767:
However, tritium retention in silicon carbide plasma-facing components is about 1.5-2 times higher than in graphite, leading to reduced fuel efficiency and increased safety risks in fusion reactors. SiC traps more tritium, limiting its availability for fusion and increasing the potential for hazardous buildup, which complicates tritium management. Additionally, the chemical and physical sputtering of SiC is still significant and contributes to the key issue of increasing tritium inventory through co-deposition over time and with particle fluency. For those reasons, carbon-based materials have been ruled out in
688:
first wall, both neutral particles and charged particles that escaped the plasma become cold neutral particles in gaseous form. An outer edge of cold neutral gas is then “recycled”, or mixed, with the hotter plasma. A temperature gradient between the cold neutral gas and the hot plasma is believed to be the principal cause of anomalous electron and ion transport from the magnetically confined plasma. As recycling decreases, the temperature gradient decreases and plasma confinement stability increases. With better conditions for fusion in the plasma, the reactor performance increases.
2088:
is paid to the
Combined Magnetron Sputtering and Ion Implantation (CMSII) technique, which was developed during the last 4 years from laboratory to industrial scale and it is successfully applied for W coating (10–15 μm and 20–25 μm) of more than 2500 tiles for the ITER-like Wall project at JET and ASDEX Upgrade.... Experimentally, W/Mo coatings with a thickness up to 50 μm were produced and successfully tested in the GLADIS ion beam facility up to 23 MW/m2. Keywords: Tungsten coating; Carbon fibre composite (CFC); ITER-like wall; Magnetron sputtering; Ion implantation
64:
33:
359:
562:. Graphite tiles plasma sprayed with tungsten were used for the ASDEX Upgrade divertor. Studies of tungsten in the divertor have been conducted at the DIII-D facility. These experiments utilized two rings of tungsten isotopes embedded in the lower divertor to characterize erosion tungsten during operation. Molybdenum is used for the first wall material in
759:(SiC), a low-Z refractory ceramic material, has emerged as a promising candidate for structural materials in magnetic fusion energy devices. While the remarkable properties of SiC once attracted attention for fusion experiments, past technological limitations hindered its wider use. However, the evolving capabilities of SiC fiber composites (SiCf/SiC) in
80:
658:
Despite these benefits, tungsten is not without its drawbacks. One notable issue is its tendency to contribute to high core radiation, a significant challenge in maintaining the plasma performance in fusion reactors. Nevertheless, tungsten has been selected as the plasma-facing material for the ITER
2087:
Abstract: The paper gives a short overview on tungsten (W) coatings deposited by various methods on carbon materials (carbon fibre composite – CFC and fine grain graphite – FGG). Vacuum Plasma Spray (VPS), Chemical Vapor
Deposition (CVD) and Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)... A particular attention
674:
Particularly notable are the tungsten laminates and fiber-reinforced composites, which leverage tungsten's exceptional mechanical properties. When combined with copper's high thermal conductivity, these composites offer improved thermomechanical properties, extending beyond the operational range of
662:
Understanding the behavior of tungsten in fusion environments, including its sourcing, migration, and transport in the scrape-off-layer (SOL), as well as its potential for core contamination, is a complex task. Significant research is ongoing to develop a mature and validated understanding of these
637:
Solid plasma-facing materials are known to be susceptible to damage under large heat loads and high neutron flux. If damaged, these solids can contaminate the plasma and decrease plasma confinement stability. In addition, radiation can leak through defects in the solids and contaminate outer vessel
691:
Initial use of lithium in 1990s was motivated by a need for a low-recycling PFC. In 1996, ~ 0.02 grams of lithium coating was added to the PFC of TFTR, resulting in the fusion power output and the fusion plasma confinement to improve by a factor of two. On the first wall, lithium reacted with
675:
traditional materials like CuCrZr. For applications requiring even higher temperature resilience, tungsten-fibre reinforced tungsten-composites (Wf/W) have been developed, incorporating mechanisms to enhance toughness, thereby broadening the potential applications of tungsten in fusion technology.
778:
Siliconization, as a wall conditioning method, has been demonstrated to reduce oxygen impurities and enhance plasma performance. Current research efforts focus on understanding SiC behavior under conditions relevant to reactors, providing valuable insights into its potential role in future fusion
223:
Currently, fusion reactor research focuses on improving efficiency and reliability in heat generation and capture and on raising the rate of transfer. Generating electricity from heat is beyond the scope of current research, due to existing efficient heat-transfer cycles, such as heating water to
687:
The fusion reaction of D-T produces charged and neutral particles in the plasma. The charged particles remain magnetically confined to the plasma. The neutral particles are not magnetically confined and will move toward the boundary between the hotter plasma and the colder PFC. Upon reaching the
654:
Another key advantage of tungsten is its high thermal conductivity, essential for managing the extreme heat generated in fusion processes. This property ensures efficient heat dissipation, reducing the risk of damage to the reactor's internal components. Furthermore, the potential for developing
650:
Tungsten is widely recognized as the preferred material for plasma-facing components in next-generation fusion devices, largely due to its unique combination of properties and potential for enhancement. Its low erosion rates make it particularly suitable for the high-stress environment of fusion
683:
Lithium (Li) is an alkali metal with a low Z (atomic number). Li has a low first ionization energy of ~5.4 eV and is highly chemically reactive with ion species found in the plasma of fusion reactor cores. In particular, Li readily forms stable lithium compounds with hydrogen isotopes, oxygen,
766:
Modern versions of SiCf/SiC combine many desirable attributes found in carbon fiber composites, such as thermo-mechanical strength and high melting point. These versions also present unique benefits: they exhibit minimal degradation of properties when exposed to high levels of neutron damage.
666:
To address tungsten's intrinsic brittleness, which limits its operational window, a composite material known as W-fibre enhanced W-composite (Wf/W) has been developed. This material incorporates extrinsic toughening mechanisms to significantly increase toughness, as demonstrated in small Wf/W
1777:
Roth, Joachim; Tsitrone, E.; Loarte, A.; Loarer, Th.; Counsell, G.; Neu, R.; Philipps, V.; Brezinsek, S.; Lehnen, M.; Coad, P.; Grisolia, Ch.; Schmid, K.; Krieger, K.; Kallenbach, A.; Lipschultz, B.; Doerner, R.; Causey, R.; Alimov, V.; Shu, W.; Ogorodnikova, O.; Kirschner, A.; Federici, G.;
670:
In the context of future fusion power plants, tungsten stands out for its resilience against erosion, the highest melting point among metals, and relatively benign behavior under neutron irradiation. However, its ductile to brittle transition temperature (DBTT) is a concern, especially as it
236:. Tritium is not a naturally abundant isotope due to its short half-life, therefore for a fusion D-T reactor it will need to be bred by the nuclear reaction of lithium (Li), boron (B), or beryllium (Be) isotopes with high-energy neutrons that collide within the first wall.
651:
reactors, where it can withstand the intense conditions without degrading rapidly. Additionally, tungsten's low tritium retention through co-deposition and implantation is crucial in fusion contexts, helping to minimize the accumulation of this radioactive isotope.
641:
Liquid metal plasma-facing components that enclose the plasma have been proposed to address challenges in the PFC. In particular, liquid lithium (LL) has been confirmed to have various properties that are attractive for fusion reactor performance.
987:
Ando, T.; Kodama, K.; Matsukawa, M.; Ouchi, Y.; Arai, T.; Yagyu, J.; Kaminaga, A.; Sasajima, T.; Koike, T.; Shimizu, M. (1994). "Material behavior of JT-60U plasma facing components and installation of B/Sub 4/C-converted CFC/Graphite tiles".
775:, and other devices. SiC has demonstrated a tritium diffusivity lower than that observed in other structural materials, a property that can be further optimized by applying a thin layer of monolithic SiC on a SiC/SiCf substrate.
717:
The primary energy generation in fusion reactor designs is from the absorption of high-energy neutrons. Results from these MCFD highlight additional benefits of liquid lithium coatings for reliable energy generation, including:
861:
Ihli, T; Basu, T.K; Giancarli, L.M; Konishi, S; Malang, S; Najmabadi, F; Nishio, S; Raffray, A.R.; Rao, C.V.S; Sagara, A; Wu, Y (December 2008). "Review of blanket designs for advanced fusion reactors".
227:
Current reactor designs are fueled by deuterium-tritium (D-T) fusion reactions, which produce high-energy neutrons that can damage the first wall, however, high-energy neutrons (14.1 MeV) are needed for
1243:
Diez, M.; Balden, M.; Brezinsek, S.; Corre, Y.; Fedorczak, N.; Firdaouss, M.; Fortuna, E.; Gaspar, J.; Gunn, J. P.; Hakola, A.; Loarer, T.; Martin, C.; Mayer, M.; Reilhac, P.; Richou, M. (2023-03-01).
725:
Convert kinetic energies of absorbed neutrons into heat on the first wall. The heat that is produced on the first wall can then be removed by coolants in ancillary systems that generate electricity.
671:
increases under neutron exposure. To overcome this brittleness, several strategies are being explored, including the use of nanocrystalline materials, tungsten alloying, and W-composite materials.
692:
neutral particles to produce stable lithium compounds, resulting in low-recycling of cold neutral gas. In addition, lithium contamination in the plasma tended to be well below 1%.
796:
612:
898:
1987:
Effenberg, F.; Abe, S.; Sinclair, G.; et al. (2023). "In-situ coating of silicon-rich films on tokamak plasma-facing components with real-time Si material injection".
655:
radiation-hardened alloys of tungsten presents an opportunity to enhance its durability and performance under the intense radiation conditions typical in fusion reactors.
695:
Since 1996, these results have been confirmed by a large number of magnetic confinement fusion devices (MCFD) that have also used lithium in their PFC, for example:
200:
1154:
Ono, M.; et al. (2013). "Recent progress in the NSTX/NSTX-U lithium programme and prospects for reactor-relevant liquid-lithium based divertor development".
722:
Absorb high-energy, or fast-moving, neutrons. About 80% of the energy produced in a fusion reaction of D-T is in the kinetic energy of the newly produced neutron.
2056:
13th
International Workshop on Plasma-Facing Materials and Components for Fusion Applications / 1st International Conference on Fusion Energy Materials Science
960:
728:
Self-sufficient breeding of tritium by nuclear reaction with absorbed neutrons. Neutrons of varying kinetic energies will drive tritium-breeding reactions.
934:
1292:
1021:
Hino, T; Jinushi, T; Yamauchi, Y; Hashiba, M.; Hirohata, Y.; Katoh, Y.; Kohyama, A. (2012). "Silicon
Carbide as Plasma Facing or Blanket Material".
376:
1738:
Koller, Markus T.; Davis, James W.; Goodland, Megan E.; Abrams, Tyler; Gonderman, Sean; Herdrich, Georg; Frieß, Martin; Zuber, Christian (2019).
2061:
Ruset, C.; Grigore, E.; Maier, H.; Neu, R.; Greuner, H.; Mayer, M.; Matthews, G. (2011). "Development of W coatings for fusion applications".
629:
said of nuclear fusion, "We say that we will put the sun into a box. The idea is pretty. The problem is, we don't know how to make the box."
2046:
663:
dynamics, particularly for predicting the behavior of high-Z (high atomic number) materials like tungsten in next-step tokamak devices.
541:
537:
84:
158:
In addition PFMs have to operate over the lifetime of a fusion reactor vessel by handling the harsh environmental conditions, such as:
1401:
Evans, Ll. M.; Margetts, L.; Casalegno, V.; Lever, L. M.; Bushell, J.; Lowe, T.; Wallwork, A.; Young, P.; Lindemann, A. (2015-05-28).
423:
2055:
1511:
Neu, R.; et al. (2005). "Tungsten: an option for divertor and main chamber plasma facing components in future fusion devices".
1038:
1005:
442:
395:
909:
834:
Ono, Masayuki (2012). Lithium as Plasma Facing
Component for Magnetic Fusion Research (Report). Princeton Plasma Physics Lab.
402:
380:
1646:
Abrams, T.; et al. (2021). "Evaluation of silicon carbide as a divertor armor material in DIII-D H-mode discharges".
1059:
1589:
Neu, R.; et al. (2016). "Advanced tungsten materials for plasma-facing components of DEMO and fusion power plants".
1452:
Evans, Ll. M.; Margetts, L.; Casalegno, V.; Leonard, F.; Lowe, T.; Lee, P. D.; Schmidt, M.; Mummery, P. M. (2014-06-01).
1350:
244:
Most magnetic confinement fusion devices (MCFD) consist of several key components in their technical designs, including:
409:
254:
First wall: positioned between the plasma and magnets in order to protect outer vessel components from radiation damage.
141:
Plasma-facing materials for fusion reactor designs must support the overall steps for energy generation, these include:
585:
Development of satisfactory plasma-facing materials is one of the key problems still to be solved by current programs.
1245:"Overview of plasma-tungsten surfaces interactions on the divertor test sector in WEST during the C3 and C4 campaigns"
616:
570:
2103:
968:
801:
700:
574:
391:
1497:
772:
1454:"Thermal characterisation of ceramic/metal joining techniques for fusion applications using X-ray tomography"
1293:"Examples of Test Coatings for the ASDEX Upgrade Tungsten First Wall: Comparison of Different Coating Method"
938:
626:
369:
309:
623:
494:
1554:
Philipps, V.; et al. (2011). "Tungsten as material for plasma-facing components in fusion devices".
1300:
1216:
1189:
Goranson, P.; Barnes, G.; Chrzanowski, J.; Heitzenroeder, P.; Nelson, B.; Neumeyer, C.; Ping, J. (1999).
2108:
780:
760:
301:
290:
216:
659:
project's first-generation divertor, and it is likely to be used for the reactor's first wall as well.
345:, are typically protected by a different material than that used for the major area of the first wall.
1913:
Winter, J.; et al. (1993). "Improved plasma performance in TEXTOR with silicon coated surfaces".
1779:
1739:
1700:
779:
technology. Silicon-rich films on divertor PFCs were recently developed using Si pellet injections in
2070:
2006:
1961:
1922:
1877:
1838:
1787:
1751:
1712:
1665:
1594:
1563:
1520:
1465:
1414:
1365:
1256:
1163:
1109:
871:
533:
278:
248:
Magnet system: confines the deuterium-tritium fuel in the form of plasma and in the shape of a torus.
416:
285:
remain. Even with stable plasma confinement, however, the first wall material would be exposed to a
282:
203:
63:
2022:
1996:
1895:
1681:
1655:
1536:
1383:
1331:
1133:
506:
Multi-layer tiles of several of these materials are also being considered and used, for example:
2043:
1740:"Deuterium retention in silicon carbide, SiC ceramic matrix composites, and SiC coated graphite"
1403:"Transient thermal finite element analysis of CFC–Cu ITER monoblock using X-ray tomography data"
1829:
Katoh, Y.; et al. (2012). "Radiation effects in SiC for nuclear structural applications".
1938:
1811:
1274:
1221:
1125:
1034:
1001:
843:
747:
Higher density coatings of LL for use on PFC designed for greater heat loads and neutron flux.
297:
It must withstand this neutron flux for a sufficient period of time to be economically viable.
2078:
2014:
1969:
1930:
1885:
1846:
1803:
1795:
1759:
1720:
1673:
1610:
1602:
1571:
1528:
1473:
1432:
1422:
1373:
1323:
1264:
1194:
1171:
1117:
1026:
993:
879:
835:
229:
119:
1314:
Neu, R.; et al. (December 1996). "The tungsten divertor experiment at ASDEX Upgrade".
1191:
Design of the plasma facing components for the
National Spherical Tokamak Experiment (NSTX)
2050:
1807:
1615:
787:, prompting further research into refining the technique for broader fusion applications.
756:
489:
233:
179:
96:
1175:
558:
in JET, and will be used for the divertor in ITER. It is also used for the first wall in
257:
Cooling system: removes heat from the confinement and transfers heat from the first wall.
2074:
2010:
1965:
1926:
1881:
1842:
1791:
1755:
1716:
1669:
1598:
1567:
1524:
1469:
1418:
1369:
1260:
1167:
1113:
875:
615:(IFMIF) will particularly address this. Materials developed using IFMIF will be used in
46:
Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information.
1327:
328:
274:
135:
123:
1866:"Recent progress in the development of SiC composites for nuclear fusion applications"
1724:
1351:"DIII-D research twoards establishing the scientific basis for future fusion reactors"
2097:
2026:
1973:
1899:
1685:
1532:
1453:
1402:
1387:
1335:
1137:
563:
559:
484:
305:
68:
2082:
1606:
1540:
1478:
1427:
1121:
1023:
Advanced SiC/SiC Ceramic
Composites: Developments and Applications in Energy Systems
935:"Mitigating corrosion by liquid tin could lead to better cooling in fusion reactors"
883:
1956:
Samm, U.; et al. (1995). "Plasma edge physics with siliconization in TEXTOR".
286:
265:
and many other current and projected fusion experiments, particularly those of the
99:
1890:
1865:
1799:
1575:
1850:
1934:
1492:
1244:
547:
Beryllium was used to reline JET in 2009 in anticipation of its proposed use in
358:
270:
2018:
1677:
1378:
1198:
1098:"Experiments with liquid metal walls: Status of the lithium tokamak experiment"
1066:
1030:
997:
961:"Development of Boron Carbide Coated First Wall Components for Wendelstein 7-X"
251:
Vacuum vessel: contains the core fusion plasma and maintains fusion conditions.
1763:
1269:
737:
Newer developments in liquid lithium are currently being tested, for example:
464:
163:
72:
1815:
1278:
1065:. Fact Sheet. Princeton Plasma Physics Laboratory. March 2011. Archived from
173:
Ion implantation causing displacement damage and chemical composition changes
469:
321:
1942:
17:
555:
528:
A liquid lithium layer on tungsten-based solid PFC surfaces or divertors.
500:
459:
342:
88:
1437:
474:
383: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
266:
167:
847:
341:
Some critical plasma-facing components, such as and in particular the
1129:
784:
588:
Plasma-facing materials can be measured for performance in terms of:
1097:
839:
2001:
1660:
79:
710:
703:(2010) (US), CPD (Japan), HT-7 (China), EAST (China), FTU (Italy).
78:
62:
1780:"Recent analysis of key plasma wall interactions issues for ITER"
525:
A liquid lithium layer on top of a boron layer on graphite tiles.
1025:. Ceramic Transactions Series. Vol. 144. pp. 353–361.
768:
706:
548:
516:
A tungsten layer on top of a molybdenum layer on graphite tiles.
262:
741:
Coatings made of increasingly complex liquid lithium compounds.
261:
The core fusion plasma must not actually touch the first wall.
797:
International Fusion
Materials Irradiation Facility#Background
479:
352:
126:
occurs, and particularly the material used for the lining the
26:
293:, which leads to two key problems in selecting the material:
744:
Multi-layered coatings of LL, B, F, and other low-Z metals.
455:
Materials currently in use or under consideration include:
899:"Tokamak Divertor System Concept and the Design for ITER"
224:
operate steam turbines that drive electrical generators.
906:
Applied
Physics and Applied Math at Columbia University
151:
Transferring heat at a faster rate than capturing heat.
1634:
Magnetohydrodynamics: Historical
Evolution and Trends,
1701:"Deuterium retention in carbides and doped graphites"
532:
Graphite was used for the first wall material of the
182:
1831:
Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science
569:
Liquid lithium (LL) was used to coat the PFC of the
763:have renewed interest in SiC as a fusion material.
613:
International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility
212:
Stable thermomechanical properties under operation.
1193:. 18th IEEE/NPSS Symposium on Fusion Engineering.
684:carbon, and other impurities found in D-T plasma.
194:
209:Limited tritium codeposition and sequestration.
337:Be produced and replaced at a reasonable cost.
162:Ion bombardment causing physical and chemical
8:
1699:Mayer, M.; Balden, M.; Behrisch, R. (1998).
1096:Kaita R, Berzak L, Boyle D (29 April 2010).
990:15th IEEE/NPSS Symposium. Fusion Engineering
607:Safety in waste disposal and in maintenance.
327:Be compatible with intense and fluctuating
1632:Molokov, S. S.; Moreau, R.; Moffatt K. H.
592:Power production for a given reactor size.
519:A boron carbide layer on top of CFC tiles.
510:A thin molybdenum layer on graphite tiles.
2000:
1889:
1659:
1614:
1477:
1436:
1426:
1377:
1268:
522:A liquid lithium layer on graphite tiles.
443:Learn how and when to remove this message
304:so as to produce unacceptable amounts of
186:
181:
2044:Max Planck Institute project page on PFM
1349:Petty, C.C.; DIII-D Team (5 June 2019).
513:A thin tungsten layer on graphite tiles.
110:) is any material used to construct the
813:
598:Self-sufficiency of tritium production.
1210:
1208:
1060:"The Lithium Tokamak Experiment (LTX)"
982:
980:
978:
1628:
1626:
1217:"How to Line a Thermonuclear Reactor"
1149:
1147:
709:(US), T-10 (Russia), T-11M (Russia),
334:Minimize contamination of the plasma.
7:
1316:Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion
1091:
1089:
1087:
1054:
1052:
1050:
937:. phys.org. Dec 2022. Archived from
829:
827:
825:
823:
821:
819:
817:
381:adding citations to reliable sources
542:National Spherical Torus Experiment
118:), those components exposed to the
1864:Koyanagi, T.; et al. (2018).
619:, the proposed successor to ITER.
604:Design and fabrication of the PFC.
25:
992:. Vol. 1. pp. 541–544.
308:when lining replacement or plant
148:Capturing heat in the first wall,
91:tiles used as first wall material
75:tiles used as first wall material
1215:Heirbaut, Jim (16 August 2012).
897:Stoafer, Chris (14 April 2011).
538:Tokamak à configuration variable
536:(JET) at its startup (1983), in
357:
300:It must not become sufficiently
85:Tokamak à configuration variable
31:
2083:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2011.04.031
1607:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2016.01.027
1479:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2014.05.002
1428:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2015.04.048
1122:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2010.04.005
884:10.1016/j.fusengdes.2008.07.039
368:needs additional citations for
316:The lining material must also:
145:Generating heat through fusion,
1808:11858/00-001M-0000-0026-F442-2
1616:11858/00-001M-0000-002B-3142-7
1176:10.1088/0029-5515/53/11/113030
176:High-heat fluxes (e.g. 10 MW/m
1:
2063:Fusion Engineering and Design
1891:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2018.06.017
1800:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2009.01.037
1725:10.1016/S0022-3115(97)00299-7
1591:Fusion Engineering and Design
1576:10.1016/j.jnucmat.2011.01.110
1458:Fusion Engineering and Design
1407:Fusion Engineering and Design
1102:Fusion Engineering and Design
864:Fusion Engineering and Design
595:Cost to generate electricity.
320:Allow the passage of a large
1974:10.1016/0022-3115(94)00444-7
1958:Journal of Nuclear Materials
1870:Journal of Nuclear Materials
1851:10.1016/j.cossms.2012.03.005
1784:Journal of Nuclear Materials
1744:Nuclear Materials and Energy
1705:Journal of Nuclear Materials
1556:Journal of Nuclear Materials
1328:10.1088/0741-3335/38/12A/013
1249:Nuclear Materials and Energy
1935:10.1103/PhysRevLett.71.1549
571:Tokamak Fusion Test Reactor
544:(NSTX, first plasma 1999).
289:higher than in any current
283:plasma instability problems
215:Limited number of negative
2125:
1533:10.1088/0029-5515/45/3/007
1199:10.1109/FUSION.1999.849793
1031:10.1002/9781118406014.ch32
998:10.1109/FUSION.1993.518390
802:Lithium Tokamak Experiment
601:Availability of materials.
575:Lithium Tokamak Experiment
1764:10.1016/j.nme.2019.100704
1498:Physics of the Impossible
1270:10.1016/j.nme.2023.101399
624:Nobel laureate in physics
554:Tungsten is used for the
40:This article needs to be
2019:10.1088/1741-4326/acee98
1678:10.1088/1741-4326/abecee
1379:10.1088/1741-4326/ab024a
699:TFTR (US), CDX-U (2005)/
392:"Plasma-facing material"
112:plasma-facing components
1297:Max Planck Gesellschaft
965:Max Planck Gesellschaft
761:Gen-IV fission reactors
627:Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
154:Generating electricity.
1778:Kukushkin, A. (2009).
1593:. 109–111: 1046–1052.
495:Carbon fibre composite
196:
104:plasma-facing material
92:
76:
781:high confinement mode
713:(Spain), RFX (Italy).
291:nuclear power reactor
273:designs, use intense
217:nuclear transmutation
206:and other transients.
197:
82:
66:
534:Joint European Torus
377:improve this article
195:{\displaystyle ^{2}}
180:
2075:2011FusED..86.1677R
2069:(9–11): 1677–1680.
2011:2023NucFu..63j6004E
1966:1995JNuM..220...25S
1927:1993PhRvL..71.1549W
1882:2018JNuM..511..544K
1843:2012COSSM..16..143K
1792:2009JNuM..390....1R
1756:2019NMEne..2000704K
1717:1998JNuM..252...55M
1670:2021NucFu..61f6005A
1599:2016FusED.109.1046N
1568:2011JNuM..415S...2P
1525:2005NucFu..45..209N
1470:2014FusED..89..826E
1419:2015FusED.100..100E
1370:2019NucFu..59k2002P
1261:2023NMEne..3401399D
1168:2013NucFu..53k3030O
1114:2010FusED..85..874K
941:on 28 December 2022
915:on 11 December 2013
876:2008FusED..83..912I
633:Recent developments
2049:2012-12-02 at the
1960:. 220–222: 25–35.
1322:(12A): A165–A179.
349:Proposed materials
312:eventually occurs.
192:
93:
77:
2104:Materials science
1921:(10): 1549–1552.
453:
452:
445:
427:
277:in an attempt to
234:breeder operation
61:
60:
16:(Redirected from
2116:
2090:
2031:
2030:
2004:
1984:
1978:
1977:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1910:
1904:
1903:
1893:
1861:
1855:
1854:
1826:
1820:
1819:
1786:. 390–391: 1–9.
1774:
1768:
1767:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1696:
1690:
1689:
1663:
1643:
1637:
1630:
1621:
1620:
1618:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1508:
1502:
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1449:
1443:
1442:
1440:
1430:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1381:
1355:
1346:
1340:
1339:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1299:. Archived from
1289:
1283:
1282:
1272:
1240:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1229:
1212:
1203:
1202:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1151:
1142:
1141:
1093:
1082:
1081:
1079:
1077:
1071:
1064:
1056:
1045:
1044:
1018:
1012:
1011:
984:
973:
972:
967:. Archived from
957:
951:
950:
948:
946:
931:
925:
924:
922:
920:
914:
908:. Archived from
903:
894:
888:
887:
870:(7–9): 912–919.
858:
852:
851:
831:
448:
441:
437:
434:
428:
426:
385:
361:
353:
201:
199:
198:
193:
191:
190:
106:(or materials) (
56:
53:
47:
35:
34:
27:
21:
2124:
2123:
2119:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2114:
2113:
2094:
2093:
2060:
2051:Wayback Machine
2040:
2035:
2034:
1986:
1985:
1981:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1915:Phys. Rev. Lett
1912:
1911:
1907:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1828:
1827:
1823:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1698:
1697:
1693:
1645:
1644:
1640:
1631:
1624:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1553:
1552:
1548:
1510:
1509:
1505:
1491:
1487:
1451:
1450:
1446:
1400:
1399:
1395:
1353:
1348:
1347:
1343:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1303:on 13 May 2011.
1291:
1290:
1286:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1227:
1225:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1153:
1152:
1145:
1095:
1094:
1085:
1075:
1073:
1072:on 4 March 2016
1069:
1062:
1058:
1057:
1048:
1041:
1020:
1019:
1015:
1008:
986:
985:
976:
971:on 12 May 2011.
959:
958:
954:
944:
942:
933:
932:
928:
918:
916:
912:
901:
896:
895:
891:
860:
859:
855:
840:10.2172/1056493
833:
832:
815:
810:
793:
757:Silicon carbide
754:
752:Silicon carbide
735:
681:
648:
635:
583:
490:Silicon carbide
449:
438:
432:
429:
386:
384:
374:
362:
351:
329:magnetic fields
310:decommissioning
281:this, although
275:magnetic fields
242:
183:
178:
177:
57:
51:
48:
45:
36:
32:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2122:
2120:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2096:
2095:
2092:
2091:
2058:
2053:
2039:
2038:External links
2036:
2033:
2032:
1995:(10): 106004.
1989:Nuclear Fusion
1979:
1948:
1905:
1856:
1837:(3): 143–152.
1821:
1769:
1730:
1691:
1648:Nuclear Fusion
1638:
1622:
1581:
1546:
1519:(3): 209–218.
1513:Nuclear Fusion
1503:
1485:
1464:(6): 826–836.
1444:
1393:
1364:(11): 112002.
1358:Nuclear Fusion
1341:
1306:
1284:
1235:
1204:
1181:
1156:Nuclear Fusion
1143:
1108:(6): 874–881.
1083:
1046:
1039:
1013:
1006:
974:
952:
926:
889:
853:
812:
811:
809:
806:
805:
804:
799:
792:
789:
753:
750:
749:
748:
745:
742:
734:
733:Liquid lithium
731:
730:
729:
726:
723:
715:
714:
704:
680:
677:
647:
644:
634:
631:
609:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
593:
582:
581:Considerations
579:
577:(TFTR, 1996).
540:(1992) and in
530:
529:
526:
523:
520:
517:
514:
511:
504:
503:
498:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
451:
450:
365:
363:
356:
350:
347:
339:
338:
335:
332:
325:
314:
313:
298:
259:
258:
255:
252:
249:
241:
238:
221:
220:
213:
210:
207:
189:
185:
174:
171:
166:and therefore
156:
155:
152:
149:
146:
136:reactor vessel
134:region of the
124:nuclear fusion
102:research, the
59:
58:
39:
37:
30:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2121:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2089:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2048:
2045:
2042:
2041:
2037:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1990:
1983:
1980:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1909:
1906:
1901:
1897:
1892:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1734:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1695:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1654:(6): 066005.
1653:
1649:
1642:
1639:
1635:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1617:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1592:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1550:
1547:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1507:
1504:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1486:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1448:
1445:
1439:
1434:
1429:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1352:
1345:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1310:
1307:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1288:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1239:
1236:
1224:
1223:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1185:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1148:
1144:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1092:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1068:
1061:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1042:
1040:9781118406014
1036:
1032:
1028:
1024:
1017:
1014:
1009:
1007:0-7803-1412-3
1003:
999:
995:
991:
983:
981:
979:
975:
970:
966:
962:
956:
953:
940:
936:
930:
927:
911:
907:
900:
893:
890:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
857:
854:
849:
845:
841:
837:
830:
828:
826:
824:
822:
820:
818:
814:
807:
803:
800:
798:
795:
794:
790:
788:
786:
783:scenarios in
782:
776:
774:
770:
764:
762:
758:
751:
746:
743:
740:
739:
738:
732:
727:
724:
721:
720:
719:
712:
708:
705:
702:
698:
697:
696:
693:
689:
685:
678:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
645:
643:
639:
632:
630:
628:
625:
620:
618:
614:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
591:
590:
589:
586:
580:
578:
576:
572:
567:
565:
564:Alcator C-Mod
561:
560:ASDEX Upgrade
557:
552:
550:
545:
543:
539:
535:
527:
524:
521:
518:
515:
512:
509:
508:
507:
502:
499:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
485:Boron carbide
483:
481:
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
457:
456:
447:
444:
436:
425:
422:
418:
415:
411:
408:
404:
401:
397:
394: –
393:
389:
388:Find sources:
382:
378:
372:
371:
366:This section
364:
360:
355:
354:
348:
346:
344:
336:
333:
330:
326:
323:
319:
318:
317:
311:
307:
306:nuclear waste
303:
299:
296:
295:
294:
292:
288:
284:
280:
276:
272:
268:
264:
256:
253:
250:
247:
246:
245:
239:
237:
235:
231:
225:
218:
214:
211:
208:
205:
187:
184:
175:
172:
169:
165:
161:
160:
159:
153:
150:
147:
144:
143:
142:
139:
137:
133:
129:
125:
122:within which
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
98:
90:
86:
81:
74:
70:
69:Alcator C-Mod
65:
55:
43:
38:
29:
28:
19:
2109:Fusion power
2086:
2066:
2062:
1992:
1988:
1982:
1957:
1951:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1873:
1869:
1859:
1834:
1830:
1824:
1783:
1772:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1711:(1): 55–62.
1708:
1704:
1694:
1651:
1647:
1641:
1633:
1590:
1584:
1562:(1): S2–S9.
1559:
1555:
1549:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1496:
1488:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1410:
1406:
1396:
1361:
1357:
1344:
1319:
1315:
1309:
1301:the original
1296:
1287:
1252:
1248:
1238:
1226:. Retrieved
1220:
1190:
1184:
1159:
1155:
1105:
1101:
1074:. Retrieved
1067:the original
1022:
1016:
989:
969:the original
964:
955:
943:. Retrieved
939:the original
929:
917:. Retrieved
910:the original
905:
892:
867:
863:
856:
777:
765:
755:
736:
716:
694:
690:
686:
682:
673:
669:
665:
661:
657:
653:
649:
640:
638:components.
636:
621:
610:
587:
584:
568:
553:
546:
531:
505:
454:
439:
430:
420:
413:
406:
399:
387:
375:Please help
370:verification
367:
340:
315:
287:neutron flux
260:
243:
240:Requirements
232:and Tritium
226:
222:
157:
140:
131:
127:
115:
111:
107:
103:
100:fusion power
94:
87:showing the
83:Interior of
71:showing the
67:Interior of
49:
41:
1876:: 544–555.
1636:p. 172-173.
1501:, pp.46-47.
1493:Michio Kaku
1438:10871/17772
1413:: 100–111.
302:radioactive
271:stellarator
2098:Categories
2002:2304.03923
1750:: 100704.
1661:2104.04083
1255:: 101399.
808:References
465:Molybdenum
403:newspapers
164:sputtering
128:first wall
73:molybdenum
52:April 2019
18:First wall
2027:258049235
1900:104235507
1816:0022-3115
1686:233204645
1388:127950712
1336:250893393
1279:2352-1791
1138:120010130
667:samples.
470:Beryllium
433:June 2018
322:heat flux
202:) due to
2047:Archived
1943:10054436
1541:56572005
1228:20 April
1076:20 April
919:20 April
791:See also
646:Tungsten
566:(1991).
556:divertor
501:Graphite
460:Tungsten
343:divertor
132:divertor
89:graphite
2071:Bibcode
2007:Bibcode
1962:Bibcode
1923:Bibcode
1878:Bibcode
1839:Bibcode
1788:Bibcode
1752:Bibcode
1713:Bibcode
1666:Bibcode
1595:Bibcode
1564:Bibcode
1521:Bibcode
1466:Bibcode
1415:Bibcode
1366:Bibcode
1257:Bibcode
1222:Science
1164:Bibcode
1110:Bibcode
945:22 July
872:Bibcode
848:1056493
679:Lithium
622:French
573:in the
475:Lithium
417:scholar
279:achieve
267:tokamak
230:blanket
219:effects
168:erosion
97:nuclear
42:updated
2025:
1941:
1898:
1814:
1684:
1539:
1386:
1334:
1277:
1162:(11).
1136:
1130:973198
1128:
1037:
1004:
846:
785:DIII-D
419:
412:
405:
398:
390:
120:plasma
2023:S2CID
1997:arXiv
1896:S2CID
1682:S2CID
1656:arXiv
1537:S2CID
1384:S2CID
1354:(PDF)
1332:S2CID
1134:S2CID
1070:(PDF)
1063:(PDF)
913:(PDF)
902:(PDF)
711:TJ-II
497:(CFC)
424:JSTOR
410:books
1939:PMID
1812:ISSN
1275:ISSN
1230:2019
1126:OSTI
1078:2019
1035:ISBN
1002:ISBN
947:2024
921:2019
844:OSTI
773:DEMO
769:ITER
707:NSTX
617:DEMO
611:The
549:ITER
396:news
269:and
263:ITER
204:ELMS
2079:doi
2015:doi
1970:doi
1931:doi
1886:doi
1874:511
1847:doi
1804:hdl
1796:doi
1760:doi
1721:doi
1709:252
1674:doi
1611:hdl
1603:doi
1572:doi
1560:415
1529:doi
1474:doi
1433:hdl
1423:doi
1411:100
1374:doi
1324:doi
1265:doi
1195:doi
1172:doi
1118:doi
1027:doi
994:doi
880:doi
836:doi
701:LTX
480:Tin
379:by
130:or
116:PFC
108:PFM
95:In
2100::
2085:.
2077:.
2067:86
2065:.
2021:.
2013:.
2005:.
1993:63
1991:.
1968:.
1937:.
1929:.
1919:71
1917:.
1894:.
1884:.
1872:.
1868:.
1845:.
1835:16
1833:.
1810:.
1802:.
1794:.
1782:.
1758:.
1748:20
1746:.
1742:.
1719:.
1707:.
1703:.
1680:.
1672:.
1664:.
1652:61
1650:.
1625:^
1609:.
1601:.
1570:.
1558:.
1535:.
1527:.
1517:45
1515:.
1495:,
1472:.
1462:89
1460:.
1456:.
1431:.
1421:.
1409:.
1405:.
1382:.
1372:.
1362:59
1360:.
1356:.
1330:.
1320:38
1318:.
1295:.
1273:.
1263:.
1253:34
1251:.
1247:.
1219:.
1207:^
1170:.
1160:53
1158:.
1146:^
1132:.
1124:.
1116:.
1106:85
1104:.
1100:.
1086:^
1049:^
1033:.
1000:.
977:^
963:.
904:.
878:.
868:83
866:.
842:.
816:^
771:,
551:.
138:.
2081::
2073::
2029:.
2017::
2009::
1999::
1976:.
1972::
1964::
1945:.
1933::
1925::
1902:.
1888::
1880::
1853:.
1849::
1841::
1818:.
1806::
1798::
1790::
1766:.
1762::
1754::
1727:.
1723::
1715::
1688:.
1676::
1668::
1658::
1619:.
1613::
1605::
1597::
1578:.
1574::
1566::
1543:.
1531::
1523::
1482:.
1476::
1468::
1441:.
1435::
1425::
1417::
1390:.
1376::
1368::
1338:.
1326::
1281:.
1267::
1259::
1232:.
1201:.
1197::
1178:.
1174::
1166::
1140:.
1120::
1112::
1080:.
1043:.
1029::
1010:.
996::
949:.
923:.
886:.
882::
874::
850:.
838::
446:)
440:(
435:)
431:(
421:·
414:·
407:·
400:·
373:.
331:.
324:.
188:2
170:.
114:(
54:)
50:(
44:.
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
