Fixed stars - Knowledge (XXG)

38: 970: 49: 2303:" is a circle twenty-eight times as big as the Earth, with the outline similar to that of a fire-filled chariot wheel, on which appears a mouth in certain places and through which it exposes its fire, as through the hole on a flute. the Sun is equal to the Earth, but the circle on which it breathes and on which it's borne is twenty-seven times as big as the whole earth. is when the mouth from which comes the fire heat is closed. is a circle nineteen times as big as the whole earth, all filled with fire, like that of the Sun". 1468: 363:, the Sun, entirely stationary, laid at the center, and all planets revolved around it. Beyond the planets was the sphere of fixed stars, also motionless. This system presented two more unique ideas in addition to being heliocentric: the Earth rotated daily to create day, night, and the perceived motions of the other heavenly bodies, and the sphere of fixed stars at its boundary were immensely distant from its center. This massive distance had to be assumed due to the fact that stars were observed to have no 1153: 937:. There is a series of manuscript texts written in Old Norse which contain a collection of poems written from oral tradition. Among historians there seems to be speculation of the specific dates of the poems written, however, the estimated record of the texts is around the beginning of the thirteenth century. Although the oral tradition of passing down tales existed long before the advent of text manuscripts and print versions. 854: 336:

and the stars. However, Aristotle believed that while the planets rotate, the stars still remain fixed. His argument was that if such a massive body was moving, there must surely be evidence that is noticeable from the Earth. However, one cannot hear the stars moving, nor can they really see their progress, so Aristotle concludes that while they may be shifted by the planets, they do not move themselves. He writes in

1181: 773: 419:(fl. c. 410–420) describes a modified geocentric model, in which the Earth is at rest in the center of the universe and circled by the Moon, the Sun, three planets and the stars, while Mercury and Venus circle the Sun, all surrounded by the sphere of fixed stars. His model was not widely accepted, despite his authority; he was one of the earliest developers of the system of the seven 675:, and its physical radius as one-third that of the Earth. He made an inaccurate attempt to measure the distance to the Sun, but sufficient to assert that the Sun is much bigger than Earth and it is much further away than the Moon. So the minor body, the Earth, must orbit the major one, the Sun, and not the opposite. This reasoning led him to assert that, as stars do not show evident 1169: 1560:

relational mechanics are the distance between the particles and the angles of the straight lines that joins the particles. Relational equations deal with the evolution of observation variables because they are independent of frames and can calculate a given evolution of distances that individual evolutions can describe from different frames. This can only mean that

264:, invisible to man. All of the planets, the Moon, Sun, and stars rotated about this central fire, with the Earth being the nearest object to it. In this system, the stars are contained in the furthest sphere, which also rotates, but too slowly for motion to be observed. The motion of the stars is instead explained by the motion of the Earth about the central fire. 1409: 788:. Epicycles are described as an orbit within an orbit. For example, looking at Venus, Ptolemy claimed that it orbits the Earth, and as it orbits the Earth, it also orbits the original orbit riding a second, minor local sphere. (Ptolemy emphasised that the epicycle motion does not apply to the Sun.) This device necessarily enlarges each of the 1052: 340:, "If the bodies of the stars moved in a quantity either of air or of fire...the noise which they created would inevitably be tremendous, and this being so, it would reach and shatter things here on earth". His theory that the stars may be carried but were fixed and do not autonomously move or rotate was widely accepted for a time. 505:

rotates about the stationary Earth, creating the perceived motion of the stars in the sky. This system has an interesting feature in that the Sun and planets cannot be contained in solid orbs (their orbs would collide), but yet the stars are represented as being contained in a fixed sphere at the boundary of the cosmos.

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individual velocities that were attempted to be reformulated into relative velocities and the possibility of distances. However, these attempts led to many opposing concepts to inertia that were not supported, to which many agreed that the basic premise of Newtonian kinetic energy should be preserved.

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announced his discovery that the fixed stars actually have proper motion. Proper motion was not noticed by ancient cultures because it requires precise measurements over long periods of time to notice. In fact, the night sky today looks very much as it did thousands of years ago, so much so that some

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heard about it and made a telescope for himself. He immediately noticed that the planets were not, in fact, perfectly smooth, a theory formerly put forth by Aristotle. He continued to examine the skies and constellations and soon knew that the "fixed stars" which had been studied and mapped were only

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to determine that the distance to the Moon is roughly 380,000 km (236,100 mi), nearly matching Aristarchus. This imposed a minimum radius for the sphere of fixed stars at center-to-center Earth to Moon distance plus the Moon's radius (approx. 1/3 Earth radius), plus the width of the Sun (it

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His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he

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composed of orbs carrying each of the heavenly bodies. The final orb in his model was that of the fixed stars. This final orb was the largest of his cosmos, in both diameter and thickness. This orb of stars is entirely fixed, as the stars are embedded in the sphere, and the sphere itself is immobile.

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His cosmos was geocentric, with the Earth at the center, surrounded by a layer of water and air, which was in turn surrounded by a layer of fire which filled the space until reaching the Moon. Aristotle also proposed a fifth element called "aether," which is purported to make up the Sun, the planets,

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consisted of fire and contained all of the planets (which according to Plato, included the Moon and Sun). The outermost portion of this sphere was the location of the stars. This sphere of fire rotated about the Earth, carrying the stars with it. The belief that the stars were fixed in their place in

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for the motion of the planets; however, the observation of individual evolutions does not hold value in relational mechanics. An individual evolution can be distorted by changing the frame to which the position and velocity of an individual evolution are considered not observable. The observables in

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modified Eudoxus' model by supposing the spheres were material and crystalline. He was able to articulate the spheres for most planets, however, the spheres for Jupiter and Saturn crossed each other. Aristotle solved this complication by introducing an unrolled sphere. By all these devices, and even

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written around 350 BC. He claimed that all things have some way of moving, (including "heavenly bodies," or planets,) but he denies that the movement could be caused by a vacuum, because then the objects would move much too fast and without sensible directions. He stated that everything was moved by

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models of the planet systems, based on his background as a mathematician. Eudoxus's model was geocentric, with the Earth being a stationary sphere at the center of the system, surrounded by 27 rotating spheres. The farthest sphere carried stars, which he declared to be fixed within the sphere. Thus,

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The evolution of distances between particles does not require inertial frames to show themselves but instead uses them as coordinates for particles. The two different laws of mechanics are conceptually different. An example would be the isolation of a subsystem where Newton's law would describe its

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Leibniz and Mach criticized the use of absolute space to validate Newtonian frames. Leibniz believed in the relation of the bodies as opposed to individual evolutions relative to metaphysically defined frames. Mach would criticize Newton's concept of absolute acceleration, stating that the shape of

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A typical method to determine proper motion is to measure the position of a star relative to a limited, selected set of very distant objects that exhibit no mutual movement, and that, because of their distance, are assumed to have very small proper motion. Another approach is to compare photographs

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When scholars applied Ptolemy's epicycles, they presumed that each planetary sphere was exactly thick enough to accommodate them. By combining this nested sphere model with astronomical observations, scholars calculated what became generally accepted values at the time for the distances to the Sun:

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of the 1540s fueled the idea held by some philosophers in ancient Greece and the Islamic world that stars were actually other suns, possibly with their own planets. The definitive discovery of proper motion was announced in 1718, and parallax was suspected in the 1670s but shown definitively in the

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The Puritan Thomas Digges (1546–1595?) was the earliest Englishman to offer a defense of the Copernican theory. ... Accompanying Digges's account is a diagram of the universe portraying the heliocentric system surrounded by the orb of fixed stars, described by Digges as infinitely extended in all

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of Syracuse (c. 400 BCE) proposed a system quite similar to that of Philolaos, but without a central fire. Instead, this cosmos was centered on the Earth, which remained stationary but rotated on an axis, while the Moon, Sun, and planets revolved about it. This system's final boundary was a fixed

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The reformation of mechanics in the 20th century was ripe with relational principles. The laws of mechanics combine potential and kinetic variables, which in this case, the potential is already relational because it contains distances between the particles. The Newtonian kinetic energy contained

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evolution in terms of absolute, initial, and final conditions. Relational mechanics would describe its evolution in terms of internal and external distances, so even if the system is "isolated," its evolution will always be described by the relation of the subsystem to the rest of the universe.

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has been called "geo-heliocentric" due to its twofold structure. At its center lies the stationary Earth, which is orbited by the Moon and Sun. The planets then revolve about the Sun while it revolves about the Earth. Beyond all of these heavenly bodies lies a sphere of fixed stars. This sphere

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It was written around 150 AD, and Ptolemy declared that the stars' placement in relation to each other and distances apart remained unchanged by the rotation of the heavens. He utilized a method using eclipses to find the star distances and calculated the distance of the Moon based on parallax

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The fixed stars exhibit real motion as well, however. This motion may be viewed as having components that consist in part of motion of the galaxy to which the star belongs, in part of rotation of that galaxy, and in part of motion peculiar to the star itself within its galaxy. In the case of

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to the dome of the sky, which was the skull of Ymir. The Norse creation myth is one of several cases which treated stars as being fixed to a sphere beyond the earth. Later scientific literature shows astronomical thought which kept a version of this idea until the seventeenth century.

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However, fixed stars show parallax. It can be used to find the distance to nearby stars. This motion is only apparent; it is the Earth that moves. This effect was small enough not to be accurately measured until the 19th century, but from about 1670 and onward, astronomers such as

1392:. The concept of inertial frames of reference is no longer tied to either the fixed stars or to absolute space. Rather, the identification of an inertial frame is based upon the simplicity of the laws of physics in the frame, in particular, the absence of fictitious forces. 213:, which provided some clue the heavens were not completely unchanging, but as novae fade in few weeks or months, the phenomenon was not understood then, as well as of comets. In European scientific astronomy, evidence that disproved the firmament was gathered gradually. The 328:

something and started exploring a concept similar to gravity. He was one of the first to argue (and prove) that the Earth was round, drawing on observations of eclipses and the movements of the other planets relative to the Earth. He proceeded to conclude that most planets

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maps. Maps of the stars and the idea of mythological stories to explain them were largely being acquired all over the world and in several cultures. One similarity between them all was the preliminary understanding that the stars were fixed and immobile in the universe.

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from the Ancient Greeks. Anaximander proposed this original (and erroneous) order of the celestial objects above the Earth: first a nearest layer with the fixed stars plus planets, then another layer with the Moon, and finally an outer one with the Sun. To him, the

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was the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances. But erroneously, he thought the stars were closer to Earth (about 9 to 10 times the Earth's size) than the Moon (18-19 times) and the Sun (27-28 times). Nonetheless, later

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Huggins, W. (1868). "Further observations on the spectra of some of the stars and nebulae, with an attempt to determine therefrom whether these bodies are moving towards or from the Earth, also observations on the spectra of the Sun and of Comet II".

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were supposed to hold. In contrast, in frames accelerating with respect to the fixed stars, in particular frames rotating relative to the fixed stars, the laws of motion did not hold in their simplest form, but had to be supplemented by the addition of

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being, at least, the same that the Moon), plus the indeterminate thickness of the planets' spheres (believed to be thin, anyway), for a total about 386,400 km (240,100 mi). This was around 24,500,000 times lower than Archimedes' computation.

516:(1571–1630) was a devoted Copernican, following Copernicus's models and ideas yet developing them. He was also an assistant of Tycho Brahe, and he could access his patron's accurate measurements in his observational database. Kepler's 549:, which are working tables from which planetary positions could be shown. Kepler's laws were the tipping point in finally disproving the old geocentric (or Ptolemaic) cosmic theories and models, what was backed by the first uses of 1239:, and others began detecting motion from the stars and attempting measurements. These movements amounted to significant, if almost imperceptibly small, fractions. The first successful stellar parallax measurements were done by 408:. He declared that the stars are fixed within their celestial spheres, but the spheres themselves are not fixed. The rotations of these spheres thus explain the subtle movements of the constellations throughout the year. 1543:

is a field theory that is a part of classical mechanics that dictates only the evolution of distances between particles and not their motion. The formation of this field theory gives solutions to the criticisms made by

1032:, which attempts to explain the peculiarity of stars that moved. These "wandering stars", planets, moved across the background of fixed stars which were spread along a sphere surrounding encompassing the universe. This 288:

the sphere of fire was of great importance to all of Plato's system. The stars' position was used as a reference for all celestial motions and used to create Plato's ideas of planets possessing multiple motions.

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The attempts to explain the universe stem from observations of the objects found in the sky. Different cultures historically have various stories to provide an answer to the questions of what they are seeing.

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argued for an indefinitely extended or even infinite universe, with other stars as distant suns, paving the way to deprecate the Aristotelian sphere of the fixed stars. (This was a revival of beliefs held by

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The phrase "fixed star" is technically incorrect, but nonetheless it is used in an historical context, and in classical mechanics. When used as a visual reference for observations, they usually are called

979:. Nüremberg. 1543. Print copy of Copernicus's work showing the model of the universe with the Sun in the center and a sphere of "immobile stars" on the outside according to his theory of the cosmos. 796:

about 4 million kilometres (2.5 million miles), and to the edge of the universe: about 73 million kilometres (45 million miles), still around 130,000 times less than Archimedes.

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from Earth, these objects appear to move so slowly in the sky that the change in their relative positions is nearly imperceptible on human timescales, except under careful examination with modern

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viewed from Earth along a single year, they must be very, very far away from the terrestrial surface and, assuming they were all at the same distance from us, he gave a relative estimation.

3273: 809:, the possibility that such a huge sphere could complete a single revolution of 360° around the Earth in only 24 hours was deemed improbable, and this point was one of the arguments of 944:. Scholars have recounted the tale of the Αesir Gods creation myth which includes the idea of fixed stars found within the teleology of the tale. Padaric Colum has written a book, 37: 1572:, stating "Mach's principle," the idea that inertia is determined by the interaction with the rest of the universe. Relational mechanics can be referred to as a Machian theory. 1125:

suggested that stars could not simply be fixed or at rest, as their gravitational pulls cause "mutual attraction" and therefore cause them to move in relation to each other.

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system. The tradition of thought which appears in all of these systems of the universe, even with their divergent mechanisms, is the presence of the sphere of fixed stars.

469:("On the seven disciplines") was read, taught, and commented upon throughout the early Middle Ages and shaped European education during the early medieval period and the 1497: 864: 1548:

and Mach of Newton's mechanics. As Newton relied on absolute space, relational mechanics does not. Describing fixed stars in terms of relational mechanics agrees with

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were the preferred shape of the universe, and that the Earth was at the centre and the stars forming the outermost shell, followed by planets, the Sun, and the Moon.

1063:, 1631 (posthumous). The text reads: "The stars outside the orb of the Sun's power, or in the form of an effusion, are not moved by the Sun, but appear fixed to us." 1117: 2959: 1136:

used it to refer to the Sun, planets, and comets as a whole. By then it had been established beyond doubt, thanks to increased telescopic observations plus

2775:"The Astronomy of Levi ben Gerson (1288–1344): A Critical Edition of Chapters 1–20 with Translation and Commentary. Levi ben Gerson, Bernard R. Goldstein" 315:, who lived from 384 to 322 BC studied and published similar ideas to Plato, and based on the Eudoxus' system, but he improved on them through his books 2815:

The Elder or Poetic Edda; commonly known as Saemund's Edda. Edited and translated with introd. and notes by Oliver Bray. Illustrated by W.G. Collingwood

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by Westerners. The planets can also be distinguished from fixed stars because stars tend to twinkle, while planets appear to shine with a steady light.

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First Greeks, as many other ancient cultures, thought of sky as it was a giant dome-like structure only a few meters above the highest mountains. The

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Ptolemy used and wrote about the geocentric system, drawing greatly on traditional Aristotelian physics, but using more complicated devices, known as

987:. Other cultures contributed to thought about the fixed stars including the Babylonians, who from the eighteenth to the sixth century BC constructed 1122: 664: 360: 304:

though the stars were moved around the Earth by the sphere which they occupied, they themselves did not move and were therefore considered fixed.

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1830s. Other cultures (such as Chinese astronomy) either never had a belief in a sphere of fixed stars, or constructed it in different ways. (See

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a tiny portion of the massive universe that lay beyond the reach of the naked eye. When in 1610 he aimed his telescope to the faint strip of the

283:'s (c. 429-347 BCE) universe was centered on a completely stationary Earth, constructed with a series of concentric spheres. The outer sphere of 3372: 3190: 3150: 2703: 2678: 1943: 1686: 824:(Gersonides) who, circa 1300, estimated the distance to the fixed stars to be no less than 159,651,513,380,944 Earth radii, or about 100,000 233:. That way, constellations have been used for centuries, and still are today, to identify regions of the night sky by both professional and 256:

philosophers held a number of different views on the structure of the universe, but each included a sphere of fixed stars as its boundary.

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supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface.

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assuming the planets were star-like, single points, the sphere of the fixed stars should implicitly be farther than previously thought.

198:, which revolves daily around Earth. Hence it was known as the "sphere of fixed stars", which acted as the supposed limit of the whole 461: 1219:, changing their position over short periods of time (weeks or months). They always seem to move within the band of stars called the 3455: 3254: 3217: 2915: 2884: 2840: 2757: 2651: 2599: 2493: 2468: 2324: 2257: 2181: 2137: 2039: 1991: 1879: 1831: 1781: 1733: 1691: 1519: 1449: 898: 828:

in modern units. This was an overestimate; although in the actual universe there are stars farther than that distance, both in the

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of a star at different times against a large background of more distant objects. The star with the largest known proper motion is

56:, 1596. Kepler's heliocentric rendition of the cosmos, containing an outermost "sphaera stellar fixar," or sphere of fixed stars. 3048: 2936: 1629: 1614: 1395:

Law of inertia holds for Galilean coordinate system which is a hypothetical system relative to which fixed stars remain fixed.

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This understanding was incorporated into theorized models and mathematical representations of the cosmos by philosophers like

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containing fixed stars on the outermost part of the universe, its edge, within it lie all the rest of the moving luminaires.

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view was held through the Middle Ages, and was later countered by subsequent astronomers and mathematicians alike, such as

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which spanned from ancient Greece to early scientific Europe, the fixed stars were believed to exist attached on a giant

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also are counted among the fixed stars. Approximately 6,000 stars are visible to the naked eye under optimal conditions.

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Einstein, Albert (1912). "Gibt es eine Gravitationswirkung, die der elektrodynamischen Induktionswirkung analog ist?".

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model of the cosmos showed an Earth-centered universe. Ptolemy was influential with his heavily mathematical work, the

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Western astronomical knowledge was based on the traditional thoughts from philosophical and observational inquiries of

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Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz; Samuel Clarke; Gottfried Wilhelm Freiherr von Leibniz; Robert Gavin Alexander (1956).

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the water only proves the rotation with respect to the rest of the universe. Mach's criticism was later taken up by

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Astronomers and natural philosophers before divided the lights in the sky into two groups. One group contained the

746: 634:, in around 380 BCE, devised a geometric-mathematical model for the movements of the planets based on (conceptual) 1203:, which is a change in apparent position caused by the orbital motion of the Earth. The other group contained the 299:, a student of Plato, was born around 400 BC. A mathematician and an astronomer, he generated one of the earliest 2963: 1545: 1315: 756:

In the following century, measures of the sizes and distances of the Earth and the Moon improved. Around 200 BCE

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sphere of stars, and the perceived motion of the stars was thought to be caused by the rotation of the Earth.

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because those celestial objects are not actually fixed with respect to one another or to Earth. Due to their

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The perceived motion of the stars, therefore, is created by the daily rotation of the Earth about its axis.

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Plato's Cosmology; the Timaeus of Plato, Translated with a Running Commentary by Francis Macdonald Cornford

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and velocity components of a distant, moving celestial object as seen from the Solar System (not to scale).

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Fixed stars can be observed outside the view of classical mechanics and the view of relational mechanics.

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G. J. Toomer, "Hipparchus on the distances of the sun and moon," Archive for History of Exact Sciences

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of "wheel-like condensations filled with fire". All other later models of the planetary system show a

805:, were accurate enough to keep them largely undisputed for more than 1,500 years. But by the European 3523: 3484: 3420: 3393: 3327: 3282: 3107: 3029: 2907: 2417: 1661: 1619: 1297: 1199:, which appear to rise and set but keep the same relative arrangement over time, and show no evident 1089: 660: 348: 187: 144: 682:

Following the heliocentric ideas of Aristarcus (but not explicitly supporting them), around 250 BCE

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In Newton's time the fixed stars were invoked as a reference frame supposedly at rest relative to

1108:, he found it resolves into countless white star-like spots, presumably farther stars themselves. 608:), and consequently, to realize how far from Earth it might be. He had suggested that the Moon is 3343: 3317: 2813: 2546: 2441: 2433: 2365: 2357: 2226: 1965: 1666: 1634: 640: 635: 300: 284: 132: 97: 3246: 2643: 2637: 760:

determined that the radius of the Earth is roughly 6,400 km (4,000 mi). Circa 150 BCE

108:. Due to their star-like appearance when viewed with the naked eye, the few visible individual 96:, that appear to move slowly among those "fixed" stars. The fixed stars includes all the stars 3451: 3368: 3250: 3213: 3186: 3182: 3146: 2911: 2880: 2836: 2794: 2753: 2699: 2674: 2647: 2605: 2595: 2538: 2489: 2464: 2320: 2263: 2253: 2187: 2177: 2173: 2167: 2143: 2133: 2091: 2045: 2035: 1997: 1987: 1939: 1885: 1875: 1837: 1827: 1787: 1777: 1739: 1729: 1382: 1374: 1305: 1204: 789: 688: 645: 631: 566: 545: 416: 329: 296: 234: 179: 89: 3364:

The Leibniz-Clarke correspondence: Together with extracts from Newton's Principia and Opticks

3207: 3136: 2901: 2096: 378:, 100-175 AD, summarized ideas about the cosmos through his mathematical models and his book 3531: 3492: 3443: 3362: 3335: 3290: 3115: 2986:"Fakhr Al-Din Al-Razi on Physics and the Nature of the Physical World: A Preliminary Survey" 2857: 2786: 2530: 2425: 2349: 2218: 1931: 1609: 1594: 1431: 1200: 1157: 1033: 1013: 876: 837: 821: 785: 676: 613: 594: 540: 364: 191: 128: 42: 31: 1121:

in 1687, raised further questions among theorists about the mechanisms of the heavens: the

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The forgotten revolution : how science was born in 300 BC and why it had to be reborn

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originates from northern Europe, around the geographical location of modern-day region of

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A companion to astronomy and astrophysics : chronology and glossary with data tables

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was the first philosopher to consider the Sun as a huge object (larger than the land of

459:), that structured early medieval education. Nonetheless, his single encyclopedic work, 229:, which are apparent pictures in the sky seeming to be persistent, being deemed also as 3235: 2774: 1868: 1624: 1378: 1365: 1350:, still retaining the intuitive meaning of they being "fixed" in some practical sense. 1251: 1250:

in 1832–1833, where he measured parallax of and distance to one of the closest stars ―

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Archives of the universe : a treasury of astronomy's historic works of discovery

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Most of Anaximander's model of the Universe comes from pseudo-Plutarch (II, 20–28):

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Astronomical bodies that appear not to move relative to each other in the night sky

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Einstein, A. (2005). "Die formale Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie".

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Ordering the Heavens: Roman Astronomy and Cosmology in the Carolingian Renaissance

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to his demise and created the world from his body, affixing sparks from the fiery

2874: 2830: 2589: 2384: 3242: 2752:. Translated by Mottelay, P. Fleury. (Facsimile). New York: Dover Publications. 2585: 1267: 1228: 996: 934: 922: 806: 672: 625: 577: 497: 183: 175: 772: 3339: 1651: 1564:

employs mechanics with the essential relational feature that Leibniz claimed.

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In the sixteenth century, a number of writers inspired by Copernicus, such as

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made the fixed stars the eighth of the ten heavens into which he divided his

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The use of privileged frames (Newtonian Frame) allows for the observation of

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of planets (assuming the geocentric model): one using eccentrics and another

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Ferraro, Rafael (2017). "The Frame of Fixed Stars in Relational Mechanics".

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Vierteljahrschrift FÜR Gerichtliche Medizin und ÖFfentliches SanitÄTswesen

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English translation: Galileo Galilei with Edward Stafford Carlos, trans.,

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computes the diameter of the universe centered around the Sun to be about

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for sphere of fixed stars, following the long-held belief in such sphere.

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with respect to the Sun, based on observed redshift of the star's light.

1323: 1259: 1185: 1095:

The studies of the heavens were revolutionized with the invention of the

1085: 1028: 801: 765: 448: 436: 384: 199: 143:. Hence, they can be considered to be "fixed" for many purposes, such as 124: 3064: 2550: 2437: 671:, and by geometrical means he estimated the Moon's orbital radius at 60 616:, and closer to the Earth than the Sun, giving a correct explanation of 2111: 1023: 926: 781: 617: 428: 424: 375: 41:

Stars in the night sky appear to be attached to a dark background, the

2408:

Yavetz, Ido (February 1998). "On the Homocentric Spheres of Eudoxus".

2361: 1022:, Aristotle and other like Greek thinkers of antiquity, and later the 2280: 1335: 1220: 1161: 833: 817: 570: 109: 3511: 2696:

Measuring the Universe: Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley

2032:

Planetary astronomy from the Renaissance to the rise of astrophysics

225:

People in many cultures have imagined that the brightest stars form

3322: 2790: 2698:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 28–40. 2353: 1904: 1051: 2169:

On Tycho's island : Tycho Brahe and his assistants, 1570-1601

1589: 1151: 1050: 1019: 968: 771: 527: 452: 432: 280: 93: 84:

in the background. This is in contrast to those lights visible to

47: 36: 1254:. Henderson did not publish these observations until 1839, after 1212: 949: 941: 940:

Among surviving texts there is mention of the mythological god,

725: 210: 77: 2132:. Pihl, Mogens. London: MacDonald and Janes. pp. 303–307. 929:. The Norse mythology consists of tales and myths derived from 2862:. Guternberg Project: Gutenberg Project eBook. pp. 62–69. 2832:

Norse Mythology: A Guide to Gods, Heroes, Rituals, and Beliefs

2818:(1 ed.). archive.org: London Printed for the Viking Club. 1461: 1402: 1330:), when compared to the light emitted by a stationary object. 1215:

were sometimes called stars and planets as well.) The planets

847: 792:, thus making the outer sphere of the fixed stars yet larger. 101: 1986:. Pihl, Mogens. London: MacDonald and Janes. pp. 63–64. 1776:. Pihl, Mogens. London: MacDonald and Janes. pp. 65–67. 1728:. Pihl, Mogens. London: MacDonald and Janes. pp. 59–63. 1258:

published his parallax observations and distance estimate to

2130:

Early physics and astronomy : a historical introduction

2069:, Second Edition, Addison-Wesley, San Francisco, 2007. pp. 4 1984:

Early physics and astronomy : a historical introduction

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Early physics and astronomy : a historical introduction

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Early physics and astronomy : a historical introduction

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Hirshfeld, Alan W. (2004). "The Triangles of Aristarchus".

2109:"The most elucidating approach to Martianus is through his 1930:, Columbia University Press, 1960-12-31, pp. 145–162, 1059:(New Philosophy about our Sublunary World), attributed to 465:("On the Marriage of Philology and Mercury"), also called 3274:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London

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observations. Shortly after, he wrote a follow-up called

3388:

Mach, Ernst; McCormack, Translated by Thomas J. (2013).

2906:. Blackwell Essential Readings in History. Vol. 7. 2172:. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 1314:

of stars, and other deep-space objects, can be revealed

2879:. New York: Columbia University Press. pp. 84–85. 2340:

Sider, D. (1973). "Anaxagoras on the Size of the Sun".

872: 813:

for leaving behind the centuries-old geocentric model.

638:

centered on Earth, and by 360 BCE Plato claimed in his

2461:

Early physics and astronomy. A historical introduction

836:, the closest star from Earth (other than the Sun) is 776:

The complexity to be described by the geocentric model

2673:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 251. 2061: 2059: 2741: 2739: 2564:

Archimedes, The Sand Reckoner 511 R U, by Ilan Vardi

1334:

ventured in 1868 to estimate the radial velocity of

209:

Many ancient cultures observed new stars now called

186:

from the observer. In the astronomical tradition of

3512:"Prinzipielles zur allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" 3473:"Die Grundlage der allgemeinen Relativitätstheorie" 2642:. New York: W.W.Norton & Company, Inc. p. 2488:. New York: Springer-Verlag New York. p. 118. 2319:. New York: Springer-Verlag New York. p. 111. 1326:) and increases for objects that were approaching ( 3234: 3170: 2245: 1961:The Copernicus of Antiquity (Aristarchus of Samos) 1867: 3100:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society 2903:The Scientific Revolution: The Essential Readings 1905:"Divine Animals: Plato, Aristotle, and the Stars" 745:shows the equivalence of two descriptions of the 178:, giving the impression that all stars and other 2859:The Children of Odin: The Book of Northern Myths 2746:Gilbert, William (1893). "Book 6, Chapter III". 2097:A History of Early Medieval Europe: From 476–911 1489:but its sources remain unclear because it lacks 933:, which was a Northern German language from the 628:should have some certain, indeterminate, depth. 832:(about three times wider) and all the external 734: 2876:Anaximander and the Origins of Greek Cosmology 2463:. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press. 1761:. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill. pp. 54–57. 1296:modern constellations were first named by the 244:Astronomical models which included fixed stars 2835:. books.google.com: Oxford University Press. 2639:The Norton History of Astronomy and Cosmology 1281:, this real motion of a star is divided into 1132:" entered the English language by 1704, when 861:The examples and perspective in this article 260:(c. 5th cent. BCE) proposed a universe which 8: 3164: 3162: 2958:Greskovic, Peter; Rudy, Peter (2006-07-24). 1430:. There might be a discussion about this on 400:he borrowed from previous works by geometer 1118:Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica 533:This view was later superseded in his book 3233:Christopher De Pree; Alan Axelrod (2004). 3028:(Venice, (Italy): Thomas Baglioni, 1610), 2166:Christianson, J. R. (John Robert) (2000). 1964:. London: The Macmillan Company. pp. 1874:(1st ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. 1057:De Mundo Nostro Sublunari Philosophia Nova 976:On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres 816:The highest upper bound ever given was by 3321: 3119: 1520:Learn how and when to remove this message 1450:Learn how and when to remove this message 899:Learn how and when to remove this message 573:held the whole heavens on his shoulders. 206:was a synonym for that celestial sphere. 1388:As we now know, the fixed stars are not 1179: 1167: 355:, which would later inspire the work of 3237:The Complete Idiot's Guide to Astronomy 2205:Goldstein, Bernard; Hon, Giora (2005). 1709: 1055:The heliocentric universe appearing in 220:Cosmology § Historical cosmologies 2067:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics 3209:Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology 2508: 2410:Archive for History of Exact Sciences 2252:(Rev. ed.). New York: Scribner. 2161: 2159: 2157: 2123: 2121: 2025: 2023: 2021: 2019: 2017: 2015: 2013: 2011: 1687:Historical models of the Solar System 1164:as a unit of distance (not to scale). 784:adopted Apollonius' epicycles in his 543:, the mathematical basis for his own 7: 3169:Theo Koupelis; Karl F. Kuhn (2007). 2030:Taton, René; Wilson, Curtis (1989). 1977: 1975: 1861: 1859: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1817: 1815: 1813: 1811: 1809: 1807: 1805: 1803: 1801: 1719: 1717: 1715: 1713: 1008:, as well as the Sun and Moon, were 2941:On the infinite universe and worlds 2394:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 351:(3rd cent. BCE), proposed an early 104:, as well as the faint band of the 3440:Albert Einstein: Akademie-Vorträge 3075:from the original on 18 March 2022 2065:Carrol, Bradley and Ostlie, Dale, 1160:effect, and the definition of one 799:Ptolemy's methods, written in his 557:, also an advocate of Copernicus. 462:De nuptiis Philologiae et Mercurii 382:, much more commonly known as the 76:) are the luminary points, mainly 25: 2670:The Beginnings of Western Science 2082:(Leiden: Brill, 2007), pp. 238-9. 1692:Dynamics of the celestial spheres 589:around 400 BCE, also conceived a 539:(1609), where he established his 3212:. Springer. p. 84, §2.6.5. 2856:Colum, Padaric (March 2, 2008). 2720:"Almagest – Ptolemy (Elizabeth)" 2594:. Berlin: Springer. p. 68. 1466: 1407: 852: 840:at about 4.25 light-years only. 262:had at its center a central fire 100:to the naked eye other than the 3367:. Manchester University Press. 3179:Jones & Bartlett Publishers 3096:"On the Parallax of α Centauri" 1630:Catalogues of Fundamental Stars 1615:Astronomical coordinate systems 1115:'s laws, published in his work 202:. For many centuries, the term 2034:. Cambridge University Press. 330:navigated in a circular motion 162:Due to the large distances of 1: 2900:Hellyer, Marcus, ed. (2008). 2773:Kennedy, E. S. (1986-06-01). 1915:: 29–31 – via Academia. 1903:Case, Stephen (Summer 2013). 1217:seem to move forward and back 1142:newtonian celestial mechanics 591:universe with orbiting bodies 3138:Understanding Variable Stars 3044:(London: Rivingtons, 1880), 2100:(New York: Routledge, 2020). 1642:List of stars for navigation 1541:Relational quantum mechanics 1534:References for this section: 965:Developing western astronomy 3069:Online Etymology Dictionary 2694:Van Helden, Albert (1985). 2667:Lindberg, David C. (1992). 1360:Inertial frame of reference 1099:. First developed in 1608, 875:, discuss the issue on the 747:apparent retrograde motions 3582: 3143:Cambridge University Press 3094:Henderson, Thomas (1839). 1866:Bartusiak, Marcia (2004). 1357: 1123:universal force of gravity 732:In Archimedes' own words: 703:(in modern units, about 2 170:is unable to perceive the 29: 3340:10.1007/s10701-016-0042-7 3051:December 2, 2012, at the 1757:Cornford, Fracis (1960). 665:first definite discussion 600:Meanwhile, circa 450 BCE 3536:10.1002/andp.19183600402 3497:10.1002/andp.19163540702 3390:The Science of Mechanics 3206:Peter Schneider (2006). 3173:In Quest of the Universe 2244:Moore, Patrick. (1976). 2223:10.1162/1063614053714126 1475:This section includes a 1256:Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel 667:of the possibility of a 624:, this implies than the 541:laws of planetary motion 519:Mysterium cosmographicum 139:, that can reveal their 54:Mysterium Cosmographicum 3035:March 16, 2016, at the 2724:projects.iq.harvard.edu 2523:The Mathematics Teacher 2484:Thurston, Hugh (1994). 2459:Pedersen, Olaf (1993). 2383:Curd, Patricia (2019). 2315:Thurston, Hugh (1994). 2211:Perspectives on Science 2128:Pedersen, Olaf (1974). 1982:Pedersen, Olaf (1974). 1772:Pedersen, Olaf (1974). 1724:Pedersen, Olaf (1974). 1504:more precise citations. 1399:In relational mechanics 1370:Newton's laws of motion 1148:"Fixed stars" not fixed 471:Carolingian Renaissance 3448:10.1002/3527608958.ch2 3310:Foundations of Physics 3295:10.1098/rstl.1868.0022 3135:John R. Percy (2007). 3121:10.1093/mnras/4.19.168 3042:The Sidereal Messenger 2873:Khan, Charles (1960). 2566:, accessed 28-II-2007. 1958:Heath, Thomas (1920). 1354:In classical mechanics 1192: 1177: 1165: 1064: 980: 973:Copernicus, Nicolaus. 777: 751:deferent and epicycles 739: 502:system of the universe 484:(1473-1543) created a 398:deferent and epicycles 73: 57: 45: 3510:Einstein, A. (1918). 3471:Einstein, A. (1916). 2962:. ESO. Archived from 2908:John Wiley & Sons 2829:Lindow, John (2001). 2812:Bray, Oliver (1908). 2430:10.1007/s004070050017 2115:(Stahl 1965, p. 105). 1936:10.7312/rand90400-008 1320:Doppler-Fizeau effect 1183: 1171: 1155: 1054: 972: 775: 524:Sphaera Stellar Fixar 467:De septem disciplinis 392:Planetary Hypotheses. 380:Mathematical Syntaxis 353:heliocentric universe 267:Another Pythagorean, 215:Copernican Revolution 51: 40: 2636:North, John (1995). 2535:10.5951/MT.97.4.0228 2248:The A-Z of astronomy 1926:"VII. The Heavens", 1662:Fine guidance sensor 1620:Celestial navigation 1420:confusing or unclear 1207:, which they called 1090:Fakhr al-Din al-Razi 946:The Children of Odin 881:create a new article 873:improve this article 863:may not represent a 661:Aristarchus of Samos 553:by his contemporary 406:Hipparchus of Nicaea 344:Aristarchus of Samos 188:Aristotelian physics 164:astronomical objects 3528:1918AnP...360..241E 3489:1916AnP...354..769E 3425:1912VMed...44...37E 3398:2013scme.book.....M 3332:2017FoPh...47...71F 3287:1868RSPT..158..529H 3112:1839MNRAS...4..168H 2999:(2). Archived from 2993:Islam & Science 2984:Setia, Adi (2004). 2422:1998AHES...52..222Y 2342:Classical Philology 2078:Bruce S. Eastwood, 1682:Behenian fixed star 1671:apparent brightness 1584:Literary references 1550:Newtonian mechanics 1428:clarify the section 1377:, for example, the 1111:The development of 1038:Nicolaus Copernicus 912:In Nordic mythology 811:Nicholas Copernicus 743:Apollonius of Perga 669:heliocentric cosmos 646:circles and spheres 486:heliocentric system 482:Nicolaus Copernicus 477:Nicolaus Copernicus 402:Apollonius of Perga 3516:Annalen der Physik 3477:Annalen der Physik 2966:on 10 October 2008 2575:Arenarius, I., 4–7 1667:Apparent magnitude 1635:Guide Star Catalog 1477:list of references 1193: 1178: 1166: 1065: 981: 778: 636:concentric spheres 180:extrasolar objects 58: 52:Kepler, Johannes. 46: 32:Fixed Stars (band) 30:For the band, see 3561:Stellar astronomy 3442:. pp. 8–64. 3374:978-0-7190-0669-2 3192:978-0-7637-4387-1 3152:978-0-521-23253-1 3024:Galileo Galilei, 3006:on 9 January 2020 2947:on 27 April 2012. 2935:Bruno, Giordano. 2705:978-0-226-84882-2 2680:978-0-226-48231-6 2092:Margaret Deanesly 1945:978-0-231-87855-5 1822:Lang, Kenneth R. 1530: 1529: 1522: 1460: 1459: 1452: 1383:centrifugal force 1375:fictitious forces 1316:spectroscopically 1205:naked eye planets 1172:Relation between 1156:Principle of the 909: 908: 901: 883:, as appropriate. 844:In other cultures 790:celestial spheres 689:The Sand Reckoner 632:Eudoxus of Cnidus 546:Rudolphine Tables 417:Martianus Capella 412:Martianus Capella 292:Eudoxus of Cnidus 172:three-dimensional 149:charting of stars 16:(Redirected from 3573: 3540: 3539: 3507: 3501: 3500: 3468: 3462: 3461: 3435: 3429: 3428: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3358: 3352: 3351: 3325: 3305: 3299: 3298: 3267: 3261: 3260: 3241:(3rd ed.). 3240: 3230: 3224: 3223: 3203: 3197: 3196: 3176: 3166: 3157: 3156: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3123: 3091: 3085: 3084: 3082: 3080: 3061: 3055: 3046:pages 42 and 43. 3030:pages 15 and 16. 3026:Sidereus Nuncius 3022: 3016: 3015: 3013: 3011: 3005: 2990: 2981: 2975: 2974: 2972: 2971: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2943:. Archived from 2937:"Third Dialogue" 2932: 2926: 2925: 2897: 2891: 2890: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2853: 2847: 2846: 2826: 2820: 2819: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2770: 2764: 2763: 2743: 2734: 2733: 2731: 2730: 2716: 2710: 2709: 2691: 2685: 2684: 2664: 2658: 2657: 2633: 2627: 2626:(1974), 126–142. 2620: 2614: 2613: 2582: 2576: 2573: 2567: 2561: 2555: 2554: 2518: 2512: 2506: 2500: 2499: 2481: 2475: 2474: 2456: 2450: 2449: 2405: 2399: 2398: 2389:Zalta, Edward N. 2380: 2374: 2373: 2337: 2331: 2330: 2312: 2306: 2298: 2292: 2278: 2272: 2271: 2251: 2241: 2235: 2234: 2202: 2196: 2195: 2163: 2152: 2151: 2125: 2116: 2107: 2101: 2089: 2083: 2076: 2070: 2063: 2054: 2053: 2027: 2006: 2005: 1979: 1970: 1969: 1955: 1949: 1948: 1923: 1917: 1916: 1900: 1894: 1893: 1873: 1863: 1846: 1845: 1819: 1796: 1795: 1769: 1763: 1762: 1754: 1748: 1747: 1721: 1610:Celestial sphere 1557:Keplerian orbits 1525: 1518: 1514: 1511: 1505: 1500:this section by 1491:inline citations 1470: 1469: 1462: 1455: 1448: 1444: 1441: 1435: 1411: 1410: 1403: 1344:background stars 1277:Relative to the 1241:Thomas Henderson 1201:stellar parallax 1158:stellar parallax 1014:celestial sphere 904: 897: 893: 890: 884: 856: 855: 848: 838:Proxima Centauri 822:Levi ben Gershon 786:geocentric model 741:Around 210 BCE, 728: 723: 717: 712: 702: 697: 659:Around 280 BCE, 576:Around 560 BCE, 569:tells that this 561:Estimated radius 371:Claudius Ptolemy 192:celestial sphere 129:immense distance 114:deep-sky objects 21: 3581: 3580: 3576: 3575: 3574: 3572: 3571: 3570: 3546: 3545: 3544: 3543: 3509: 3508: 3504: 3470: 3469: 3465: 3458: 3437: 3436: 3432: 3410: 3409: 3405: 3387: 3386: 3382: 3375: 3360: 3359: 3355: 3307: 3306: 3302: 3269: 3268: 3264: 3257: 3232: 3231: 3227: 3220: 3205: 3204: 3200: 3193: 3168: 3167: 3160: 3153: 3134: 3133: 3129: 3106:(19): 168–170. 3093: 3092: 3088: 3078: 3076: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3053:Wayback Machine 3039: 3037:Wayback Machine 3023: 3019: 3009: 3007: 3003: 2988: 2983: 2982: 2978: 2969: 2967: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2934: 2933: 2929: 2918: 2899: 2898: 2894: 2887: 2872: 2871: 2867: 2855: 2854: 2850: 2843: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2811: 2810: 2806: 2772: 2771: 2767: 2760: 2745: 2744: 2737: 2728: 2726: 2718: 2717: 2713: 2706: 2693: 2692: 2688: 2681: 2666: 2665: 2661: 2654: 2635: 2634: 2630: 2621: 2617: 2602: 2584: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2570: 2562: 2558: 2520: 2519: 2515: 2511:, p. 302]) 2507: 2503: 2496: 2486:Early astronomy 2483: 2482: 2478: 2471: 2458: 2457: 2453: 2407: 2406: 2402: 2382: 2381: 2377: 2339: 2338: 2334: 2327: 2317:Early astronomy 2314: 2313: 2309: 2299: 2295: 2279: 2275: 2260: 2243: 2242: 2238: 2204: 2203: 2199: 2184: 2165: 2164: 2155: 2140: 2127: 2126: 2119: 2108: 2104: 2090: 2086: 2077: 2073: 2064: 2057: 2042: 2029: 2028: 2009: 1994: 1981: 1980: 1973: 1957: 1956: 1952: 1946: 1925: 1924: 1920: 1902: 1901: 1897: 1882: 1865: 1864: 1849: 1834: 1821: 1820: 1799: 1784: 1771: 1770: 1766: 1756: 1755: 1751: 1736: 1723: 1722: 1711: 1706: 1701: 1605: 1586: 1526: 1515: 1509: 1506: 1495: 1481:related reading 1471: 1467: 1456: 1445: 1439: 1436: 1425: 1412: 1408: 1401: 1362: 1356: 1332:William Huggins 1312:Radial velocity 1211:. (The Sun and 1209:wandering stars 1150: 1101:Galileo Galilei 1077:William Gilbert 1061:William Gilbert 1042:Johannes Kepler 985:Greek Antiquity 967: 919:Norse mythology 914: 905: 894: 888: 885: 870: 857: 853: 846: 780:Around 130 AD, 721: 719: 710: 708: 695: 693: 651:Around 350 BCE 563: 555:Galileo Galilei 536:Astronomia nova 514:Johannes Kepler 511: 509:Johannes Kepler 500:'s (1546-1601) 495: 479: 414: 404:and astronomer 373: 346: 310: 294: 278: 251: 246: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 3579: 3577: 3569: 3568: 3563: 3558: 3548: 3547: 3542: 3541: 3502: 3463: 3456: 3430: 3403: 3380: 3373: 3353: 3300: 3262: 3255: 3225: 3218: 3198: 3191: 3158: 3151: 3145:. p. 21. 3127: 3086: 3065:"solar (adj.)" 3056: 3017: 2976: 2950: 2927: 2916: 2910:. p. 63. 2892: 2885: 2865: 2848: 2841: 2821: 2804: 2791:10.1086/354184 2785:(2): 371–372. 2765: 2758: 2735: 2711: 2704: 2686: 2679: 2659: 2652: 2628: 2615: 2600: 2577: 2568: 2556: 2529:(4): 228–231. 2513: 2501: 2494: 2476: 2469: 2451: 2416:(3): 222–225. 2400: 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