252:, arousal, and rehearsal as it pertains to accessibility. Compared to voluntary memories, involuntary memories show shorter retrieval times and little cognitive effort. Finally, involuntary memories arise due to automatic processing, which does not rely on higher-order cognitive monitoring, or executive control processing. Normally, voluntary memory would be associated with contextual information, allowing correspondence between time and place to happen. This is not true for flashbacks. According to Brewin, Lanius et, al, flashbacks, are disconnected from contextual information, and as a result are disconnected from time and place (2009).
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flashback. This has been termed the warning signal hypothesis. For example, a person may experience a flashback while seeing sun spots on their lawn. This happens because they associate the spots with the headlights of the vehicle that they saw before being involved in a car accident. According to Ehlers and Clark, traumatic memories are more apt to induce flashbacks because of faulty encoding that cause the individual to fail in taking contextual information into account, as well as time and place information that would usually be associated with everyday memories. These individuals become
380:, investigates via the administration of surveys, the extent and severity of flashbacks that occur in prisoners of war. This study concluded that the persistence of severely traumatic autobiographical memories can last up to 65 years. Until recently, the study of flashbacks has been limited to participants who already experience flashbacks, such as those suffering from PTSD, restricting researchers to observational/exploratory rather than experimental studies.
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stimulus for the event to appear as an involuntary memory. The presence of the primer increases the likelihood of the appearance of a flashback. Just as the sensory memory can result in this, it can also help erase the connections between the memory and the primer. Counter conditioning and rewriting the memory of the events that are related to the sensory cue may help dissociate the memory from the primer.
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difficult. On the other hand, involuntary recurrent memories are likely to become more available, and these are more likely to be triggered by external cues. In contrast to this, the basic mechanism view holds that the traumatic event would lead to enhanced and cohesive encoding of the event in memory, and this would make both voluntary and involuntary memories more available for subsequent recall.
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and not focus on their disruptive memories, and are taught to recognize any stimulus that may start the flashbacks. The events related to the flashbacks still mostly exist in their mind, but the meaning and the way the person perceives it is now different. According to Ehlers, this method has a high success rate with patients who have suffered from trauma.
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which the memory is organized, and also the way in which the individual later recalls the event. Overall, theories that attempt to explain the flashback phenomenon can be categorized into one of two viewpoints. The "special mechanism" view is clinically oriented in that it holds that involuntary memories are due to
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that is designed to trigger a flashback in individuals who suffer from PTSD. The investigators record the regions of the brain that are active during each of these conditions, and then subtract the activity. Whatever is left is assumed to underpin the neurological differences between the conditions.
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The psychological phenomenon has frequently been portrayed in film and television. Some of the most accurate media portrayals of flashbacks have been those related to wartime, and the association of flashbacks to PTSD caused by the traumas and stresses of war. One of the earliest screen portrayals of
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episode. In other words, people who suffer from flashbacks lose all sense of time and place, and they feel as if they are re-experiencing the event instead of just recalling a memory. This is consistent with the special mechanism viewpoint in that the involuntary memory is based on a different memory
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for the treatment of nightmares in PTSD patients found that, in some cases, the use of the synthetic cannabinoid reduced daytime flashbacks. However another study found subjects previously exposed to cannabinoids (non-synthetic), could experience cannabinoid "flashbacks" when THC stored in fat cells
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that indicated the onset of a traumatic event, or from stimuli that hold intense emotional significance to the individual simply because they were closely associated with the trauma during the time of the event. These stimuli then become warning signals that, if encountered again, serve to trigger a
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when the memory is of a traumatic event. It has also been demonstrated that the nature of the flashbacks experienced by an individual are static in that they retain an identical form upon each intrusion. This occurs even when the individual has learned new information that directly contradicts the
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There have also been treatments based on theories about the inner workings of the involuntary memory. The procedure involves changing the content of the intrusive memories and restructuring it so the negative connotations associated with it is erased. The patients are encouraged to live their lives
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Out of the three types of memory processes, long-term memory contains the greatest amount of memory storage and is involved in most of the cognitive processes. According to
Rasmuseen and Berntsen, "long-term memory processes may form the core of spontaneous thought" (2009). Thus, the memory process
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There have been many suspicions that disruptive memories may cause deficiencies in short term memories. For people who suffer from flashbacks, the hippocampus that is involved with the working memory has been damaged, supporting the theory that the working memory could have also been affected. Many
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In addition, the basic mechanism’s involuntary recall for negative events, are also associated with memories of positive events. Studies have shown that out of the participants who suffer from flashbacks, about 5 percent of them experience positive non-traumatic flashbacks. They experience the same
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Due to the elusive nature of involuntary recurrent memories, very little is known about the subjective experience of flashbacks. However, theorists agree that this phenomenon is in part due to the manner in which memories of specific events are initially encoded (or entered) into memory, the way in
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These methods have largely relied on subtractive reasoning, in which the participant first voluntarily recalls a memory before recalling the memory again through involuntary means. Involuntary memories (or flashbacks) are elicited in the participant by reading an emotionally charged script to them
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techniques have been applied to the investigation of flashbacks. Using these techniques, researchers attempt to discover the structural and functional differences in the anatomy of the brain in individuals who suffer from flashbacks compared to those who do not. Neuroimaging involves a cluster of
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What is currently an issue of controversy is the nature of the defining criteria that make up an involuntary memory. Up until recently, researchers believed that involuntary memories were a result of traumatic incidents that the individual experienced at a specific time and place, while losing all
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Episodic memory is a type of long-term memory where the involuntary memories are made up of intense autobiographical memories. As a version of declarative memory, this follows the same idea that the more personal the memory is, the more likely it will be remembered. Disruptive memories are almost
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In contrast to this, theories belonging to the basic mechanism viewpoint hold that there are no separate mechanisms that account for voluntary and involuntary memories. The recall of memories for stressful events do not differ under involuntary and voluntary recall. Instead, it is the retrieval
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events, and the memories for these events can be attributed to a special memory mechanism. On the other hand, the "basic mechanism" view is more experimentally oriented in that it is based on memory research. This view holds that traumatic memories are bound by the same parameters as all other
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Memory has typically been divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term processes. The items that are seen, or other sensory details related to an intense intrusive memory, may cause flashbacks. These sensory experiences take place just before the flashback event. They act as a conditioning
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are harder to forget. Most mental narratives tends to have varying levels of some type of emotions involved with the memory. For flashbacks, most of the emotions associated with it are negative, though it could be positive as well. These emotions are intense and makes the memory more vivid.
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These rare events elicit strong emotional reactions from the individual, since they violate normal expectations. According to the special mechanism view, the event would lead to fragmented voluntary encoding into memory, thus making the conscious subsequent retrieval of the memory much more
323:, located within the medial temporal regions, has also been highly related to memory processes. There are numerous functions in the hippocampus that includes aspects of memory consolidation. Brain imaging studies have shown flashbacks activating areas associated with memory retrieval. The
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to stimuli that they associate with the traumatic event, which then serve as triggers for a flashback, even if the context surrounding the stimulus may be unrelated. These triggers may elicit an adaptive response during the time of the traumatic experience, but they soon become
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intensity level and has the same retrieval mechanism as the people who experienced negative and/or traumatic flashbacks, which includes the vividness and the emotion related to the involuntary memory. The only difference is whether the emotion evoked is positive or negative.
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enhances this idea by suggesting two separate mechanisms that account for voluntary and involuntary memories. The first of which is called the verbally accessible memory system and the latter of which is referred as the situationally accessible memory system.
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Flashbacks are the "personal experiences that pop into your awareness, without any conscious, premeditated attempt to search and retrieve this memory". These experiences occasionally have little to no relation to the situation at hand. For those suffering
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mechanism that is different for each type of recall. In involuntary recall, the external trigger creates an uncontrolled spreading of activation in memory, whereas in voluntary recall, this activation is strictly controlled and is goal-oriented.
1345:
Tym R.; Beaumont P.; Lioulios T. (2009). "Two
Persisting Pathophysiological Visual Phenomena Following Psychological Trauma and Their Elimination With Rapid Eye Movements: A Possible Refinement of Construct of PTSD and Its Visual State Marker".
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The special mechanism viewpoint further adds to this by suggesting that these triggers activate the fragmented memory of the traumatic event, while the protective cognitive mechanisms function to inhibit the recall of the original memory.
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are commonly associated with memory. More specifically, the lobes have been linked to episodic/declarative memory, which means the damage to these areas of the brain would result in disruptions to declarative memory system. The
439:. The dorsal stream is involved in sensory processing, and therefore these activations might underlie the vivid visual experiences associated with flashbacks. The study also found reduced activation in regions such as the
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is recalled involuntarily, especially when it is so intense that the person "relives" the experience, and is unable to fully recognize it as memory of a past experience and not something that is happening in "real time".
412:. Neuroimaging studies investigating flashbacks are based on current psychological theories that are used as the foundation for the research. One of theories that is consistently investigated is the difference between
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To date, the specific causes of flashbacks have not yet been confirmed. Several studies have proposed various potential factors. Psychiatrists suggest that temporal lobe seizures may also have some relation.
778:"Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: Properties of Voluntary and Involuntary, Traumatic and Nontraumatic Autobiographical Memories in People With and Without Posttraumatic Stress Disorder Symptoms"
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mechanism compared to the voluntary counterpart. Furthermore, the initial emotions experienced at the time of encoding are also re-experienced during a flashback episode, which can be especially
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most related to flashbacks is long term memory. Additionally, other 2009 studies by
Rasmuseen and Berntsen have shown that long term memory is also susceptible to extraneous factors such as
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declared that studying such fragile things as involuntary memories should not be done. This appears to have been followed, since very little research has been done on flashbacks in the
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Swick, D., Cayton, J., Ashley, V., & Turken, A. U. (2017). Dissociation
Between Working Memory Performance and Proactive Interference Control in Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder.
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Long term memory is composed of the systems used to store memory over long periods. It enables one to remember what happened two days ago at noon, or who called last night.
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Suzuki, J.; Halpern, J. H.; Passie, T. & Huertas, P. E. (2009). "Pharmacology and treatment of substance abuse: Evidence- and outcome-based perspectives" (Monograph).
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Imaging studies looking at patients with PTSD as they undergo flashback experiences have identified elevated activation in regions of the dorsal stream including the mid-
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Högberg G, Nardo D, Hällström T, Pagani M. (2011) Affective psychotherapy in post-traumatic reactions guided by affective neuroscience: memory reconsolidation and play.
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Bernsten D.; Rubin D. (2002). "Emotionally
Charged Autobiographical Memories Across the Life Span:The Recall of Happy, Sad, Traumatic, and Involuntary Memories".
331:, have also been implicated in memory retrieval. In addition, studies have shown activity in areas of the prefrontal cortex to be involved in memory retrieval.
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always associated with a familiar stimulus that quickly becomes stronger through the process of consolidation and reconsolidation. The major difference is that
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Ehlers A.; Hackmann A.; Steil R.; Clohessy S.; Wenninger K.; Winter H. (2002). "The nature of intrusive memories after trauma: The warning signal hypothesis".
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discipline. However, flashbacks have been studied within a clinical discipline, and they have been identified as symptoms for many disorders, including PTSD.
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Rintamaki L. S.; Weaver F. M.; Elbaum P. L.; Klama E. M.; Miskevics S. A. (2009). "Persistence of traumatic memories in World War II prisoners of war".
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Whalley, M. G., Kroes, M. C. W., Huntley, Z., Rugg, M. D., Davis, S. W., & Brewin, C. R. (2013). An fMRI investigation of posttraumatic flashbacks.
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studies were conducted to test this theory and all results concluded that intrusive memory does not affect the short-term memory or the working memory.
420:. This distinction dictates the manner in which memories are later recalled, namely either consciously (voluntarily) or unconsciously (involuntarily).
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in which an individual has a sudden, usually powerful, re-experiencing of a past experience or elements of a past experience. These experiences can be
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Conversely, several ideas have been discounted in terms of being a possible cause to flashbacks. Tym et al., 2009, suggest this list includes
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Ehlers A.; Hackmann A.; Michael T. (2004). "Intrusive Re-Experiencing in post-traumatic stress disorder: Phenomenology, theory and therapy".
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1617:"Reintoxication: the release of fat-stored D9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) into blood is enhanced by food deprivation or ACTH exposure"
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every-day memories. Both viewpoints agree that involuntary recurrent memories result from rare events that would not normally occur.
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1568:"The use of a synthetic cannabinoid in the management of treatment-resistant nightmares in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)"
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Decreasing the intensity of the emotion associated with an intrusive memory may reduce the memory to a calmer episodic memory.
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Flashbacks are often associated with mental illness as they are a symptom and a feature in diagnostic criteria for PTSD,
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506:." The effect of certain drugs on flashbacks may involve a variety of factors. For example, a study on the use of the
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and posterior cingulate gyrus have all been implicated in flashbacks in accordance to their roles on memory retrieval.
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Van der Kolk B. A.; van der Hart O. (1991). "The intrusive past: the flexibility of memory and the engraving trauma".
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Sensory memory is made up of a brief storage of information within a specific medium (the line you see after waving a
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Hall, N. M.; Berntsen, D. (2008). "The effect of emotional stress on involuntary and voluntary conscious memories".
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Some researchers have suggested that the use of some drugs can cause a person to experience flashbacks. Users of
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Brewin C. R.; Dalgleish T.; Joseph S. (1996). "A dual representation theory of post-traumatic stress disorder".
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Ribhi H, Cadet JL, Kahook MY, Saed D (2009). "Ocular
Manifestations of Crystal Methamphetamine Use".
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1050:"Source memory errors associated with reports of posttraumatic flashbacks: A proof of concept study"
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if the person continues to respond in the same way to situations in which no danger may be present.
105:) processes that function independently of each other. Theories and research on memory date back to
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Upon further investigation, it was found that involuntary memories are usually derived from either
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Several brain regions have been implicated in the neurological basis of flashbacks. The medial
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Short term memory is made up of the information currently in use to complete the task at hand.
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Ball C.; Little J. (2006). "A Comparison of
Involuntary Autobiographical Memory Retrievals".
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Gunasekaran N, Long L, Dawson B, Hansen G, Richardson D, Li K, Arnold J, McGregor I (2009).
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Squire, L. R., Stark, C. E. L., & Clark, R. E. (2004). The Medial
Temporal Lobe.
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Involuntary autobiographical memories : an introduction to the unbidden past
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are the most typically referenced with regards to involuntary memories.
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the temporal and spatial features of the event during an involuntary
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471:(OCD). Flashbacks have also been observed in people suffering from
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Psychological phenomenon in which a person re-experiences a memory
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Brewin, C.; Gregory, J.; Lipton, M. & Burgess, N. (2010).
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94:(PTSD), flashbacks can significantly disrupt everyday life.
327:, located in the superior parietal lobe, and the posterior
113:. Ebbinghaus classified three distinct classes of memory:
1211:"Reformulating PTSD for DSM-V: Life After Criterion A."
1314:
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144130
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in your field of vision is created by sensory memory).
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A study of the persistence of traumatic memories in
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Thus, the medial temporal lobe, precuneus, superior
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1444:"An fMRI investigation of posttraumatic flashbacks"
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692:Baddeley, A.; Eysneck, M.; Anderson, M. (2009).
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1088:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2012.05.002
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182:information retained in the intrusive memory.
2700:
1700:
885:
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511:re-enters the bloodstream through lipolysis.
8:
1030:
1028:
1026:
2831:The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two
1419:
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1415:
1334:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.002
1285:Psychology Research and Behavior Management
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769:
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536:Hallucinogen persisting perception disorder
455:from reality during flashback experiences.
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1437:
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760:https://doi.org/10.1007/s13164-016-0326-z
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65:. The term is used particularly when the
459:Relations to mental illness and drug use
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3695:Symptoms and signs of mental disorders
1548:
1537:
1162:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.01.005
291:The hippocampus is highlighted in red.
1099:
1097:
776:Rubin D, Boals A, Berntsen D (2008).
7:
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18:Flashback (psychological phenomenon)
1572:CNS Neuroscience & Therapeutics
408:(including functional), as well as
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97:Memory is divided into voluntary (
25:
3112:Deese–Roediger–McDermott paradigm
447:which are involved in processing
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1916:
1633:10.1111/j.1476-5381.2009.00399.x
1584:10.1111/j.1755-5949.2008.00071.x
1390:10.1111/j.1532-5415.2009.02608.x
234:Short-term memory/working memory
1621:British Journal of Pharmacology
1428:. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.
1066:10.1016/j.cognition.2012.05.002
283:Mid sagittal cut of human brain
3322:Atkinson–Shiffrin memory model
3195:Memory and social interactions
1001:. Cambridge University Press.
927:Behaviour Research and Therapy
892:Behaviour Research and Therapy
366:, dissociative phenomena, and
92:post-traumatic stress disorder
1:
2012:Industrial and organizational
1306:Annual Review of Neuroscience
939:10.1016/S0005-7967(01)00077-8
904:10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00123-0
696:. New York: Psychology Press.
469:obsessive-compulsive disorder
3031:Retrieval-induced forgetting
2253:Human factors and ergonomics
1566:Fraser G. A. (Spring 2009).
1184:Applied Cognitive Psychology
662:Applied Cognitive Psychology
402:positron emission tomography
36:involuntary recurrent memory
1460:10.1016/j.bandc.2012.10.002
1218:Journal of Traumatic Stress
974:10.1037/0033-295x.103.4.670
388:Neuroimaging investigations
3711:
3369:Levels of Processing model
3294:World Memory Championships
3127:Lost in the mall technique
2974:dissociative (psychogenic)
995:Berntsen, Dorthe. (2012).
582:10.1037/0882-7974.17.4.636
406:magnetic resonance imaging
368:depersonalization syndrome
205:Dual representation theory
3640:
2639:
1942:Applied behavior analysis
1914:
1722:
1505:10.1007/s12640-009-9019-z
1122:10.1027/0044-3409/a000021
839:10.1080/09658210701333271
726:10.1080/09658210444000025
520:this is in the 1945 film
305:posterior cingulate gyrus
61:, or any number of other
3407:The Seven Sins of Memory
3352:Intermediate-term memory
3157:Indirect tests of memory
3134:Recovered-memory therapy
3084:Misattribution of memory
1360:10.1177/1534765609335521
441:inferior temporal cortex
437:supplementary motor area
3094:Source-monitoring error
2218:Behavioral neuroscience
1782:Behavioral neuroscience
398:computerized tomography
356:Charles Bonnet syndrome
342:Clinical investigations
3501:George Armitage Miller
3461:Patricia Goldman-Rakic
2268:Psychology of religion
2208:Behavioral engineering
2145:Human subject research
1801:Cognitive neuroscience
1767:Affective neuroscience
1547:Cite journal requires
1493:Neurotoxicity Research
1048:Chris, Brewin (2012).
485:near-death experiences
410:magnetoencephalography
396:techniques, including
292:
284:
86:
3664:Philosophy portal
3652:Psychology portal
3516:Henry L. Roediger III
3117:False memory syndrome
3089:Misinformation effect
3069:Imagination inflation
2644:Wiktionary definition
2180:Self-report inventory
2175:Quantitative research
1668:Mildred Pierce (1945)
465:acute stress disorder
354:or other substances,
290:
282:
109:, who began studying
81:
3690:Psychological stress
3021:Motivated forgetting
2170:Qualitative research
2125:Behavior epigenetics
1424:Mace, J. H. (2007).
962:Psychological Review
614:Psychological Review
570:Psychology and Aging
433:primary motor cortex
148:cognitive psychology
3531:Arthur P. Shimamura
3431:Richard C. Atkinson
3248:Effects of exercise
3122:Memory implantation
3006:Interference theory
2922:Selective retention
2902:Meaningful learning
2649:Wiktionary category
2213:Behavioral genetics
2185:Statistical surveys
2042:Occupational health
1777:Behavioral genetics
1448:Brain and Cognition
1326:Brain and Cognition
1293:10.2147/prbm.s10380
1266:Curr Psychiatry Rep
1104:Ehlers, A. (2010).
758:8, 557–571 (2017).
101:) and involuntary (
3628:Andriy Slyusarchuk
3451:Hermann Ebbinghaus
3357:Involuntary memory
3258:Memory improvement
3243:Effects of alcohol
3205:Transactive memory
3183:Politics of memory
3152:Exceptional memory
2621:Schools of thought
2524:Richard E. Nisbett
2404:Donald T. Campbell
2082:Sport and exercise
1664:Dirks, T. (2009).
1426:Involuntary Memory
1038:. Boston: Pearson.
502:sometimes report "
489:epileptic seizures
293:
285:
263:intrusive thoughts
144:Miller (1962–1974)
111:nonsense syllables
107:Hermann Ebbinghaus
87:
83:Hermann Ebbinghaus
3672:
3671:
3636:
3635:
3623:Cosmos Rossellius
3471:Marcia K. Johnson
3342:Exosomatic memory
3327:Context-dependent
3317:Absent-mindedness
3200:Memory conformity
3178:Collective memory
3079:Memory conformity
3016:Memory inhibition
2935:
2934:
2927:Tip of the tongue
2682:
2681:
2659:Wikimedia Commons
2586:Counseling topics
2549:Ronald C. Kessler
2539:Shelley E. Taylor
2464:Lawrence Kohlberg
2439:Stanley Schachter
2238:Consumer behavior
2120:Archival research
1888:Psycholinguistics
1772:Affective science
1384:(12): 2257–2262.
1230:10.1002/jts.20443
1034:Pinel, J. (2009)
1008:978-1-107-40598-1
309:prefrontal cortex
16:(Redirected from
3702:
3662:
3661:
3660:
3650:
3649:
3648:
3603:Jonathan Hancock
3556:Robert Stickgold
3526:Richard Shiffrin
3481:Elizabeth Loftus
3421:
3337:Childhood memory
3144:Research methods
3026:Repressed memory
3001:Forgetting curve
2989:transient global
2860:Autobiographical
2770:
2709:
2702:
2695:
2686:
2616:Research methods
2559:Richard Davidson
2554:Joseph E. LeDoux
2429:George A. Miller
2419:David McClelland
2414:Herbert A. Simon
2314:Edward Thorndike
2135:Content analysis
1920:
1893:Psychophysiology
1709:
1702:
1695:
1686:
1674:
1673:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1644:
1627:(5): 1330–1337.
1612:
1606:
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1275:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1253:
1252:
1246:
1240:. Archived from
1215:
1206:
1200:
1199:
1196:10.1002/acp.1615
1190:(8): 1137–1152.
1179:
1164:
1154:Neuropsychologia
1150:
1144:
1143:
1133:
1101:
1092:
1091:
1086:– via doi:
1077:
1045:
1039:
1032:
1021:
1020:
992:
986:
985:
957:
951:
950:
933:(9): 1021–1028.
922:
916:
915:
887:
878:
877:
865:
859:
858:
822:
816:
815:
805:
794:10.1037/a0013165
773:
762:
752:
746:
745:
709:
698:
697:
689:
678:
677:
674:10.1002/acp.1264
668:(9): 1167–1179.
657:
648:
647:
637:
626:10.1037/a0018113
605:
594:
593:
565:
473:bipolar disorder
378:prisoners of war
243:Long-term memory
145:
123:long-term memory
21:
3710:
3709:
3705:
3704:
3703:
3701:
3700:
3699:
3675:
3674:
3673:
3668:
3658:
3656:
3646:
3644:
3632:
3613:Dominic O'Brien
3591:
3560:
3541:Susumu Tonegawa
3521:Daniel Schacter
3496:Eleanor Maguire
3486:Geoffrey Loftus
3441:Stephen J. Ceci
3436:Robert A. Bjork
3412:
3331:state-dependent
3305:
3277:
3209:
3190:Cultural memory
3166:
3162:Memory disorder
3138:
3098:
3040:
2931:
2841:
2816:
2761:
2718:
2713:
2683:
2678:
2635:
2611:Psychotherapies
2572:
2529:Martin Seligman
2494:Daniel Kahneman
2434:Richard Lazarus
2384:Raymond Cattell
2288:
2279:
2278:
2277:
2189:
2101:
1928:
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1873:Neuropsychology
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824:
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756:Rev.Phil.Psych.
753:
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607:
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597:
567:
566:
549:
544:
532:
517:
504:acid flashbacks
493:substance abuse
461:
445:parahippocampus
418:implicit memory
390:
344:
329:cingulate gyrus
277:
272:
258:
256:Episodic memory
245:
236:
227:
222:
156:
143:
76:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
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5:
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3608:Paul R. McHugh
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3466:Ivan Izquierdo
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3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3071:
3066:
3064:Hindsight bias
3061:
3056:
3050:
3048:
3042:
3041:
3039:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3011:Memory erasure
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2992:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2969:post-traumatic
2966:
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2945:
2943:
2937:
2936:
2933:
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2930:
2929:
2924:
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2909:
2907:Personal-event
2904:
2899:
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2883:
2882:
2877:
2872:
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2857:
2851:
2849:
2843:
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2840:
2839:
2837:Working memory
2834:
2826:
2824:
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2815:
2814:
2809:
2807:Motor learning
2804:
2799:
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2763:
2762:
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2726:
2724:
2723:Basic concepts
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2569:Roy Baumeister
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2531:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2504:Michael Posner
2501:
2496:
2491:
2489:Elliot Aronson
2486:
2484:Walter Mischel
2481:
2476:
2471:
2466:
2461:
2456:
2451:
2449:Albert Bandura
2446:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2426:
2424:Leon Festinger
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2396:
2394:Neal E. Miller
2391:
2389:Abraham Maslow
2386:
2381:
2376:
2374:Ernest Hilgard
2371:
2369:Donald O. Hebb
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2349:J. P. Guilford
2346:
2344:Gordon Allport
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2324:John B. Watson
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2115:Animal testing
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1818:Cross-cultural
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1681:External links
1679:
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1558:
1549:|journal=
1526:
1499:(2): 187–191.
1483:
1454:(1): 151–159.
1431:
1411:
1365:
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1332:(1), 151–159.
1317:
1312:(1), 279–306.
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1224:(5): 366–373.
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1036:Biopsyschology
1022:
1007:
987:
968:(4): 670–686.
952:
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898:(4): 319–345.
879:
870:American Imago
860:
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788:(4): 591–614.
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523:Mildred Pierce
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429:occipital lobe
389:
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364:hallucinations
343:
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316:temporal lobes
297:temporal lobes
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3551:Endel Tulving
3549:
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3456:Sigmund Freud
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3379:Muscle memory
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3226:Art of memory
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3074:Memory biases
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3054:Confabulation
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3046:Memory errors
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2964:post-hypnotic
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2917:Rote learning
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2900:
2898:
2895:
2893:
2892:Hyperthymesia
2890:
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2876:
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2871:
2868:
2867:
2866:
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2856:
2855:Active recall
2853:
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2752:Consolidation
2750:
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2609:
2607:
2606:Psychologists
2604:
2602:
2599:
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2596:Organizations
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2584:
2583:
2581:
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2570:
2567:
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2560:
2557:
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2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2544:John Anderson
2542:
2540:
2537:
2535:
2532:
2530:
2527:
2525:
2522:
2520:
2517:
2515:
2512:
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2502:
2500:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2490:
2487:
2485:
2482:
2480:
2477:
2475:
2474:Ulric Neisser
2472:
2470:
2467:
2465:
2462:
2460:
2459:Endel Tulving
2457:
2455:
2452:
2450:
2447:
2445:
2444:Robert Zajonc
2442:
2440:
2437:
2435:
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2430:
2427:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
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2400:
2399:Jerome Bruner
2397:
2395:
2392:
2390:
2387:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:B. F. Skinner
2362:
2360:
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2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
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2330:
2329:Clark L. Hull
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2309:Sigmund Freud
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2299:William James
2297:
2295:
2294:Wilhelm Wundt
2292:
2290:
2287:
2286:Psychologists
2282:
2274:
2273:Psychometrics
2271:
2269:
2266:
2264:
2261:
2259:
2256:
2254:
2251:
2249:
2246:
2244:
2241:
2239:
2236:
2234:
2233:Consciousness
2231:
2229:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2219:
2216:
2214:
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2206:
2204:
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2200:
2196:
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2181:
2178:
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2173:
2171:
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2166:
2165:Psychophysics
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2161:
2158:
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2107:Methodologies
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2098:
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2093:
2090:
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2078:
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2067:Psychotherapy
2065:
2063:
2062:Psychometrics
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2058:
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2040:
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2023:
2020:
2018:
2015:
2013:
2010:
2008:
2005:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
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1985:
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1980:
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1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
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1940:
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1934:
1932:
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1924:
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1856:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
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1836:
1834:
1831:
1829:
1828:Developmental
1826:
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1816:
1814:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1803:
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1247:on 2021-05-03
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1123:
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1111:
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991:
988:
983:
979:
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948:
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932:
928:
921:
918:
913:
909:
905:
901:
897:
893:
886:
884:
880:
876:(4): 425–454.
875:
871:
864:
861:
856:
852:
848:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
821:
818:
813:
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772:
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583:
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541:
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385:
381:
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371:
369:
365:
361:
357:
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348:
341:
339:
337:
336:parietal lobe
332:
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322:
317:
312:
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306:
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298:
289:
281:
274:
269:
267:
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138:
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128:
127:
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120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
95:
93:
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80:
73:
71:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
41:
40:psychological
37:
33:
19:
3618:Ben Pridmore
3536:Larry Squire
3446:Susan Clancy
3405:
3361:
3289:Memory sport
3214:Other topics
3104:False memory
3059:Cryptomnesia
3036:Weapon focus
2996:Decay theory
2757:Neuroanatomy
2716:Human memory
2519:Larry Squire
2514:Bruce McEwen
2509:Amos Tversky
2479:Jerome Kagan
2469:Noam Chomsky
2409:Hans Eysenck
2379:Harry Harlow
2359:Erik Erikson
2258:Intelligence
2155:Neuroimaging
1898:Quantitative
1863:Mathematical
1858:Intelligence
1848:Experimental
1843:Evolutionary
1833:Differential
1742:Psychologist
1667:
1659:
1624:
1620:
1610:
1578:(1): 84–88.
1575:
1571:
1561:
1540:cite journal
1529:
1496:
1492:
1486:
1451:
1447:
1425:
1381:
1377:
1351:
1348:Traumatology
1347:
1340:
1329:
1325:
1320:
1309:
1305:
1300:
1284:
1279:
1268:
1265:
1260:
1249:. Retrieved
1242:the original
1221:
1217:
1204:
1187:
1183:
1153:
1148:
1113:
1109:
1057:
1053:
1043:
1035:
997:
990:
965:
961:
955:
930:
926:
920:
895:
891:
873:
869:
863:
833:(1): 48–57.
830:
826:
820:
785:
781:
755:
750:
717:
713:
693:
665:
661:
617:
613:
573:
569:
521:
518:
497:
481:homesickness
462:
453:dissociation
426:
422:
393:Neuroimaging
391:
382:
375:World War II
372:
349:
345:
333:
313:
294:
270:Neuroscience
259:
246:
237:
228:
214:
210:
201:
184:
174:recollection
170:
166:
157:
142:
96:
88:
35:
31:
29:
3476:Eric Kandel
3424:Researchers
3396:Prospective
3347:Free recall
3301:Shas Pollak
2954:anterograde
2870:Declarative
2591:Disciplines
2564:Susan Fiske
2454:Roger Brown
2354:Carl Rogers
2339:Jean Piaget
2304:Ivan Pavlov
2160:Observation
2140:Experiments
2087:Suicidology
1982:Educational
1937:Anomalistic
1908:Theoretical
1883:Personality
1813:Comparative
1796:Cognitivism
1787:Behaviorism
1156:, 111-121.
449:allocentric
321:hippocampus
314:The medial
197:maladaptive
179:distressing
103:unconscious
85:(1850–1909)
3679:Categories
3511:Lynn Nadel
3389:intertrial
3374:Metamemory
3362:flashbacks
3282:In society
2979:retrograde
2941:Forgetting
2912:Procedural
2822:Short-term
2792:Eyewitness
2654:Wikisource
2499:Paul Ekman
2334:Kurt Lewin
2228:Competence
2150:Interviews
2130:Case study
2007:Humanistic
1987:Ergonomics
1972:Counseling
1947:Assessment
1929:psychology
1878:Perception
1838:Ecological
1754:psychology
1732:Philosophy
1716:Psychology
1251:2020-06-04
542:References
477:depression
360:palinopsia
358:, delayed
352:medication
192:sensitized
119:short-term
43:phenomenon
3263:Nutrition
3171:In groups
2984:selective
2959:childhood
2887:Flashbulb
2847:Long-term
2747:Attention
2674:Wikibooks
2664:Wikiquote
2534:Ed Diener
2319:Carl Jung
2223:Cognition
2052:Political
1962:Community
1792:Cognitive
1354:(3): 23.
1287:, 87–96.
1110:Z Psychol
1054:Cognition
1017:784577389
325:precuneus
301:precuneus
220:Cognition
161:traumatic
99:conscious
47:frightful
32:flashback
3565:Patients
3236:mnemonic
3231:chunking
2897:Implicit
2880:Semantic
2875:Episodic
2865:Explicit
2730:Encoding
2669:Wikinews
2626:Timeline
2248:Feelings
2243:Emotions
2203:Behavior
2194:Concepts
2072:Religion
2057:Positive
2047:Pastoral
2032:Military
1997:Forensic
1992:Feminist
1977:Critical
1967:Consumer
1957:Coaching
1952:Clinical
1927:Applied
1823:Cultural
1762:Abnormal
1651:19681888
1602:19228182
1521:19375623
1513:19384581
1478:23207576
1406:39278957
1398:20121989
1238:19743480
1140:22095462
1084:22658646
947:12296496
912:10761279
855:24475736
847:17852728
812:18999355
742:20444900
734:15487537
644:20063969
590:12507360
530:See also
508:Nabilone
414:explicit
307:and the
131:sparkler
63:emotions
59:exciting
3384:Priming
3310:Related
3253:Emotion
2949:Amnesia
2787:Eidetic
2774:Sensory
2735:Storage
2601:Outline
2097:Traffic
2092:Systems
2027:Medical
1853:Gestalt
1727:History
1642:2782342
1593:6494011
1469:3549493
1131:3072671
1075:3396838
982:8888651
803:2597428
635:2834572
515:Culture
275:Anatomy
187:stimuli
115:sensory
74:History
38:, is a
3685:Memory
3417:People
3402:memory
3333:memory
3273:Trauma
2812:Visual
2802:Iconic
2797:Haptic
2782:Echoic
2740:Recall
2631:Topics
2077:School
2002:Health
1903:Social
1806:Social
1752:Basic
1737:Portal
1649:
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1005:
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827:Memory
810:
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714:Memory
694:Memory
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491:, and
467:, and
435:, and
303:, the
299:, the
154:Theory
121:, and
67:memory
3596:Other
3268:Sleep
3221:Aging
2766:Types
2578:Lists
2037:Music
2022:Media
2017:Legal
1868:Moral
1517:S2CID
1402:S2CID
1245:(PDF)
1214:(PDF)
851:S2CID
738:S2CID
51:happy
34:, or
3398:and
3329:and
2263:Mind
1647:PMID
1598:PMID
1553:help
1509:PMID
1474:PMID
1394:PMID
1234:PMID
1136:PMID
1080:PMID
1013:OCLC
1003:ISBN
978:PMID
943:PMID
908:PMID
843:PMID
808:PMID
730:PMID
640:PMID
586:PMID
443:and
416:and
1637:PMC
1629:doi
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1588:PMC
1580:doi
1501:doi
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670:doi
630:PMC
622:doi
618:117
578:doi
500:LSD
55:sad
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