson 615:Carte des Phares 607:purely revolving 570: 569: 554: 552:Carte des Phares 526: 525: 518: 496:optical rotation 464: 463: 424:transverse waves 414: 409: 377: 371: 354: 344: 261: 257: 180: 174: 173: 170: 169: 166: 163: 160: 157: 154: 151: 139: 134: 133: 130: 129: 124: 123: 120: 117: 114: 111: 108: 105: 93: 88: 87: 84: 83: 80: 75: 74: 71: 68: 65: 62: 59: 56: 21: 4068: 4067: 4063: 4062: 4061: 4059: 4058: 4057: 4028: 4027: 4024: 4019: 3971: 3937: 3931: 3900: 3854: 3823: 3752: 3739: 3708: 3649: 3626: 3621: 3573: 3552:W. A. Britten, 3547:Wayback Machine 3532: 3495: 3493:Further reading 3433:pp. 97–126 3378: 3373: 3372: 3362: 3360: 3346: 3345: 3341: 3331: 3329: 3320: 3319: 3315: 3305: 3303: 3294: 3293: 3289: 3283:Wayback Machine 3269: 3265: 3259:Wayback Machine 3248: 3244: 3234: 3232: 3223: 3222: 3218: 3208: 3206: 3198: 3197: 3193: 3183: 3181: 3168: 3167: 3163: 3153: 3151: 3142: 3141: 3137: 3127: 3125: 3117: 3116: 3112: 3105: 3086: 3085: 3081: 3071: 3069: 3032: 3031: 3027: 3017: 3015: 3007: 3006: 3002: 2995: 2989: 2985: 2975: 2973: 2965: 2964: 2960: 2953: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2920: 2916: 2910:Wayback Machine 2900: 2896: 2886: 2884: 2870: 2869: 2865: 2855: 2853: 2844: 2843: 2839: 2825: 2824: 2820: 2810: 2808: 2800: 2795: 2794: 2787: 2780: 2776: 2770: 2766: 2753: 2746: 2733: 2729: 2722: 2721:Elton, 2009, p. 2720: 2716: 2710:Wayback Machine 2700: 2696: 2689: 2687: 2683: 2678: 2674: 2669: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2649: 2647: 2643: 2638: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2621:26 August 2017. 2612: 2608: 2603: 2599: 2592: 2591:Elton, 2009, p. 2590: 2586: 2581: 2577: 2572: 2568: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2550: 2546: 2539: 2537: 2533: 2526: 2525:Young, 1855, p. 2524: 2520: 2507: 2503: 2496: 2495:Elton, 2009, p. 2494: 2490: 2483: 2481: 2477: 2470: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2455: 2448: 2446: 2442: 2435: 2425: 2421: 2414: 2413:Elton, 2009, p. 2412: 2408: 2403: 2399: 2380: 2376: 2369: 2367: 2363: 2358: 2354: 2328: 2322: 2318: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2298: 2294: 2291: 2289: 2287: 2283: 2276: 2274: 2270: 2263: 2259: 2257: 2253: 2246: 2244: 2237: 2230: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2208: 2204: 2202: 2198: 2191: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2177: 2173: 2168: 2164: 2142: 2141: 2134: 2121: 2110: 2103: 2101: 2094: 2081: 2068: 2055: 2048: 2035: 2028: 2013: 2009: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1983: 1976: 1966: 1964: 1958: 1957: 1953: 1946: 1930: 1929: 1925: 1915: 1913: 1905:Merriam-Webster 1898: 1897: 1893: 1871: 1870: 1859: 1852: 1836: 1835: 1831: 1826: 1808:Lenticular lens 1794: 1784:sand, allowing 1759:Stirling engine 1747: 1706: 1639:Virtual reality 1590:wide view angle 1528: 1466:Fresnel lantern 1462:motion pictures 1389: 1384: 1309: 1302: 1299: 1290: 1283: 1274: 1268: 1259: 1256: 1247: 1240: 1231: 1224: 1215: 1212: 1203: 1200: 1191: 1184: 1175: 1172: 1053: 1049: 1046: 1044: 900: 896: 893: 891: 886: 882: 879: 877: 843: 829:, Rhode Island. 817: 796: 792: 791: 786: 782: 781: 726: 696:Chance Brothers 676:Channel Islands 577: 508:transverse wave 504:physical optics 484:photoelasticity 461:Arc de Triomphe 412: 407: 380:Jacques Charles 338: 308: 296:burning glasses 259: 255: 248: 243: 178: 148: 144: 140:-el, -⁠əl 137: 126: 102: 98: 91: 77: 53: 49: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4066: 4064: 4056: 4055: 4050: 4045: 4040: 4030: 4029: 4021: 4020: 4018: 4017: 4007: 3997: 3987: 3976: 3973: 3972: 3970: 3969: 3962: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3941: 3939: 3933: 3932: 3930: 3929: 3924: 3919: 3914: 3908: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3899: 3898: 3893: 3888: 3883: 3878: 3873: 3868: 3862: 3860: 3856: 3855: 3853: 3852: 3847: 3842: 3837: 3831: 3829: 3825: 3824: 3822: 3821: 3816: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3796: 3791: 3786: 3781: 3776: 3771: 3766: 3760: 3758: 3754: 3753: 3746: 3744: 3741: 3740: 3738: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3725:Leading lights 3722: 3716: 3714: 3710: 3709: 3707: 3706: 3700: 3698:Skeletal tower 3695: 3690: 3685: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3664: 3662: 3655: 3651: 3650: 3648: 3647: 3642: 3637: 3631: 3628: 3627: 3622: 3620: 3619: 3612: 3605: 3597: 3591: 3590: 3585: 3571: 3564: 3557: 3550: 3540:Fresnel Lenses 3538:, especially " 3531: 3530:External links 3528: 3527: 3526: 3517: 3503: 3494: 3491: 3490: 3489: 3478: 3463: 3444: 3429: 3414: 3397: 3386: 3377: 3374: 3371: 3370: 3339: 3313: 3287: 3263: 3242: 3216: 3204:www.oculus.com 3191: 3161: 3149:ShaunPoore.com 3135: 3110: 3103: 3079: 3025: 3000: 2983: 2958: 2951: 2927: 2914: 2894: 2873:"Makapu'u, HI" 2863: 2837: 2818: 2785: 2764: 2744: 2727: 2714: 2694: 2681: 2672: 2663: 2654: 2641: 2632: 2623: 2606: 2597: 2584: 2575: 2566: 2557: 2544: 2531: 2518: 2501: 2488: 2475: 2462: 2453: 2440: 2419: 2406: 2397: 2374: 2361: 2352: 2316: 2281: 2268: 2251: 2235: 2222: 2213: 2196: 2171: 2162: 2146:, ed. (1911), 2144:Chisholm, Hugh 2132: 2108: 2092: 2066: 2046: 2026: 2007: 1994: 1974: 1951: 1944: 1923: 1900:"Fresnel lens" 1891: 1875:, ed. (1911), 1873:Chisholm, Hugh 1857: 1850: 1828: 1827: 1825: 1822: 1821: 1820: 1818:Prism lighting 1815: 1810: 1805: 1800: 1798:Fresnel imager 1793: 1790: 1746: 1743: 1735:LCD projectors 1705: 1702: 1686:Polaroid SX-70 1651:Meta Quest Pro 1575:traffic lights 1566:, notably the 1527: 1524: 1388: 1385: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1378: 1374: 1371: 1359: 1352: 1351: 1344: 1341: 1334:spherical lens 1327: 1308: 1305: 1304: 1303: 1300: 1293: 1291: 1284: 1277: 1275: 1269: 1262: 1260: 1257: 1250: 1248: 1241: 1234: 1232: 1225: 1218: 1216: 1213: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1194: 1192: 1185: 1178: 1176: 1173: 1166: 1161: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1152: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1125: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1113: 1110: 1106: 1105: 1102: 1100: 1097: 1094: 1091: 1087: 1086: 1083: 1081: 1078: 1075: 1072: 1068: 1067: 1065: 1062: 1059: 1057: 1041: 1040: 1037: 1034: 1031: 1028: 1025: 1021: 1020: 1014: 1012: 1009: 1006: 1003: 999: 998: 995: 992: 989: 986: 983: 979: 978: 975: 972: 969: 966: 964: 960: 959: 956: 953: 950: 947: 945: 941: 940: 937: 934: 931: 928: 927:Fresnel order 925: 816: 813: 725: 722: 663:John Hopkinson 585:Alan Stevenson 576: 573: 447:Venetian blind 361:François Arago 307: 304: 300:David Brewster 276:North Foreland 247: 244: 242: 239: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4065: 4054: 4051: 4049: 4046: 4044: 4041: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4026: 4016: 4008: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3996: 3988: 3986: 3978: 3977: 3974: 3968: 3967: 3963: 3961: 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3940: 3938:organizations 3934: 3928: 3925: 3923: 3920: 3918: 3915: 3913: 3910: 3909: 3907: 3903: 3897: 3896:South America 3894: 3892: 3889: 3887: 3886:North America 3884: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3874: 3872: 3869: 3867: 3864: 3863: 3861: 3857: 3851: 3848: 3846: 3843: 3841: 3838: 3836: 3833: 3832: 3830: 3826: 3820: 3817: 3815: 3812: 3810: 3807: 3805: 3802: 3800: 3797: 3795: 3792: 3790: 3787: 3785: 3782: 3780: 3777: 3775: 3772: 3770: 3767: 3765: 3762: 3761: 3759: 3755: 3750: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3721: 3718: 3717: 3715: 3711: 3704: 3701: 3699: 3696: 3694: 3691: 3689: 3686: 3684: 3681: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3666: 3665: 3663: 3659: 3656: 3652: 3646: 3643: 3641: 3638: 3636: 3633: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3618: 3613: 3611: 3606: 3604: 3599: 3598: 3595: 3589: 3586: 3581: 3577: 3572: 3569: 3565: 3562: 3558: 3555: 3551: 3548: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3534: 3533: 3529: 3524: 3523: 3518: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3504: 3501: 3497: 3496: 3492: 3487: 3483: 3479: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3464: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3449: 3445: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3415: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3398: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3384: 3380: 3379: 3375: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3343: 3340: 3327: 3323: 3317: 3314: 3301: 3297: 3291: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3267: 3264: 3260: 3256: 3252: 3249:Nikon Corp., 3246: 3243: 3231: 3227: 3220: 3217: 3205: 3201: 3195: 3192: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3165: 3162: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3136: 3124: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3106: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3091: 3083: 3080: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3052: 3048: 3044: 3040: 3039:Metamaterials 3036: 3029: 3026: 3014: 3010: 3004: 3001: 2993: 2987: 2984: 2972: 2968: 2962: 2959: 2954: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2939: 2931: 2928: 2924: 2918: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2904: 2898: 2895: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2867: 2864: 2851: 2847: 2841: 2838: 2832: 2828: 2822: 2819: 2806: 2799: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2774: 2768: 2765: 2761: 2757: 2751: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2731: 2728: 2718: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2704: 2698: 2695: 2685: 2682: 2676: 2673: 2667: 2664: 2658: 2655: 2645: 2642: 2636: 2633: 2627: 2624: 2620: 2616: 2610: 2607: 2601: 2598: 2588: 2585: 2579: 2576: 2570: 2567: 2561: 2558: 2548: 2545: 2535: 2532: 2522: 2519: 2515: 2511: 2505: 2502: 2492: 2489: 2479: 2476: 2466: 2463: 2457: 2454: 2444: 2441: 2433: 2429: 2423: 2420: 2410: 2407: 2401: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2385: 2378: 2375: 2365: 2362: 2356: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2340: 2335: 2326: 2320: 2317: 2285: 2282: 2272: 2269: 2255: 2252: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2226: 2223: 2217: 2214: 2200: 2197: 2175: 2172: 2166: 2163: 2157: 2156: 2150: 2145: 2139: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2119: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2109: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2090:22 July 2017. 2089: 2085: 2079: 2077: 2075: 2073: 2071: 2067: 2064:8 April 2017. 2063: 2059: 2053: 2051: 2047: 2043: 2039: 2033: 2031: 2027: 2023: 2019: 2018: 2011: 2008: 1998: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1981: 1979: 1975: 1962: 1955: 1952: 1947: 1941: 1937: 1933: 1927: 1924: 1911: 1907: 1906: 1901: 1895: 1892: 1886: 1885: 1879: 1874: 1868: 1866: 1864: 1862: 1858: 1853: 1847: 1843: 1839: 1838:J. Wells 1833: 1830: 1823: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1799: 1796: 1795: 1791: 1789: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1751:solar cookers 1744: 1742: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1712: 1703: 1701: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1682:Phase Fresnel 1678: 1674: 1670: 1667: 1662: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1634: 1630: 1629: 1628:Hello, Dolly! 1624: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1610: 1609:Terry Gilliam 1606: 1605:Peter Gabriel 1601: 1599: 1595: 1591: 1586: 1583: 1578: 1576: 1572: 1569: 1565: 1561: 1557: 1553: 1545: 1544:Sinclair FTV1 1540: 1532: 1525: 1523: 1521: 1517: 1513: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1496: 1495: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1459: 1450: 1446: 1444: 1443:polycarbonate 1440: 1436: 1432: 1429: 1424: 1421: 1417: 1413: 1409: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1386: 1381: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1365: 1360: 1357: 1356: 1355: 1349: 1345: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1332: 1328: 1325: 1324: 1323: 1320: 1318: 1314: 1306: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1281: 1276: 1273: 1266: 1261: 1254: 1249: 1245: 1238: 1233: 1229: 1222: 1217: 1210: 1205: 1198: 1193: 1189: 1182: 1177: 1170: 1165: 1158: 1156: 1153: 1150: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1138: 1135: 1132: 1130: 1126: 1122: 1120: 1117: 1114: 1111: 1107: 1103: 1101: 1098: 1095: 1092: 1088: 1084: 1082: 1079: 1076: 1073: 1069: 1066: 1063: 1060: 1058: 1042: 1038: 1035: 1032: 1029: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1010: 1007: 1004: 1000: 996: 993: 990: 987: 984: 980: 976: 973: 970: 967: 965: 961: 957: 954: 951: 948: 946: 944:Hyper-radial 942: 924:Modern order 922: 916: 914: 910: 905: 874: 871: 863: 859: 839: 835: 828: 823: 819: 814: 812: 810: 806: 801: 779: 775: 770: 766: 764: 760: 754: 746: 739: 735: 730: 723: 721: 718: 713: 711: 710: 705: 701: 697: 693: 689: 683: 681: 677: 673: 669: 668:Little Basses 664: 656: 652: 647: 643: 640: 636: 632: 630: 626: 622: 618: 616: 612: 608: 603: 598: 594: 590: 586: 581: 575:After Fresnel 574: 572: 568: 562: 556: 553: 547: 543: 541: 537: 533: 528: 524: 517: 511: 509: 505: 501: 497: 493: 489: 485: 479: 476: 472: 468: 462: 456: 452: 448: 444: 440: 435: 431: 429: 425: 421: 416: 405: 401: 400:Count Rumford 397: 391: 389: 385: 381: 376: 370: 364: 362: 358: 353: 348: 342: 337: 329: 325: 321: 317: 312: 305: 303: 301: 297: 292: 288: 284: 279: 277: 273: 269: 268:Portland Bill 265: 253: 252:Trinity House 245: 240: 238: 235: 232: 228: 223: 221: 217: 213: 209: 205: 201: 197: 193: 188: 186: 182: 181: 172: 142: 141: 132: 96: 95: 86: 47: 39: 38: 32: 19: 4025: 3964: 3845:Pharologists 3804:Lens lantern 3799:Fresnel lens 3798: 3735:Sector light 3661:Construction 3580:the original 3559:J. Francis, 3521: 3509: 3499: 3481: 3466: 3447: 3417: 3400: 3389: 3382: 3376:Bibliography 3361:, retrieved 3352: 3342: 3330:, retrieved 3326:the original 3316: 3304:, retrieved 3300:the original 3290: 3274: 3266: 3245: 3233:. Retrieved 3229: 3219: 3207:. Retrieved 3203: 3194: 3182:. Retrieved 3178:the original 3173: 3164: 3152:. Retrieved 3148: 3138: 3126:. Retrieved 3122: 3113: 3089: 3082: 3070:, retrieved 3042: 3038: 3028: 3016:. Retrieved 3012: 3003: 2991: 2986: 2974:. Retrieved 2970: 2961: 2937: 2930: 2922: 2917: 2897: 2885:, retrieved 2876: 2866: 2854:, retrieved 2840: 2831:the original 2821: 2809:, retrieved 2772: 2767: 2730: 2717: 2697: 2684: 2675: 2666: 2657: 2644: 2635: 2626: 2609: 2600: 2587: 2578: 2569: 2560: 2547: 2534: 2521: 2513: 2508:H.M. Brock, 2504: 2491: 2478: 2465: 2456: 2443: 2431: 2422: 2409: 2400: 2388: 2383: 2377: 2364: 2355: 2324: 2319: 2284: 2271: 2254: 2225: 2216: 2199: 2174: 2165: 2153: 2127: 2041: 2038:"Sea-lights" 2021: 2016: 2010: 1997: 1992:20 May 2017. 1965:, retrieved 1954: 1935: 1926: 1914:, retrieved 1903: 1894: 1882: 1841: 1832: 1779: 1763: 1748: 1719: 1707: 1698:ground glass 1694:large format 1681: 1671: 1663: 1655:pancake lens 1647:HTC Vive Pro 1643:Meta Quest 2 1637: 1627: 1612: 1602: 1587: 1579: 1549: 1512:searchlights 1509: 1499: 1493: 1477: 1469: 1455: 1425: 1404: 1387:Illumination 1353: 1321: 1316: 1312: 1310: 1112:4th (small) 1093:4th (large) 1074:3rd (small) 1027:3rd (large) 939:Application 909:hyperradiant 906: 875: 869: 867: 818: 804: 802: 771: 767: 763:3-D printers 755: 751: 714: 707: 684: 660: 633: 628: 619: 614: 606: 601: 582: 578: 557: 548: 544: 531: 529: 512: 480: 439:Saint-Gobain 436: 432: 417: 392: 388:plano-convex 365: 333: 327: 323: 319: 315: 280: 249: 236: 231:focal length 224: 212:catadioptric 190:The simpler 189: 46:Fresnel lens 45: 43: 35: 4015:WikiProject 3828:Maintenance 3789:Dalén light 3784:Carcel lamp 3769:Argand lamp 3624:Lighthouses 3574:T. Pepper, 3486:vol. 1 3363:27 February 3332:27 February 3306:3 September 3174:VR Lens Lab 2887:26 February 2856:27 February 2811:9 September 2432:Smithsonian 1932:Wells, John 1786:3D printing 1766:solar cells 1745:Solar power 1564:televisions 1520:flashlights 1474:focal point 1441:with plain 1408:aerobeacons 1343:Cylindrical 1317:non-imaging 1017:Great Lakes 963:Mesoradial 933:Height (m) 904: in). 700:Bishop Rock 589:Isle of May 467:Louis XVIII 420:unpolarized 396:Argand lamp 357:diffraction 339: [ 334:The French 272:Howth Baily 246:Forerunners 208:lighthouses 4032:Categories 4005:Wiktionary 3905:Categories 3871:Antarctica 3840:Light dues 3809:Lewis lamp 3764:Aerobeacon 3693:Screw-pile 3235:27 October 3209:27 October 3184:27 October 3154:27 October 2971:Energy.gov 1824:References 1788:in glass. 1722:collimator 1704:Projection 1556:strabismus 1552:magnifiers 1516:spotlights 1428:automobile 1420:refraction 597:Skerryvore 593:Île Vierge 488:elliptical 352:Grand Prix 316:m, n 229:and short 196:refractive 3859:Locations 3566:J. Hare, 3128:17 August 3067:125689110 2943:CRC Press 1733:panel in 1600:screens. 1431:headlamps 1412:prismatic 1396:Inchkeith 1326:Spherical 1246:, Japan). 625:Peterhead 540:catoptric 404:fish glue 281:In 1748, 216:prismatic 3985:Category 3757:Fixtures 3730:Sea mark 3705:(acting) 3683:Integral 3543:Archived 3441:archived 3357:archived 3279:Archived 3255:Archived 3018:16 April 2906:Archived 2881:archived 2850:archived 2805:archived 2760:archived 2754:T. Tag, 2740:archived 2734:T. Tag, 2706:Archived 2619:archived 2393:Ouessant 2088:archived 2082:T. Tag, 2062:archived 2056:T. Tag, 1990:archived 1984:T. 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