41:
1374:. In other open syllables, /æ/ tends to stay lax, regardless of the following consonant. (Contrasting that with the distinction between /ɒ/ and /ɔ/, Labov et al. reported that, in New York City, /sæd/ and /sɛəd/ were heard as the same word, but /sɒd/ and /sɔd/ were heard as two different words, suggesting minimal pairs of /æ/ and /ɛə/ to be not as likely in New York City as in Philadelphia.)
2285:
is raised and diphthongized in all possible environments: a "general raising" system. The Inland North dialect is spoken in such areas as
Chicago, Cleveland, Detroit, Buffalo, Rochester, and Syracuse. However, a reversal of the raising (except before nasal consonants) has been observed in at least
1733:
Labov finds the New York split system in New
Orleans with similar variations. As in older Cincinnati, tensing may also occur before voiced fricatives. As in Northern New Jersey, the function constraint is virtually absent. However, closer to the split of New York City proper, the open syllable
1222:
split), the terms "raising" and "tensing" can be used interchangeably. Phonemic tensing occurs in the dialects of New York City and the Mid-Atlantic States (centering on the cities of
Philadelphia and Baltimore). It is similar in its word patterns but not in its resulting pronunciation to the
1711:
Labov finds the remnants of the New York split system present in the now-declining traditional dialect of
Cincinnati, with similar variations to Northern New Jersey and Albany. Like in Albany, the open-syllable constraint is completely absent. However, the function word
2130:
occupy a continuum of varying degrees of height and tenseness between both extremes, with a variety of phonetic and phonological factors interacting (sometimes differently in different dialects) to determine the height and tenseness of any particular example of
1658:
Like in
Northern New Jersey, Labov finds that the New York split system has also diffused in Albany with some alterations. Although the function is lost in Northern New Jersey, Labov reports that the function constraint is weakened only in Albany. Thus,
237:
856:
is either tense or lax, with no intermediate realizations. However, in both of these types of system, the degree of raising depends on the context in which the vowel appears, meaning all degrees of tensing are
379:
2387:, Volume 76, Number 1. pp. 3-29 (Article). Duke University Press. p. 11: "The vowel /æ/ is generally tensed and raised only before nasals, a raising environment for most speakers of North American English".
1195:
1105:
169:
1152:
1023:
980:
143:
843:
834:
117:
65:
91:
1254:
tensing in that it occurs before voiceless fricatives in the same syllable and before nasals in certain environments, and both phenomena involve replacement of the short lax vowel
372:
2763:
2067:, regardless of whether there is a syllabic or morphemic boundary present. The nasal system is found in several separate and unrelated dialect regions, including the southern
2409:
365:
2122:
is usually raised and tensed to before nasals, but instead of a sharp divide between a high, tense allophone before nasals and a low, lax one before other consonants,
3061:
3013:
1588:
The New York City split system has also diffused, often with slightly different conditioning, into Albany, Cincinnati, New
Orleans, and nearby parts of New Jersey.
157:
1719:
Labov further reports consistently laxing before /g/. In New York, tensing before voiced fricatives is variable, but it is reported as consistent in
Cincinnati.
1679:
may be lax. Also, the open syllable constraint is variable in
Northern New Jersey, but Labov reports that in Albany, that constraint is absent altogether. Thus,
168:
142:
131:
116:
64:
90:
105:
53:
1324:
as a result of a phonemic split. The distribution between /æ/ and /ɛə/ is largely predictable. In New York City, tensing occurs uniformly in closed
79:
1600:—by Hoboken, Weehawken, and Jersey City—and in Newark also, Labov finds the split to occur with no more variation than in New York City itself.
1280:
is lengthened to in some conditions. The most significant differences from the
Philadelphia system described here are that dialects that split
872:
In certain traditional regional dialects of
American English, however, including the New York City and Philadelphia ones, using a tense short-
2870:
819:) tensing can manifest in a variety of possible ways, including "continuous", discrete, and phonemic ("split"). In a continuous system, the
2774:
2994:
2914:
473:
657:
598:
576:
567:
522:
466:
324:
929:
that use the Philadelphia and General American accents for reference as, respectively, phonemic and non-phonemic accents:
335:, a transcription that will be used throughout this article as a generalized representation of the tensed pronunciation.
2055:" into two contrasting phonemes, which the New York, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and Yat accents do. A common form is what
743:
441:
2274:
1758:
system than New York City, but it is similar in that it is also a split system. Tensing does not occur before voiced
2159:
2114:" before nasal consonants but has a less-extreme raising of the tongue than the "nasal system". Most varieties of
2921:. Proceedings of the Annual Meetings on Phonology. Vol. 3. Washington, D.C.: Linguistic Society of America.
2139:
451:
446:
431:
1607:, Labov finds that speakers typically lose the city's function word constraint before nasal consonants. Thus,
1596:
In Northern New Jersey, Labov finds the New York City split system, though with some variability. East of the
294:
that occurs only in certain phonological environments or certain words. The most common context for tensing
31:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2339:
2335:
2327:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2282:
2266:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2222:
2202:
2186:
2179:
2155:
2147:
2143:
2132:
2127:
2119:
2084:
2060:
2044:
2040:
2032:
2019:
2005:
2001:
1988:
1984:
1974:
1955:
1951:
1933:
1929:
1912:
1908:
1894:
1889:
Philadelphia/Baltimore exceptions include the New York exceptions listed above, as well as the following:
1881:
1873:
1863:
1855:
1845:
1837:
1827:
1819:
1809:
1801:
1791:
1785:
1763:
1743:
1739:
1647:
1632:
1624:
1577:
1573:
1569:
1557:
1545:
1523:
1515:
1502:
1494:
1481:
1473:
1463:
1447:
1425:
1403:
1395:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1344:
1333:
1329:
1321:
1313:
1297:
1293:
1277:
1263:
1255:
1251:
1232:
1207:
1186:
1181:
1143:
1138:
1096:
1091:
1061:
1056:
1014:
1009:
971:
966:
902:
894:
853:
849:
823:
816:
792:
788:
770:
766:
737:
629:
609:
586:
553:
531:
508:
484:
394:
388:
351:
343:
339:
318:
299:
295:
275:
270:
200:
2822:
2185:
For speakers in much of Canada and in the North-Central and the Northwestern United States, a following
2099:
1778:. Here are further examples that are true for Philadelphia and Baltimore, as well as for New York City:
749:
1635:. Labov also reports variable tensing in open syllables, resulting in potential tensing of words like
3022:
881:
741:
655:
596:
574:
565:
520:
426:
322:
283:
2401:
2917:. In Hansson, Gunnar Ólafur; Farris-Trimble, Ashley; McMullin, Kevin; Pulleyblank, Douglas (eds.).
2072:
1728:
436:
416:
258:
3006:"The articulatory dynamics of pre-velar and pre-nasal /æ/-raising in English: An ultrasound study"
3005:
2966:
2958:
2901:
2303:
2291:
2174:
area have been reported to have a system that is very similar to the phonemic split of New York.
355:
287:
1270:
3040:
2990:
2866:
2830:
Proceedings of the 15th Australasian International Conference on Speech Science and Technology
2342:, it is only the first element that is variably raised, the second element remains unchanged.
2287:
876:
vowel rather than a lax one could actually change the identity of a word, meaning that "short
329:, etc., which can depend on the particular dialect or even speaker. One common realization is
3030:
2950:
2922:
2893:
2418:
2163:
2115:
1735:
1597:
458:
421:
266:
262:
223:
195:
2771:
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics 22.2: Selected Papers from NWAV 44
1734:
constraint is still retained. Also, the tense variant appears to always be present before
1292:
phenomenon, which then prevents the split; 'sad' is long; and lengthening can occur before
2238:
2087:
being the greatest and speakers with the nasal system being most concentrated, in eastern
2064:
1309:
1228:
1224:
411:
303:
2367:. For example, a word like 'Ben' would be pronounced , while 'ban' would be pronounced .
3026:
2982:
2234:
1970:
1897:
in an open syllable gets truncated to a single closed syllable, the vowel remains lax:
1759:
1351:
2318:
in General American and RP) may be raised to before nasal consonants. In the case of
3055:
2978:
2905:
2696:
2092:
2056:
1966:
1604:
1385:
1381:
2855:
2970:
2935:
2348:
2278:
1130:
922:
2799:
2345:
For some speakers this raising is substantial, yet for others it is nonexistent.
167:
141:
115:
89:
63:
2171:
2146:
raising at all but uses what has been called the "Southern drawl" instead, with
2118:
English fall under that category. The system resembles the nasal system in that
2088:
2031:
Most American and many Canadian English speakers, at the very least, display an
880:" sound has been split into two distinct phonemes. For instance, in traditional
1276:
of Australian English and some Southern British dialects in which a short flat
2856:"More velar than /g/: Consonant Coarticulation as a Cause of Diphthongization"
2622:
2620:
2423:
2151:
2123:
2051:, which are otherwise lower and laxer. However, they fail to split the "short
1340:
186:
2897:
2865:. Somerville, Massachusetts: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. pp. 60–68.
2383:
Boberg, Charles (Spring 2001). "Phonological Status of Western New England".
2230:
2226:
2036:
1337:
858:
291:
278:
3044:
2823:"Phonologisation of vowel duration and nasalised /æ/ in Australian English"
2954:
2926:
2063:
is raised and tensed most severely but not necessarily exclusively before
2083:, but it is most prominent, the difference between the two allophones of
1534:
Words with initial /æ/ are usually lax, except for the most common words
1411:
1325:
331:
2962:
1466:, the vowel remains tense even though it now stands in an open syllable
2764:"Reversal and re-organization of the Northern Cities Shift in Michigan"
2167:
2107:
2076:
2068:
1317:
1285:
1236:
1048:
889:
885:
866:
820:
3035:
17:
2762:
Wagner, S. E.; Mason, A.; Nesbitt, M.; Pevan, E.; Savage, M. (2016).
2528:
2526:
2103:
2080:
1459:
1348:
354:⟩ in General American) before nasal consonants also occurs in
2881:
2863:
Proceedings of the 26th West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics
921:) that differ in only a single differentiating sound is known as a
1455:
830:, can be pronounced on a continuum from a lax-vowel pronunciation
218:
2919:
Supplemental Proceedings of the 2015 Annual Meeting on Phonology
2882:"Regional phonetic differentiation in Standard Canadian English"
901:(as in "He was manning the vehicle") uses the tense vowel as in
2501:
2499:
905:. Therefore, such dialects have a phonemic split of the "short
852:-tensing system, there is no continuum; any given instance of
848:, depending on the context in which it appears. In a discrete
3004:
Mielke, Jeff; Carignan, Christopher; Thomas, Erik R. (2017).
2800:"Reversal of the Northern Cities Shift in Syracuse, New York"
302:, regardless of dialect, is when this vowel appears before a
2154:. However, many speakers from the South still use the nasal
2110:
is a "continuous system", which also revolves around "short
1977:, even in an environment which would usually cause tensing:
39:
925:. Here are further examples of minimal pairs of the short
2286:
some communities in which it has been studied, including
807:
Distinction between phonemic and non-phonemic /æ/ raising
761:
In New York City, certain lexical exceptions exist (like
226:
2804:
University of Pennsylvania Working Papers in Linguistics
2543:
2541:
682:
In New York City and Philadelphia, most function words (
2486:
2484:
2482:
317:
The realization of this "tense" (as opposed to "lax")
2854:
Baker, Adam; Mielke, Jeff; Archangeli, Diana (2008).
2587:
752:, mainly predominant in Canada and the American West.
27:
American and Canadian English phonological phenomenon
2725:
1432:
Abbreviated words or personal names are usually lax
1258:
with a longer and tenser vowel. However, the "broad
1242:" phoneme from words that elsewhere retain a "short
2225:as much as or more than a following nasal does. In
2861:. In Chang, Charles B.; Haynie, Hannah J. (eds.).
2351:has become the main perceptual difference between
913:system". The relationship between two words (like
2410:Journal of the International Phonetic Association
2330:but is typically somewhat longer, similar to the
2158:-raising system described above, particularly in
1754:Philadelphia and Baltimore use a different short-
30:"Flat A" redirects here. Not to be confused with
3014:The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America
2915:""Tense" /æ/ is still lax: A phonotactics study"
1366:, in both closed and open syllables, such as in
1227:of certain British English accents, notably the
2395:
2393:
1262:" is lower and backer than , and the result of
686:, etc.) and some learned or less common words (
2749:
2737:
2691:
2662:
2626:
2599:
2575:
2563:
2532:
2517:
2505:
2473:
2461:
2449:
2437:
765:being tense) and variability is common before
2821:Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2014).
2689:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2400:Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007).
1650:tensing only occurs before nasal consonants.
373:
8:
1358:). Tensing occurs much more variably before
787:In New Orleans, additionally occurs before
1218:phonemic split system (or, simply, a short-
49:Examples of /æ/ raising in American English
380:
366:
360:
3034:
2422:
909:" vowel, sometimes called a "split short-
678:
676:
674:
672:
2253:has been reported, making, for example,
2049:camp, man, ram, pan, ran, clamber, Sammy
1780:
931:
740:may be lowered and retracted as much as
3062:Splits and mergers in English phonology
2376:
732:
730:
668:
2611:
2559:
2547:
2490:
2322:, the raised allophone approaches the
2098:More widespread among speakers of the
1316:is traditionally an entirely separate
330:
184:
2650:
2638:
2588:Baker, Mielke & Archangeli (2008)
1564:Certain one-off exceptions (The word
699:In Philadelphia, the irregular verbs
519:
499:
7:
2726:Mielke, Carignan & Thomas (2017)
282:: a combination of greater raising,
213:is a phenomenon by which the "short
2987:The Atlas of North American English
2798:Driscoll, Anna; Lape, Emma (2015).
2716:Labov, "Transmission and Diffusion"
2273:In accents that have undergone the
2138:The pattern most characteristic of
1246:" sound. The environment of "broad
994:A knife can halve the bread in two.
2059:calls the "nasal system" in which
1377:Exceptions include the following:
893:is pronounced with a lax vowel as
185:Problems playing these files? See
25:
1766:, with the only exceptions being
1037:He was manning the control panel.
306:(thus, for example, commonly in
222:
165:
139:
113:
87:
61:
2170:. Also, some speakers from the
1410:Learned words (often including
1266:tensing is higher and fronter.
1235:dialects, which creates a new "
839:to a tense-vowel pronunciation
350:vowel transcribed with ⟨
2886:Journal of English Linguistics
2750:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2738:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2663:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2627:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2600:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2576:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2564:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2533:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2518:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2506:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2474:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2462:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2450:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
2438:Labov, Ash & Boberg (2006)
1893:When a polysyllabic word with
1462:is added to a word with tense
1166:We'll plan it after breakfast.
321:includes variants such as , ,
249:vowel (found in such words as
1:
2989:. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
2629:, pp. 82, 123, 177, 179.
2279:Inland Northern United States
1076:He's madder than a rabid dog.
961:Students must eat in the caf.
748:in varieties affected by the
2936:"Transmission and Diffusion"
2697:"Transmission and diffusion"
2476:, pp. 173–174, 238–239.
2464:, pp. 173–174, 260–261.
2035:that is raised (tensed) and
1623:all typically take on tense
1086:Discuss this matter further.
724:alone in this context have .
2275:Northern Cities Vowel Shift
1646:West of the Passaic River,
1603:Between the Hackensack and
1572:, unlike any other case of
3078:
2310:and the backing diphthong
2000:(a strong verb tense) has
1750:Philadelphia and Baltimore
1726:
1716:is reported as being lax.
1269:It is also related to the
1214:In a North American short-
1176:The planet orbits the Sun.
665:
161:, with and without raising
135:, with and without raising
109:, with and without raising
83:, with and without raising
57:, with and without raising
29:
2424:10.1017/S0025100307003192
2140:Southern American English
1789:
1783:
1556:(more common words) with
1119:I grabbed a mass of clay.
934:
654:
640:
622:
620:
573:
564:
546:
544:
542:
501:
497:
495:
493:
198:of the English language,
2898:10.1177/0075424208316648
2880:Boberg, Charles (2008).
2614:, pp. 130, 136–137.
2039:before the front nasals
1250:" overlaps with that of
951:The calf was born today.
273:raising is specifically
257:), is pronounced with a
2934:Labov, William (2007).
2913:Duncan, Daniel (2016).
1631:ordinarily retains lax
861:) of the single "short
261:of the tongue. In most
2314:(which corresponds to
2277:, mostly those of the
2150:becoming in essence a
1983:(a function word) has
1233:Received Pronunciation
395:North American English
300:North American English
44:
2955:10.1353/lan.2007.0082
2927:10.3765/amp.v3i0.3653
2100:Western United States
1066:both homophonous as
750:Low Back Merger Shift
43:
2535:, pp. 178, 180.
2402:"Australian English"
1671:may be tensed while
1458:-initial word-level
1402:(complex coda) with
1191:both homophonous as
1148:both homophonous as
1101:both homophonous as
1019:both homophonous as
976:both homophonous as
882:Philadelphia English
338:Variable raising of
3027:2017ASAJ..142..332M
2665:, chpt. 13 & 17
2602:, pp. 181–182.
2566:, pp. 175–177.
2452:, pp. 173–174.
2106:, and the southern
2073:Northern New Jersey
1729:New Orleans English
1592:Northern New Jersey
1584:is quite variable.)
1394:(simple coda) with
1308:In the traditional
1004:She might have fun.
897:, whereas the verb
397:
2704:www.ling.upenn.edu
2304:Australian English
2298:Australian English
2292:Syracuse, New York
2221:, etc.) tenses an
1568:usually has tense
1414:) are usually lax
361:
356:Australian English
45:
3036:10.1121/1.4991348
2872:978-1-57473-423-2
2338:. In the case of
2288:Lansing, Michigan
1887:
1886:
1736:voiced fricatives
1203:
1202:
804:
803:
716:In Philadelphia,
688:alas, carafe, lad
649:as, back, happy,
635:ask, bath, half,
170:
144:
118:
92:
66:
16:(Redirected from
3069:
3048:
3038:
3010:
3000:
2974:
2940:
2930:
2909:
2876:
2860:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:. pp. 33–36
2827:
2818:
2812:
2811:
2795:
2789:
2788:
2786:
2785:
2779:
2773:. Archived from
2768:
2759:
2753:
2747:
2741:
2735:
2729:
2723:
2717:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2701:
2693:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2642:
2636:
2630:
2624:
2615:
2609:
2603:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2579:
2573:
2567:
2562:, pp. 1–2;
2557:
2551:
2545:
2536:
2530:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2494:
2488:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2435:
2429:
2428:
2426:
2406:
2397:
2388:
2381:
2366:
2362:
2358:
2354:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2309:
2284:
2268:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2224:
2204:
2188:
2181:
2157:
2149:
2145:
2134:
2129:
2121:
2116:General American
2086:
2065:nasal consonants
2062:
2046:
2042:
2034:
2021:
2007:
2003:
1990:
1986:
1976:
1973:tenses have lax
1957:
1953:
1935:
1931:
1914:
1910:
1896:
1883:
1875:
1865:
1857:
1847:
1839:
1829:
1821:
1811:
1803:
1793:
1787:
1781:
1765:
1745:
1741:
1707:Older Cincinnati
1649:
1634:
1626:
1598:Hackensack River
1579:
1575:
1571:
1559:
1547:
1525:
1517:
1504:
1496:
1483:
1475:
1465:
1449:
1427:
1405:
1397:
1388:are usually lax
1365:
1361:
1357:
1346:
1335:
1331:
1323:
1315:
1299:
1295:
1279:
1265:
1257:
1253:
1209:
1199:
1198:
1197:
1188:
1183:
1178:
1168:
1156:
1155:
1154:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1121:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1098:
1093:
1088:
1078:
1063:
1058:
1053:
1039:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1016:
1011:
1006:
996:
984:
983:
982:
973:
968:
963:
953:
932:
904:
896:
855:
851:
847:
846:
845:
838:
837:
836:
825:
818:
796:
794:
790:
772:
768:
759:
753:
747:
739:
734:
725:
714:
708:
697:
691:
680:
661:
631:
615:grab, flash, sad
611:
602:
592:dragon, magazine
588:
580:
571:
555:
533:
526:
514:animal, planet,
510:
490:fan, lamb, stand
486:
398:
390:
382:
375:
368:
353:
349:
345:
341:
334:
328:
320:
310:, but rarely in
297:
277:
272:
267:Canadian English
248:
247:
242:
241:
240:
239:
232:
229:
228:
202:
196:sociolinguistics
172:
171:
146:
145:
120:
119:
94:
93:
68:
67:
42:
21:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3052:
3051:
3008:
3003:
2997:
2983:Boberg, Charles
2981:; Ash, Sharon;
2977:
2938:
2933:
2912:
2879:
2873:
2858:
2853:
2850:
2845:
2844:
2835:
2833:
2825:
2820:
2819:
2815:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2783:
2781:
2777:
2766:
2761:
2760:
2756:
2748:
2744:
2736:
2732:
2724:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2699:
2695:
2694:
2669:
2661:
2657:
2649:
2645:
2637:
2633:
2625:
2618:
2610:
2606:
2598:
2594:
2586:
2582:
2574:
2570:
2558:
2554:
2546:
2539:
2531:
2524:
2516:
2512:
2504:
2497:
2493:, pp. 1–2.
2489:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2436:
2432:
2404:
2399:
2398:
2391:
2385:American Speech
2382:
2378:
2373:
2331:
2323:
2300:
2271:
2183:
2079:, and parts of
2029:
2024:
2022:raising systems
1946:(truncation of
1924:(truncation of
1903:(truncation of
1752:
1731:
1725:
1709:
1703:are all tense.
1656:
1594:
1310:New York accent
1306:
1225:trap-bath split
1212:
1210:raising systems
1194:
1193:
1192:
1185:
1173:
1172:
1163:
1162:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1142:
1126:
1125:
1116:
1115:
1104:
1103:
1102:
1095:
1083:
1082:
1073:
1072:
1060:
1044:
1043:
1034:
1033:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1013:
1001:
1000:
991:
990:
979:
978:
977:
970:
958:
957:
948:
947:
842:
841:
840:
833:
832:
831:
809:
800:
799:
786:
760:
756:
735:
728:
715:
711:
698:
694:
681:
670:
650:
636:
628:
627:Non-prevocalic
608:
607:Non-prevocalic
552:
551:Non-prevocalic
537:frank, language
515:
507:
483:
482:Non-prevocalic
475:
468:
462:
453:
445:
440:
435:
425:
415:
407:
402:
386:
347:
304:nasal consonant
245:
244:
236:
235:
234:
225:
221:
192:
191:
183:
181:
180:
179:
178:
176:
173:
166:
163:
154:
153:
152:
150:
147:
140:
137:
128:
127:
126:
124:
121:
114:
111:
102:
101:
100:
98:
95:
88:
85:
76:
75:
74:
72:
69:
62:
59:
50:
46:
40:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3075:
3073:
3065:
3064:
3054:
3053:
3050:
3049:
3021:(1): 332–349.
3001:
2995:
2979:Labov, William
2975:
2949:(2): 344–387.
2931:
2910:
2892:(2): 129–154.
2877:
2871:
2849:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2813:
2790:
2754:
2742:
2740:, p. 181.
2730:
2728:, p. 333.
2718:
2709:
2667:
2655:
2653:, p. 373.
2643:
2641:, p. 359.
2631:
2616:
2604:
2592:
2580:
2578:, p. 183.
2568:
2552:
2550:, p. 145.
2537:
2522:
2520:, p. 238.
2510:
2508:, p. 173.
2495:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2442:
2440:, p. 182.
2430:
2389:
2375:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2299:
2296:
2281:, the phoneme
2270:
2263:
2235:Central Canada
2182:
2176:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2016:
2015:
2014:
2013:
2012:
1995:
1971:irregular verb
1967:Function words
1964:
1963:
1962:
1941:
1919:
1885:
1884:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1861:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1840:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1822:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1804:
1799:
1795:
1794:
1788:
1751:
1748:
1727:Main article:
1724:
1721:
1708:
1705:
1655:
1652:
1605:Passaic Rivers
1593:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1562:
1561:
1560:
1532:
1531:
1530:
1509:
1488:
1452:
1451:
1450:
1430:
1429:
1428:
1408:
1407:
1406:
1382:Function words
1305:
1302:
1211:
1204:
1201:
1200:
1189:
1179:
1169:
1158:
1157:
1146:
1136:
1122:
1111:
1110:
1099:
1089:
1079:
1068:
1067:
1064:
1054:
1040:
1029:
1028:
1017:
1007:
997:
986:
985:
974:
964:
954:
943:
942:
939:
936:
935:Example words
808:
805:
802:
801:
798:
797:
754:
726:
709:
692:
690:, etc.) have .
667:
666:
663:
662:
653:
646:
642:
641:
639:
632:
624:
623:
621:
619:
617:
612:
604:
603:
594:
589:
582:
581:
572:
563:
561:
556:
548:
547:
545:
543:
541:
539:
534:
528:
527:
518:
511:
503:
502:
500:
498:
496:
494:
492:
487:
479:
478:
471:
464:
456:
449:
429:
419:
409:
404:
385:
384:
377:
370:
362:
182:
174:
164:
156:
155:
148:
138:
130:
129:
122:
112:
104:
103:
96:
86:
78:
77:
70:
60:
52:
51:
48:
47:
38:
37:
36:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3074:
3063:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3046:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3015:
3007:
3002:
2998:
2996:3-11-016746-8
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2937:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2920:
2916:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2878:
2874:
2868:
2864:
2857:
2852:
2851:
2847:
2831:
2824:
2817:
2814:
2809:
2805:
2801:
2794:
2791:
2780:on 2021-06-23
2776:
2772:
2765:
2758:
2755:
2751:
2746:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2731:
2727:
2722:
2719:
2713:
2710:
2705:
2698:
2692:
2690:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2678:
2676:
2674:
2672:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2656:
2652:
2647:
2644:
2640:
2635:
2632:
2628:
2623:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2612:Boberg (2008)
2608:
2605:
2601:
2596:
2593:
2589:
2584:
2581:
2577:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2560:Duncan (2016)
2556:
2553:
2549:
2548:Boberg (2008)
2544:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2529:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2514:
2511:
2507:
2502:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2491:Duncan (2016)
2487:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2458:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2443:
2439:
2434:
2431:
2425:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2411:
2403:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2377:
2370:
2368:
2350:
2346:
2343:
2305:
2297:
2295:
2293:
2289:
2280:
2276:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2240:
2236:
2232:
2228:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2153:
2142:does not use
2141:
2136:
2125:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2082:
2078:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2058:
2057:William Labov
2054:
2050:
2047:, such as in
2038:
2037:diphthongized
2027:Before nasals
2026:
2018:Non-phonemic
2017:
2011:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1982:
1979:
1978:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1961:
1949:
1948:Massachusetts
1945:
1942:
1939:
1927:
1923:
1920:
1918:
1906:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1892:
1891:
1890:
1880:
1877:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1862:
1859:
1854:
1851:
1850:
1844:
1841:
1836:
1833:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1808:
1805:
1800:
1797:
1796:
1782:
1779:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1761:
1757:
1749:
1747:
1737:
1730:
1722:
1720:
1717:
1715:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1653:
1651:
1644:
1642:
1638:
1630:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1601:
1599:
1591:
1589:
1583:
1567:
1563:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1539:
1536:
1535:
1533:
1529:
1521:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1500:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1479:
1471:
1468:
1467:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1433:
1431:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1409:
1401:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1353:
1350:
1342:
1339:
1327:
1319:
1311:
1304:New York City
1303:
1301:
1291:
1289:
1283:
1275:
1273:
1267:
1261:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1240:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1221:
1217:
1205:
1196:
1190:
1180:
1177:
1170:
1167:
1160:
1159:
1153:
1147:
1137:
1134:
1132:
1129:She works at
1123:
1120:
1113:
1112:
1106:
1100:
1090:
1087:
1080:
1077:
1070:
1069:
1065:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1041:
1038:
1031:
1030:
1024:
1018:
1008:
1005:
998:
995:
988:
987:
981:
975:
965:
962:
955:
952:
945:
944:
941:General U.S.
940:
938:Philadelphia
937:
933:
930:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
908:
900:
892:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
870:
868:
864:
860:
844:
835:
829:
822:
814:
806:
784:
780:
776:
764:
758:
755:
751:
745:
736:The untensed
733:
731:
727:
723:
719:
713:
710:
706:
702:
696:
693:
689:
685:
679:
677:
675:
673:
669:
664:
659:
652:
647:
644:
643:
638:
633:
626:
625:
618:
616:
613:
606:
605:
600:
595:
593:
590:
584:
583:
578:
569:
562:
560:
557:
550:
549:
540:
538:
535:
530:
529:
524:
517:
512:
505:
504:
491:
488:
481:
480:
477:
472:
470:
465:
460:
457:
455:
450:
448:
443:
438:
433:
430:
428:
423:
420:
418:
413:
412:New York City
410:
405:
400:
399:
396:
392:
383:
378:
376:
371:
369:
364:
363:
359:
357:
336:
333:
326:
315:
313:
309:
305:
301:
293:
289:
285:
281:
280:
268:
264:
260:
256:
252:
238:
231:
220:
216:
212:
210:
204:
197:
190:
188:
175:with raising,
162:
160:
149:with raising,
136:
134:
123:with raising,
110:
108:
97:with raising,
84:
82:
71:with raising,
58:
56:
33:
19:
3018:
3012:
2986:
2946:
2942:
2918:
2889:
2885:
2862:
2834:. Retrieved
2829:
2816:
2807:
2803:
2793:
2782:. Retrieved
2775:the original
2770:
2757:
2745:
2733:
2721:
2712:
2703:
2658:
2651:Labov (2007)
2646:
2639:Labov (2007)
2634:
2607:
2595:
2583:
2571:
2555:
2513:
2469:
2457:
2445:
2433:
2414:
2408:
2384:
2379:
2359:when before
2349:Vowel length
2347:
2344:
2301:
2272:
2258:
2254:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2137:
2111:
2097:
2091:, including
2052:
2048:
2030:
2009:
1997:
1992:
1980:
1959:
1947:
1943:
1937:
1925:
1921:
1916:
1904:
1900:
1888:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1755:
1753:
1732:
1718:
1713:
1710:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1657:
1645:
1640:
1636:
1628:
1620:
1616:
1615:(the verb),
1612:
1608:
1602:
1595:
1587:
1581:
1565:
1553:
1549:
1541:
1537:
1527:
1519:
1511:
1506:
1498:
1490:
1485:
1477:
1469:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1421:
1417:
1399:
1391:
1384:with simple
1376:
1371:
1367:
1312:, the tense
1307:
1287:
1281:
1271:
1268:
1259:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1219:
1215:
1213:
1175:
1165:
1131:Mass General
1128:
1118:
1085:
1075:
1046:
1036:
1003:
993:
960:
950:
926:
923:minimal pair
918:
914:
910:
906:
898:
888:
877:
873:
871:
862:
827:
812:
810:
782:
778:
774:
762:
757:
721:
717:
712:
704:
700:
695:
687:
684:am, can, had
683:
648:
634:
614:
591:
558:
536:
513:
489:
474:Great Lakes
463:Mountain US
427:Philadelphia
387:
337:
332:[ɛə]
316:
311:
307:
274:
254:
250:
214:
208:
206:
199:
193:
158:
132:
106:
80:
54:
2201:, etc.) or
2172:New Orleans
2089:New England
1940:'way, road'
1723:New Orleans
1641:fashionable
1580:. The word
1047:We met the
701:began, ran,
585:Prevocalic
506:Prevocalic
467:Minnesota,
461:, Northern
437:New England
417:New Orleans
298:throughout
288:lengthening
2836:2022-11-27
2784:2018-03-23
2752:, chpt. 13
2417:(3): 346.
2371:References
2261:homonyms.
2160:Charleston
2152:triphthong
2124:allophones
1341:fricatives
1182:/ˈplɛənət/
1092:/ˈmɛədər/,
859:allophones
645:Otherwise
447:Western US
442:Pittsburgh
432:Midland US
403:consonant
401:Following
187:media help
177:without it
151:without it
125:without it
99:without it
73:without it
2906:146478485
2231:Minnesota
2227:Wisconsin
2093:in Boston
1926:pathology
1905:cafeteria
1882:/ˈpæsədʒ/
1412:loanwords
1338:voiceless
1326:syllables
1284:have the
1206:Phonemic
1187:/ˈplænət/
1097:/ˈmætər/,
1057:/ˈmɛənəŋ/
903:/ˈmɛənɪŋ/
559:bag, drag
469:Wisconsin
452:Southern
422:Baltimore
269:accents,
265:and many
246:TRAP/BATH
159:thank you
3056:Category
3045:28764450
2985:(2006).
2963:40070845
2943:Language
2265:General
2215:gangster
2191:magazine
1681:national
1627:, while
1542:asterisk
1528:Pasadena
1062:/ˈmænəŋ/
1042:Manning
1032:manning
895:/ˈmænɪŋ/
826:, as in
718:bad, mad
651:locality
406:Example
284:fronting
263:American
133:language
3023:Bibcode
2971:6255506
2848:Sources
2269:raising
2249:before
2205:(as in
2189:(as in
2178:Before
2168:Florida
2164:Atlanta
2108:Midwest
2077:Florida
2069:Midwest
1878:passage
1576:before
1538:aspirin
1512:passing
1507:classic
1470:mannish
1454:When a
1347:), and
1328:before
1318:phoneme
1286:"broad
1282:bad–lad
1272:bad–lad
1184:versus
1171:planet
1161:plan it
1141:versus
1094:versus
1081:matter
1071:madder
1059:versus
1051:family.
1049:Manning
1012:versus
969:versus
919:manning
915:Manning
899:manning
890:Manning
886:surname
867:phoneme
821:phoneme
775:imagine
630:/f,θ,s/
610:/b,d,ʃ/
516:Spanish
391:raising
292:gliding
279:tensing
259:raising
211:raising
203:raising
194:In the
3043:
2993:
2969:
2961:
2904:
2869:
2334:vowel
2332:SQUARE
2326:vowel
2290:, and
2255:haggle
2239:merger
2233:, and
2219:angler
2166:, and
2104:Canada
2081:Canada
2004:, not
1987:, not
1954:, not
1950:) has
1932:, not
1928:) has
1911:, not
1907:) has
1874:/pɛəs/
1856:/bɛəθ/
1838:/lɛəf/
1820:/hɛəm/
1802:/mɛən/
1784:Tense
1774:, and
1701:manner
1699:, and
1697:planet
1693:camera
1689:family
1685:cashew
1667:, and
1654:Albany
1637:planet
1619:, and
1582:family
1566:avenue
1522:, not
1501:, not
1491:classy
1486:manage
1480:, not
1460:suffix
1442:, and
1422:carafe
1349:voiced
1345:/fθsʃ/
1237:broad
1229:London
1139:/mɛəs/
1010:/hɛəv/
989:halve
967:/kɛəf/
884:, the
811:Short-
781:, and
773:as in
763:avenue
720:, and
707:have .
459:Canada
408:words
346:, the
290:, and
243:, the
207:short-
32:A-flat
18:Flat A
3009:(PDF)
2967:S2CID
2959:JSTOR
2939:(PDF)
2902:S2CID
2859:(PDF)
2826:(PDF)
2778:(PDF)
2767:(PDF)
2700:(PDF)
2405:(PDF)
2324:DRESS
2259:Hegel
2245:with
2180:/ɡ,ŋ/
2008:like
1991:like
1958:like
1936:like
1915:like
1864:/bæt/
1846:/læp/
1834:laugh
1828:/pæl/
1810:/hæŋ/
1760:stops
1738:like
1554:after
1544:with
1526:like
1518:like
1505:like
1499:class
1497:like
1484:like
1476:like
1456:vowel
1446:with
1424:with
1400:can't
1386:codas
1368:magic
1356:/bgd/
1352:stops
1320:from
1274:split
1174:e.g.
1164:e.g.
1144:/mæs/
1127:e.g.
1124:Mass
1117:e.g.
1114:mass
1084:e.g.
1074:e.g.
1045:e.g.
1035:e.g.
1015:/hæv/
1002:e.g.
999:have
992:e.g.
972:/kæf/
959:e.g.
949:e.g.
946:calf
779:magic
746:]
742:[
660:]
656:[
637:glass
601:]
597:[
579:]
575:[
570:]
566:[
525:]
521:[
509:/m,n/
485:/m,n/
348:MOUTH
342:(and
327:]
323:[
255:laugh
233:
219:vowel
3041:PMID
2991:ISBN
2867:ISBN
2810:(2).
2355:and
2340:/æɔ/
2336:/eː/
2316:/aʊ/
2312:/æɔ/
2257:and
2247:/eɪ/
2237:, a
2211:pang
2207:bang
2199:bags
2043:and
2006:/ɛə/
1993:sand
1989:/ɛə/
1969:and
1960:mass
1956:/ɛə/
1944:Mass
1938:path
1934:/ɛə/
1922:path
1917:calf
1913:/ɛə/
1870:pass
1852:bath
1806:hang
1790:Lax
1786:/ɛə/
1776:glad
1762:and
1742:and
1675:and
1673:have
1639:and
1625:/ɛə/
1570:/ɛə/
1558:/ɛə/
1552:and
1548:vs.
1540:and
1520:pass
1516:/ɛə/
1514:has
1495:/ɛə/
1493:has
1474:/ɛə/
1472:has
1464:/ɛə/
1444:math
1440:Babs
1436:Cass
1420:and
1418:alas
1404:/ɛə/
1398:vs.
1372:jazz
1370:and
1362:and
1360:/dʒ/
1314:/ɛə/
1296:and
1231:and
956:caf
917:and
815:(or
791:and
783:jazz
769:and
767:/dʒ/
722:glad
705:swam
703:and
344:/æɔ/
253:and
251:lack
107:hang
55:camp
3031:doi
3019:142
2951:doi
2923:doi
2894:doi
2419:doi
2365:/m/
2363:or
2361:/n/
2357:/e/
2353:/æ/
2328:/e/
2320:/æ/
2308:/æ/
2302:In
2283:/æ/
2267:/æ/
2251:/ɡ/
2243:/æ/
2241:of
2223:/æ/
2203:/ŋ/
2195:rag
2187:/ɡ/
2156:/æ/
2148:/æ/
2144:/æ/
2133:/æ/
2128:/æ/
2126:of
2120:/æ/
2085:/æ/
2061:/æ/
2045:/n/
2041:/m/
2033:/æ/
2020:/æ/
2010:man
2002:/æ/
1998:ran
1985:/æ/
1981:and
1975:/æ/
1952:/æ/
1930:/æ/
1909:/æ/
1901:caf
1895:/æ/
1860:bat
1842:lap
1824:pal
1816:ham
1798:man
1792:/æ/
1772:bad
1768:mad
1764:/ʃ/
1744:/z/
1740:/v/
1714:and
1677:had
1669:has
1661:can
1648:/æ/
1633:/æ/
1629:had
1621:and
1613:can
1578:/v/
1574:/æ/
1550:ask
1546:/æ/
1524:/æ/
1503:/æ/
1482:/æ/
1478:man
1448:/æ/
1426:/æ/
1396:/æ/
1392:can
1364:/z/
1334:/m/
1330:/n/
1322:/æ/
1298:/l/
1294:/ɡ/
1278:/æ/
1264:/æ/
1256:/æ/
1252:/æ/
1208:/æ/
854:/æ/
850:/æ/
828:man
824:/æ/
817:/æ/
793:/z/
789:/v/
771:/z/
738:/æ/
587:/ɡ/
554:/ɡ/
532:/ŋ/
393:in
389:/æ/
340:/æ/
319:/æ/
314:).
312:fat
308:fan
296:/æ/
276:/æ/
271:/æ/
205:or
201:/æ/
81:can
3058::
3039:.
3029:.
3017:.
3011:.
2965:.
2957:.
2947:83
2945:.
2941:.
2900:.
2890:36
2888:.
2884:.
2828:.
2808:21
2806:.
2802:.
2769:.
2702:.
2670:^
2619:^
2540:^
2525:^
2498:^
2481:^
2415:37
2413:.
2407:.
2392:^
2306:,
2294:.
2229:,
2217:,
2213:,
2209:,
2197:,
2193:,
2162:,
2135:.
2102:,
2095:.
2075:,
2071:,
1770:,
1746:.
1695:,
1691:,
1687:,
1683:,
1665:an
1663:,
1643:.
1617:an
1611:,
1609:am
1438:,
1336:,
1332:,
1300:.
869:.
865:"
785:.
777:,
729:^
671:^
476:US
454:US
439:,
434:,
358:.
352:aʊ
325:ɛː
286:,
217:"
3047:.
3033::
3025::
2999:.
2973:.
2953::
2929:.
2925::
2908:.
2896::
2875:.
2839:.
2787:.
2706:.
2590:.
2427:.
2421::
2112:a
2053:a
1756:a
1354:(
1343:(
1290:"
1288:a
1260:a
1248:a
1244:a
1239:a
1220:a
1216:a
1133:.
927:a
911:a
907:a
878:a
874:a
863:a
857:(
813:a
795:.
744:ä
658:æ
599:æ
577:æ
568:æ
523:æ
444:,
424:,
414:,
381:e
374:t
367:v
230:/
227:æ
224:/
215:a
209:a
189:.
34:.
20:)
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