Food desert - Knowledge

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food stores from neighborhoods. Scholars cite the greater appeal of large chain supermarkets to individuals because of the wider variety and better values of food they offer as well as longer business hours compared to smaller, independently or family-owned grocery stores, leading to decreased demand and support for smaller food stores. The expansion of large chain supermarkets and loss of smaller food stores can create certain areas where only individuals with transportation can access, creating areas of disproportionate retail access that some scholars characterize as a food desert.

598: 357: 489: 368: 336:(USDA), community food security "concerns the underlying social, economic, and institutional factors within a community that affect the quantity and quality of available food and its affordability or price relative to the sufficiency of financial resources available to acquire it." Rural areas tend have higher food insecurity than urban areas because food choices in rural areas are often restricted, with transportation being needed to access a major 31: 108:

populations like minorities and the elderly. The studies addressed the relationships between the quality (access and availability) of retail food environments, the price of food, and obesity. Environmental factors can also contribute to people's eating behaviors. Research conducted with variations in methods draws a more complete perspective of "multilevel influences of the retail food environment on eating behaviors (and risk of obesity)."

218:, supermarkets take up a large portion of retail space. While supermarkets are expanding in poor neighborhoods in Cape Town, their food insecurity is growing at an alarming rate. That is one of the biggest roadblocks in understanding food deserts. Based on the European or American understanding of food deserts, the fact that there is access to supermarkets by definition would mean that Cape Town does not suffer from food deserts. 642: 187: 467:

Month to month, there are other special occasions that may lead to higher spending on food such as birthdays, holidays, and unplanned events. Because people who are food insecure are still fundamentally involved in society, they are faced with the other stressors of life as well as the additional frustration or guilt that comes with not being able to feed themselves or their family.

566:, and local policies also contribute to a person's health outcome. Due to the complex intersecting factors of social determinants of health, studies have suggested that a community and individual's socioeconomic status (resource and economic deprivation) are more associated with negative health outcomes, rather than a lack of food access that is characteristic of food deserts. 656: 207:

mental desire to buy." An asset-related food desert involves the absence of financial assets, which prevents consumption of desirable food that is otherwise available. Attitude-related food deserts are any state of mind that prevents consumers from accessing the foods they can otherwise physically bring into their home and have the necessary assets to procure.

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determine an individual's health outcome. Likewise, individual characteristics such as demographics, socioeconomic status, the physical environment (retail access, transportation, etc), and households' social environments (cultural/social norms, etc) all impact diet, which is a determinant of health outcomes and a factor in certain diseases.

385:, grocery stores were not able to resume normal operation as they faced issues of infrastructure damage and supply issues. This situation was particularly dire for low-income communities, as they often have fewer resources to cope with such disasters and are more likely to live in areas prone to flooding and lacking in food retail options. 626:

infrastructure, income, time, and consumer behavior. Several researchers have also cited longitudinal studies that do not observe a connection between food access and health outcomes and highlight data that suggests increased retail access does not necessarily improve the dietary choices and subsequent health outcomes of a community.

594:. While the traditional framework assumes homogeneity between people's experiences in their local food system, scholars cite additional factors such as travel time, crime, food acquisition outside an individual's home neighborhood, employment, income, and other household-specific behaviors that influence people's access to food. 92:, a recently coined term by researchers who defined it as a disproportionate number of fast food restaurants and advertising to a supermarket. The single supermarket in a low-income area does not, according to researchers Rose and colleagues, necessitate availability nor does it decrease obesity rates and health risks. 544:

highlighted the limitations of these studies due to their localization, short time frame, focus on a singular health outcome (people's health are assessed through multiple measures of health, not just one factor), and inability to account for all the social determinants of individuals' health outcomes.

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Likewise, a 2017 study conducted in Brazil highlights the critical role of non-retail sources such as fishing, farming, and home gardens in people's food security and access. Due to the overlapping, context-specific factors unique to different local food economies that influence household food access

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Several studies have highlighted alternative food sources that deem supermarket access less relevant in transitioning countries such as many in Africa and rainforest cities in Brazil. For example, studies in 2012 and 2014 highlight that alternative food acquisition sources such as food vendors, small

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In addition to the close proximity of fast-food restaurants and convenience stores, many low-income communities contain a higher prevalence of pharmacies, compared to medium- or high-income communities. Such stores often contain a high number of snack foods, such as candy, sugary beverages, and salty

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People who have nonstandard work hours, including rotating or evening shifts, may have difficulty shopping at stores that close earlier and so opt instead to shop at fast food or convenience stores, which are generally open later. Under welfare-to-work reforms enacted in 1996, female adult recipients

278:. This correlation between crime and food deserts is also heavily dependent on race; while violent or property crime are not statistically associated with food deserts in general, they are increasingly associated with it when the neighborhood has a higher Black population. This effect may result from 246:

study observed that low access to supermarkets in the U.S. are affected by various characteristics of neighborhoods and the geography of a community. The study cited income gaps, segregation by race, socioeconomic status, transport availability and infrastructure, rurality, segregation by income, and

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Several researchers have also proposed shortcomings in the current definition and framework of food deserts in the U.S. when working to lessen unhealthy food consumption, diet disparities between different communities, and food insecurity. Some researchers criticize the primary focus of current food

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Some urban researchers argue that this current framework for identifying food deserts fails to consider additional spatial and non-spatial factors that contribute to household's food access and incorrectly assumes an increase in the number of retail food options will directly mitigate issues of food

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The concept of deprivation amplification has been proposed as an explanation of how food deserts can perpetuate poor health outcomes for a community: scholars suggest that residents of low-income neighborhoods' exposure to inadequate and unhealthy food environments can increase their individual risk

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A similar pilot study conducted by Cummins et al. focused on a community that was funded by the Pennsylvania Fresh Food Financing Initiative. It followed up after a grocery store was built in a food desert to assess the store's impact. The study found that "simply building new food retail stores may

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Climate change can play role in urban food deserts because it directly affects accessibility. The main way that climate change affects food security and food deserts is by reducing the production of food. With the limited availability of a product, the price rises making it unavailable to those that

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A 2018 Tulane university study stated that there are three categories for food deserts: ability-related, assets-related, and attitude-related. Ability-related food deserts are "anything that physically prevents access to food which a consumer otherwise has the financial resources to purchase and the

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The term "urban food deserts" is traditionally applied to North America and Europe, but in recent years, the term has been extended to Africa as well. It has taken time for researchers to understand Africa's urban food deserts because the conventional understanding of the term must be reevaluated to

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and the UK have been most widely studied due to the Western origins of the concept. Initial research was narrowed to the impact of retail migration from the urban center. More recent studies explored the impact of food deserts in other geographic areas (such as rural and frontier) and among specific

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Rosenheim, Nathanael P.; Watson, Maria; Casellas Connors, John; Safayet, Mastura; Peacock, Walter Gillis (2024-01-10). "Food Access After Disasters: A Multidimensional View of Restoration After Hurricane Harvey". Journal of the American Planning Association: 1–19. doi:10.1080/01944363.2023.2284160.

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Past literature has suggested that lower retail access to supermarkets is linked to select cardiovascular health outcomes, and some studies have shown that increased access to supermarkets lowers individuals' risk of obesity with opposite outcomes for convenience stores. However, many scholars have

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A key element of a food desert is its lack of healthy and nutritious foods. As food deserts are typically defined by household's decreased access to supermarkets and healthy food acquisition sources, areas defined as food deserts tend to have a greater number of fast food restaurants and convenient

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In 2017, Steven Cummins proposed that food availability is not the problem, but eating habits are. In 2005, Pearson et al. urged food policy to focus on the social and cultural barriers to healthy eating. For instance, New York City's public-private Healthy Bodegas Initiative has aimed to encourage

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is often needed to go to a grocery store. When neither a car nor public transportation is available, diets are rarely healthy because fast food and convenience stores are easier to access and do not cost as much money or time. Those who walk to food shops typically have poorer diets, which has been

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By 1973, the term "desert" was ascribed to suburban areas lacking amenities important for community development. A report by Cummins and Macintyre states that a resident of public housing in western Scotland supposedly coined the more specific phrase "food desert" in the early 1990s. The phrase was

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cast doubt on the notion that exposing poor neighborhoods to healthy groceries reduces nutritional inequality. The study found "that exposing low-income households to the same products and prices available to high-income households reduces nutritional inequality by only about 10 percent, while the

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In 2017, the likelihood of being food insecure in the US was for 22.4% Latinos, 26.1% for African Americans, and 10.5% for Whites. A 2002 study found that people who are food insecure often find themselves having to cut back more at the end of the month, when their finances or food stamps run out.

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It should also be noted that because it is too costly to survey the types of foods and prices offered in every store, researchers use the availability of supermarkets and large grocery stores, including discount and supercenter stores, as a proxy for the availability of affordable nutritious food.

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Additional factors may include how different stores welcome different groups of people and nearness to liquor stores. Residents in a 2010 Chicago survey complained that in-store issues like poor upkeep and customer service were also impediments. Safety can also be an issue for those in high-crime

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A 2010 proposed theory behind the formation of food deserts in the US is the shift in inner-city demographics in the 1970's-1980's. During this time period, many higher-income households moved from urban to suburban areas, lowering the median income in inner-city areas and causing supermarkets to

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Within the United States, academic scholars have proposed several different causes behind the formation of food deserts. One proposed 2014 theory behind the emergence of food deserts, defined as areas with low supermarket access, is the expansion of large chain supermarkets that displaced smaller

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Specifically in Cape Town, access to food deserts does not change their severity. With limited diversity in their diets, those who live in Cape Town are highly dependent on foods of low nutritional value and high calorific value. Using the European or American definition of food deserts would not

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Africa suffers from food deserts, and there is also a direct link between climate change and the rapid growth of food deserts. While supermarkets are expanding to areas in which they once did not exist, there is still a disparity when it comes to physical access. In Cape Town, asset-related urban

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Access to food options is not the only barrier to healthier diets and improved health outcomes. Wrigley et al. collected data before and after a food desert intervention to explore factors affecting supermarket choice and perceptions regarding healthy diet in Leeds, United Kingdom. Pretests were

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of race and class. The Planting Seeds Just Tour serves as an example, as it visited solution based projects to resist injustices with ecological wisdom and food justice that were run by women of color. The tour also highlighted economically viable alternatives to provide healthy food and created

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Convenient/corner stores and fast food restaurants frequently carry more processed foods than fresh, unprocessed foods. The widespread availability of processed foods in food deserts poses increased health risks to residents: a high dietary intake of ultra-processed foods, which contains higher

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reported that 39.5 million people or 12.8% of the population were living in low-income and low-access areas. Of this number, 19 million people live in "food deserts", low-income census tracts that are more than one mile from a supermarket in urban or suburban areas and more than 10 miles from a

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As several studies have shown the discrepancies in the number of supermarkets in predominately black neighborhoods compared to predominately white neighborhoods, the characteristics of a neighborhood population are suggested to be motivations behind some business' reluctance to open in certain

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have identified that terms like "Food Desert" undermines how the intersections of race and class largely influences minority communities' inaccessibility to fresh foods. To better describe what is taking place, activists such as Karen Washington have begun to use the term "food apartheid." The

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perceived urban and economic obstacles, decreasing certain communities' access to supermarkets. Businesses' perceived urban obstacles include decreased demand compared to suburban neighborhoods, higher land, wage, and utility costs, and increased crime in urban areas. Economic factors such as

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has been proposed as a cause of lower access to supermarkets that is characteristic of some scholarly definitions of food deserts. The concept describes how large chain supermarkets tend to relocate out of or refrain from opening stores in inner-city areas or impoverished neighborhoods due to

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Food deserts are just one aspect of people's individual food environments: food environments consist of the intersecting spheres of community food options (supermarkets, small stores, etc.); work/school/home food options (school food, home purchases); and individual food intake, all of which

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As food deserts is a concept that originated in the U.K. and is primarily studied in Anglo-Saxon countries, several scholars have questioned the applicability of food deserts to countries in the Global South. Scholars point out that food deserts are typically defined as a lack of access to

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Likewise, some scholars argue that the current definition frames food access as a binary problem (either you are in a food desert or not), which overstates the problem of space when food access is a complex, multi-dimensional problem involving other critical factors such as transportation

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The primary criterion for a food desert is its proximity to a healthy food market. When such a market is in reach for its residents, a food desert ceases to exist, but that does not mean that residents will now choose to eat healthily. A longitudinal study of food deserts in

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administered prior to a new store opening and post-tests were delivered two years after the new store had opened. The results showed that nearly half of the food desert residents began shopping at the newly built store, but only modest improvements in diet were recorded.

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cannot afford more expensive commodities. In Cape Town specifically, supermarkets rely directly on fresh produce from the nearby farm area. Climate change affects the production of food, and it can also damage capital assets that affect accessibility and utilization.

81:, which makes them less attractive markets for large supermarket chains. These areas lack suppliers of fresh foods, such as meats, fruits, and vegetables. Instead, available foods are likely to be processed and high in sugar and fats, which are known contributors to 618:

and food security, some scholars emphasize the need to adjust the definition and framework of food deserts to specific contexts in order to effectively and holistically address food insecurity, nutrition disparities, and food access issues in developing countries.

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A separate survey also found that supermarket and grocery store availability did not generally correlate with diet quality and fresh food intake. Pearson et al. further confirmed that physical access is not the sole determinant of fruit and vegetable consumption.

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must log 20 hours a week of "work activity" to receive SNAP benefits. If they live in a food desert and have family responsibilities, working may also limit time to travel to obtain nutritious foods as well as prepare healthful meals and exercise.

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Ver Ploeg, Michele; Breneman, Vince; Farrigan, Tracey; Hamrick, Karen; Hopkins, David; Kaufman, Phillip; Lin, Biing-Hwan; Nord, Mark; Smith, Travis A.; Williams, Ryan; Kinnison, Kelly; Olander, Carol; Singh, Anita; Tuckermanty, Elizabeth (2009).

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snacks, which is within arm's reach of a cash register in 96% of pharmacies. While pharmacies are important in these communities, they act as yet another convenience store and so further expose low-income residents to non-nutritional food.

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Food deserts have primarily been studied in Western countries due to limitations around applying the retail access definition to different communities with varying cultures, food sourcing strategies, and environments around the world.

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neighborhoods. The decreased availability of supermarkets in certain communities increases the distance people have to travel to get food, further limiting food access for people without access to reliable transportation.

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desert frameworks - lack of retail access - as a one-dimensional over-simplification of food security and access issues that fails to address structural issues to reduce unhealthy food consumption and diet disparities.

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Several studies in the 2010s have pointed out potential limitations of applying the concept of food deserts to addressing issues of food disparity and unhealthy food consumption, particularly in non-Western countries.

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A 2012 study found that grocery stores are more closely spaced in poor neighborhoods, and that there was no relation between children's food consumption, their weight, and the type of food available near their homes.

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It is critical to look at car ownership in relation to the distance and number of stores in the area. A 2009 study stated that the distance from shops influences the quality of food eaten. A vehicle or access to

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Alternatively, scholars propose a model that addresses the complex intersection of individual behavior and food choice with social and political forces to solve issues of hunger, food security, and food access.

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A 2010 study stated that limited access to nutritious foods in food deserts can greatly impact one's ability to engage in healthy practices. Food access, affordability of the food, and health literacy are all

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Food access can be restricted in an area that is hit by natural disasters. Access to stores in low-income neighborhoods can be blocked when roads are flooded. Building damage can delay store openings. After

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not be sufficient to promote behavior change related to diet." Studies like those show that living close to a store that is stocked with fruits and vegetables does not make a large impact on food choices.

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is an area that has limited access to food that is plentiful, affordable, or nutritious. In contrast, an area with greater access to supermarkets and vegetable shops with fresh foods may be called a

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that businesses take into consideration are affected by a complex web of interconnected factors (e.g. demand for fresh produce is affected by people's socioeconomic status and cultural upbringing).

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As a result, there has been a paradigm shift within the movement with community organizers encouraging members of affected neighborhoods to consider how inadequate food systems correlate with the

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An individual's food environment is one of many social determinants of health that contribute to his/her health outcomes: social determinants of health such as transportation infrastructure,

66:. The designation considers the type and the quality of food available to the population, in addition to the accessibility of the food through the size and the proximity of the food stores. 2195: 1609: 388:

This resulted in supermarkets in low-income neighborhoods being closed longer than other stores, which only worsened pre-existing inequalities. There were less supermarkets available after

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A study 2013 suggested that adding a grocery store near one's home was associated with an average BMI decrease of 0.115, which very small compared to the excess BMI of an obese person.

396:. Access to supermarkets in predominately Black neighborhoods was already limited prior to the storm. The Storm increased racial-disparities in food access and access to supermarkets. 255:

close in these regions as a result. In three of the biggest inner-city areas in the U.S., over half of the supermarkets were reported to have closed due to this shift in demographics.

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Crime can serve as both a cause and effect of the development of food deserts in urban areas. Theft in stores can lead to increased prices for food, which can lead to more theft in a

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Allcott, Hunt; Diamond, Rebecca; Dubé, Jean-Pierre; Handbury, Jessie; Rahkovsky, Ilya; Schnell, Molly (May 20, 2019). "Food Deserts and the Causes of Nutritional Inequality".

2797: 2285: 136:(GIS), interviews, questionnaires and surveys measuring consumers' food access perceptions. Differences in the definition of a food desert vary according to the following: 2665:

Phillips, Anna Lena (2011). "Making Better Maps of Food Deserts: Neighborhoods with little or no access to healthful food can be located and studied using GIS mapping".

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Walker, Renee E.; Keane, Christopher R.; Burke, Jessica G. (2010). "Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature".

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Pearson, Tim; Russell, Jean; Campbell, Michael J.; Barker, Margo E. (2005). "Do 'food deserts' influence fruit and vegetable consumption?—a cross-sectional study".

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Researchers employ a variety of methods to assess food deserts including directories and census data, focus groups, food store assessments, food use inventories,

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supermarkets (spatial focus) and that its framework operates with the assumption that increased supermarkets means increased availability of healthy foods.

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Scholars have asserted that while these studies can give insight into how food accessibility can contribute to health outcomes, because of the intersecting

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contents of sodium, salts, sugars, and additives than fresh foods, has been consistently linked to higher risks of negative health and metabolic outcomes.

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Economic barriers and affordability of accessing nutritious foods, including the cost of transportation, price of foods, and incomes of those in the area.

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that contribute to individual health outcomes, the results cannot be interpreted as a casual relationship between food deserts and poor health outcomes.

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Ohri-Vachaspati, Punam; DeWeese, Robin S.; Acciai, Francesco; DeLia, Derek; Tulloch, David; Tong, Daoqin; Lorts, Cori; Yedidia, Michael J. (July 2019).

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activist and community organizer Karen Washington describes the term as " at the whole food system, along with race, geography, faith, and economics."

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A 2009 study stated that people tend to make food choices based on what is available in their neighborhood. Food deserts often have a high density of

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Larsen, Kristian; Gilliland, Jason (2009). "A farmers' market in a food desert: Evaluating impacts on the price and availability of healthy food".

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Hendrickson, Deja; Smith, Chery; Eikenberry, Nicole (2006). "Fruit and vegetable access in four low-income food deserts communities in Minnesota".

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itself. She believes "food apartheid" more accurately captures the circumstances surrounding access to affordable nutritious foods: "When we say

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Chen, Xiaojia; Zhang, Zhang; Yang, Huijie; Qiu, Peishan; Wang, Haizhou; Wang, Fan; Zhao, Qiu; Fang, Jun; Nie, Jiayan (December 2020).

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first officially used in a 1995 document from a policy working group on the Low Income Project Team of the UK's Nutrition Task Force.

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Multiple studies in the 2010s suggest that differences in demand for healthy food also contribute to poor health in food deserts.

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percentages of vacant homes in a community as variable factors that determined the degree of communities' access to supermarkets.

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Access to Affordable and Nutritious Food: Measuring and Understanding Food Deserts and Their Consequences: Report to Congress

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shows that supermarket availability is generally unrelated to fruit and vegetable recommendations and overall diet quality.

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food deserts are the main reason for food insecurity since its people cannot afford the food that they would prefer to eat.

2527:"Fast Food Restaurants and Food StoresLongitudinal Associations With Diet in Young to Middle-aged Adults: The CARDIA Study" 548: 509: 133: 2582: 1197: 614:, and food transfer between households are more frequently visited than retail food options in Africa's various cities. 3723: 1051: 82: 2705:"Getting Fat on Government Cheese: The Connection Between Social Welfare Participation, Gender, and Obesity in America" 597: 3743: 3254:

Lee, Helen (2012). "The role of local food availability in explaining obesity risk among young school-aged children".

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A Minneapolis school asked people to donate food for students after looting closed stores. 'Miles of cars' lined up.

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Chicago residents left scrambling for medications and essentials as looted pharmacies, grocery stores remain closed

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Boehme, Hunter M.; Kaminski, Robert J.; Mulrooney, Timothy; Brown, Robert A.; Malhotra, Rakesh (22 June 2023).

356: 1283:"Disparities in obesity prevalence due to variation in the retail food environment: Three testable hypotheses" 159:

The multitude of definitions, varying by country, has fueled controversy over the existence of food deserts.

3748: 2526: 851: 694: 172: 3753: 3105:"Consumption of ultra-processed foods and health outcomes: a systematic review of epidemiological studies" 1492: 3758: 3663:"Moving Beyond "Food Deserts": Reorienting United States Policies to Reduce Disparities in Diet Quality" 3518: 1094:"Living in a Food Desert: How Lack of Access to Healthy Foods Can Affect Public Health | Notes From NAP" 349: 112: 1483:

Reisig, V.; Hobbiss, A. (2000). "Food deserts and how to tackle them: A study of one city's approach".

488: 2786:"Multidisciplinary approaches to address food insecurity and nutrition among youth and their families" 1960: 3763: 3056:"Availability of snacks, candy and beverages in hospital, community clinic and commercial pharmacies" 2634: 2418: 1907: 1896:"Spatial Supermarket Redlining and Neighborhood Vulnerability: A Case Study of Hartford, Connecticut" 1720: 1497: 715: 684: 326: 2522: 964: 689: 3164:"Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature" 2997:"Healthy Food Access in Low-Income High-Minority Communities: A Longitudinal Assessment—2009–2017" 1961:"Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature" 1840:"Disparities and access to healthy food in the United States: A review of food deserts literature" 367: 3643: 3615: 3596: 3546: 3494: 3191: 3163: 2928: 2682: 2406: 2054: 1996: 1867: 1839: 1548: 1510: 1424: 1312: 458:

areas, especially if they must walk while carrying food and maybe also with a child or children.

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spaces in which community members could participate in conversations regarding sustainability.

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store, which generally lacks essential groceries. The nearest grocery store from Burlingame, a

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Illinois Advisory Committee to the United States Commission on Civil Rights (October 2011).

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Coveney, John; O'Dwyer, Lisel A (2009). "Effects of mobility and location on food access".

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states that factors beyond physical access suggest the community should reexamine the word

2525:; Kiefe, Catarina I.; Shikany, James M.; Lewis, Cora E.; Popkin, Barry M. (11 July 2011). 3519:"Beyond the food desert: finding ways to speak about urban food security in south africa" 3358:

Testa, Alexander; Jackson, Dylan B; Semenza, Daniel C; Vaughn, Michael G (January 2021).

2623:"Deprivation, Diet, and Food-Retail Access: Findings from the Leeds 'Food Deserts' Study" 2375: 2018: 3392: 3359: 2638: 2422: 2207:

Looting forces Germantown stores to close, leaving residents with limited access to food

1911: 1724: 3697: 3662: 3328: 3293: 3139: 3104: 3031: 2996: 2972: 2947: 2551: 2498: 1936: 1895: 1255: 1230: 1162: 1127: 720: 710: 669: 647: 559: 493: 51: 43: 3179: 1976: 1855: 1579: 1412: 929: 852:"Food, Conservation, and Energy Act of 2008, 110th Cong, 2nd Sess, HR 6124, Title VII" 3737: 3600: 3568: 3534: 3498: 3466: 3294:"Neighborhood Food Outlets, Diet, and Obesity Among California Adults, 2007 and 2009" 2839: 2823: 2376:"Rural Hunger and Access to Healthy Food Introduction - Rural Health Information Hub" 2058: 1552: 1299: 1282: 747: 360: 310: 275: 39: 3550: 3267: 2932: 2752: 2147:

Chicago Food Deserts Grow on City's South Side Due to Looting During Recent Protests

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bodegas to carry milk and fresh produce and residents to purchase and consume them.

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Story, Mary; Kaphingst, Karen M.; Robinson-O'Brien, Ramona; Glanz, Karen (2008).

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Whitehouse, Anne; Simon, Anna; French, Simone A.; Wolfson, Julian (June 2012).

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Minneapolis neighborhoods face food desert after looting closes multiple stores

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Walker, Renee E.; Keane, Christopher R.; Burke, Jessica G. (1 September 2010).

1602:"USDA ERS - Access to Affordable, Nutritious Food Is Limited in "Food Deserts"" 1506: 3584: 3482: 3375: 3072: 3055: 2946:

Dannefer, Rachel; Williams, Donya A; Baronberg, Sabrina; Silver, Lynn (2012).

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Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk

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Black Girls Break Bread Steps In As Looting Leaves Food Deserts Even Worse Off

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Walker, Renee E.; Keane, Christopher R.; Burke, Jessica G. (September 2010).

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Walker, Renee E.; Keane, Christopher R.; Burke, Jessica G. (September 2010).

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Walgreens to Close 5 Stores in San Francisco, Citing 'Organized' Shoplifting

1783: 773:"The Community for Science-Based Nutrition | American Nutrition Association" 752: 259: 211: 17: 3706: 3639: 3444: 3401: 3337: 3275: 3187: 3148: 3089: 3040: 3013: 2981: 2924: 2847: 2560: 2507: 2050: 1992: 1945: 1863: 1587: 1420: 1308: 1264: 1171: 1144: 1126:

Cooksey-Stowers, Kristen; Schwartz, Marlene; Brownell, Kelly (2017-11-14).

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Sadler, Richard Casey; Gilliland, Jason Andrew; Arku, Godwin (June 2016).

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Walgreens to close 5 more S.F. stores, citing rising costs of retail crime

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Walgreens closing 5 more San Francisco stores due to organized shoplifting

1818: 1801: 3310: 3229: 2034: 2686: 2678: 2464:

Mundorf, Adrienne R.; Willits-Smith, Amelia; Rose, Donald (2015-08-01).

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factors for disease and poor health. However, a 2019 study published in

2758:. Washington, DC: United States Commission on Civil Rights. p. 7. 2192:

Neighborhoods where stores were destroyed become food deserts overnight

1919: 340:

or a food supply that offers a wide, healthy variety of foods. Smaller

314: 294: 290: 47: 2102:

Chicago's South Side Left With Few Food Options After Weekend Violence

1358:

The rhetoric of social movements : networks, power, and new media

1356: 993:. Florida International University Department of Biological Sciences. 655: 500:

stores that are often more accessible and affordable for households.

282:

or from more limited access to transportation in the Black community.

230:

take into account the dynamic market of other cultures and countries.

2874:"Why it takes more than a grocery store to eliminate a 'food desert'" 537: 195: 2072:

In Chicago's Poorest Areas, Recovery May Be Long, If It Comes At All

3426: 3416: 2647: 2622: 1196:(Thesis). The University of Leeds School of Geography. p. 11. 1332:"Food apartheid: the root of the problem with America's groceries" 596: 487: 366: 355: 185: 29: 3569:"Theoretical issues in the 'food desert' debate and ways forward" 3001:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

1132:

International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health

2252:

Walgreens closes five more stores in San Francisco due to thefts

1775: 1231:"'Food deserts'—evidence and assumption in health policy making" 911: 909: 907: 905: 42:. In Burlingame's case, the grocery store is substituted with a 3728: 2583:"Karen Washington: It's Not a Food Desert, It's Food Apartheid" 77:

Food deserts tend to be inhabited by low-income residents with

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Area that has limited access to affordable and nutritious food

1645: 1643: 1641: 1639: 1637: 1635: 1633: 1631: 1629: 1627: 702:, disproportionate ratio of fast food outlets to supermarkets 3292:

Hattori, Aiko; An, Ruopeng; Sturm, Roland (March 14, 2013).

1802:"Measuring Food Access and Food Deserts for Policy Purposes" 3616:"Spatial access to food: Retiring the food desert metaphor" 3418:

The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts: Workshop Summary

3360:"Food deserts and cardiovascular health among young adults" 2342:

Emails reveal frustration with city led to SoDo food desert

2282:

Theft-plagued Walgreens closing 5 more San Francisco stores

329:

and corner stores that offer prepared and processed foods.

2746: 2744: 2742: 1444:"Starved for access: life in rural America's food deserts" 884:"Food Oasis :: Washington State Department of Health" 3304:. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC): E35. 146:

The distance to the nearest supermarket or grocery store.

1707:

Davies, Gemma; Frausin, Gina; Parry, Luke (2017-07-04).

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In the early 2020s, new food deserts were created after

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type of foods offered, whether it be fresh or prepared.

2621:

Wrigley, Neil; Warm, Daniel; Margetts, Barrie (2003).

2370: 2368: 2089:, Institute for Policy Innovation, September 1, 2020, 2357:

SoDo's only grocery store to close amid nearby crime

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Looters Leave More Food Deserts In Black Communities

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caused some damage to the ceiling of a Walmart store

1894:Zhang, Mengyao; Ghosh, Debarchana (February 2016). 1795: 1793: 3661:Block, Jason P.; Subramanian, S. V. (2015-12-08). 2405:Dargin, Jennifer; Mostafavi, Ali (December 2022). 1526: 1524: 353:attributed to having to carry shopping bags home. 3512: 3510: 3508: 3460: 3458: 3456: 3454: 1774:(Report). Administrative Publication Number 036. 1764: 1762: 1760: 1758: 1756: 1754: 1752: 1713:Annals of the American Association of Geographers 536:remaining 90 percent is driven by differences in 512:that are accentuated by living in a food desert. 2411:International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction 1442:Morton, Lois Wright; Blanchard, Troy C. (2007). 3209: 3207: 3205: 2616: 2614: 2612: 2610: 2608: 2087:Those 'Food Deserts' May Become Food Wastelands 1800:Ver Ploeg, M.; Dutko, P.; Breneman, V. (2014). 3562: 3560: 3523:Geografiska Annaler: Series B, Human Geography 3465:Battersby, Jane; Crush, Jonathan (June 2014). 3421:. Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press. 2817: 2815: 2239:, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, December 23, 2008, 1833: 1831: 1829: 1709:"Are There Food Deserts in Rainforest Cities?" 1702: 1700: 1698: 1696: 1694: 1692: 1224: 1222: 1220: 1218: 986:Diaz de Villegas, Carolina; Rodriguez, Kiara. 951: 949: 947: 3415:National Research Council (US) (2009-06-02). 3353: 3351: 3349: 3347: 2314:, San Francisco Chronicle, October 13, 2021, 1889: 1887: 1885: 1883: 1881: 1281:Ford, Paula B; Dzewaltowski, David A (2008). 8: 2074:, NPR Chicago affiliate WBEZ, June 4, 2020, 590:access and food insecurity within all local 371:Flooded cars as a result of Hurricane Harvey 2824:"Talking to Patients About Food Insecurity" 2660: 2658: 821:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090926 203:fit Africa's unconventional supermarkets. 3287: 3285: 2237:Thieves cause Hazelwood grocery to give up 3696: 3678: 3391: 3327: 3309: 3249: 3247: 3138: 3120: 3071: 3030: 3012: 2971: 2822:Messer, Ellen; Ross, Elizabeth M (2002). 2698: 2696: 2646: 2550: 2497: 2012: 2010: 1935: 1817: 1732: 1496: 1298: 1254: 1161: 1143: 819: 462:Behavior and social and cultural barriers 149:number of supermarkets in the given area. 88:A related concept is the phenomenon of a 1806:Applied Economic Perspectives and Policy 1019:Lee, Courtney Hall (February 23, 2017). 344:typically do not offer as much produce. 155:nutritional values of the foods offered. 50:, is approximately 20.4 miles away near 2709:Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy 1667:"Food Deserts In America (Infographic)" 1276: 1274: 1187:"1.1. Origin of the term `Food Desert'" 764: 601:A market shop in Anambra State, Nigeria 334:United States Department of Agriculture 293:in neighborhoods in the U.S. cities of 71:United States Department of Agriculture 3614:Widener, Michael J. (September 2018). 2727:from the original on December 21, 2019 967:from the original on December 17, 2020 577:Alternative frameworks to food deserts 492:Processed foods at a grocery store in 2884:from the original on October 18, 2017 2828:International Life Sciences Institute 2209:, Fox 29 Philadelphia, June 2, 2020, 1677:from the original on December 4, 2018 1000:from the original on October 19, 2017 7: 2386:from the original on August 24, 2018 2299:, New York Times, October 13, 2021, 1203:from the original on August 10, 2017 1185:Shaw, Hillary John (December 2003). 1074:from the original on October 9, 2016 1052:"Making Better Maps of Food Deserts" 783:from the original on October 5, 2018 2854:from the original on April 21, 2021 79:inadequate access to transportation 3217:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 2765:from the original on March 8, 2019 1612:from the original on July 19, 2018 1104:from the original on June 23, 2018 1031:from the original on June 23, 2018 864:from the original on June 23, 2018 532:The Quarterly Journal of Economics 428:the real conversation can begin." 376:Natural Disasters and Food Deserts 25: 3180:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013 2800:from the original on July 2, 2017 2593:from the original on July 7, 2018 2327:San Francisco's Shoplifting Surge 2194:, marketplace.org, June 4, 2020, 2179:, Washington Post, June 2, 2020, 1977:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013 1856:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013 1580:10.1016/j.healthplace.2009.06.007 1413:10.1016/j.healthplace.2010.04.013 1229:Cummins, S; MacIntyre, S (2002). 930:10.1016/j.healthplace.2008.01.010 177:Food deserts in the United States 140:The type of area, urban or rural. 3535:10.1111/j.1468-0467.2012.00401.x 2840:10.1046/j.1523-5408.2002.00303.x 2329:, New York Times, May 21, 2021, 1300:10.1111/j.1753-4887.2008.00026.x 777:americannutritionassociation.org 654: 640: 3268:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.12.036 2269:, USA Today, October 13, 2021, 2149:, thesource.com, June 6, 2020, 2134:, ABC 7 Chicago, June 7, 2020, 2119:, CBS 2 Chicago, June 2, 2020, 2104:, CBS 2 Chicago, June 3, 2020, 680:Effects of the car on societies 34:Many small rural towns such as 2543:10.1001/archinternmed.2011.283 2284:, ABC News, October 12, 2021, 2254:, CBS News, October 13, 2021, 2224:, Black Doctor, June 4, 2020, 2164:, Star Tribune, June 2, 2020, 808:Annual Review of Public Health 1: 3632:10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.02.032 3517:Battersby, Jane (June 2012). 3467:"Africa's Urban Food Deserts" 3256:Social Science & Medicine 2531:Archives of Internal Medicine 1734:10.1080/24694452.2016.1271307 549:social determinants of health 510:social determinants of health 134:geographic information system 3680:10.1371/journal.pmed.1001914 2581:Brones, Anna (May 7, 2018). 1533:Agriculture and Human Values 1050:Phillips, Anna Lena (2011). 988:"Medley Food Desert Project" 321:Transportation and geography 83:obesity in the United States 74:supermarket in rural areas. 3724:Food desert in Richmond, VA 2917:10.1016/j.appet.2005.04.003 2431:10.1016/j.ijdrr.2022.103351 2359:, KOMO, December 12, 2019, 1355:Crick, Nathan, ed. (2020). 1330:Brones, Anna (2018-05-15). 1194:The Ecology of Food Deserts 738:Food choice of older adults 524:Impacts to community health 3780: 3298:Preventing Chronic Disease 3122:10.1186/s12937-020-00604-1 2627:Environment and Planning A 1507:10.1177/001789690005900203 170: 3620:Physiology & Behavior 3585:10.1007/s10708-015-9634-6 3483:10.1007/s12132-014-9225-5 3376:10.1017/S1368980020001536 3073:10.1017/S1368980011003600 2753:"Food Deserts in Chicago" 2703:Correll, Michael (2010). 2482:10.1007/s11524-015-9969-9 1545:10.1007/s10460-006-9002-8 1457:(4): 1–10. Archived from 2964:10.2105/AJPH.2011.300615 2344:, KIRO 7, July 6, 2020, 1485:Health Education Journal 1247:10.1136/bmj.325.7361.436 1021:"Grocery Store Inequity" 3364:Public Health Nutrition 3060:Public Health Nutrition 2521:Boone-Heinonen, Janne; 2470:Journal of Urban Health 2380:www.ruralhealthinfo.org 1784:10.22004/AG.ECON.292130 695:Food deserts by country 519:Effects of food deserts 173:Food deserts by country 105:Food deserts in America 3014:10.3390/ijerph16132354 1145:10.3390/ijerph14111366 602: 496: 407:JAMA Internal Medicine 400:Beyond physical access 372: 364: 234:Causes of food deserts 199: 55: 1671:socialwork.tulane.edu 600: 491: 412:In a 2018 article in 370: 359: 350:public transportation 327:fast-food restaurants 189: 113:Food Justice movement 111:Advocates within the 33: 3311:10.5888/pcd10.120123 2523:Gordon-Larsen, Penny 2035:10.1891/VV-2022-0007 2023:Violence and Victims 1100:. January 25, 2011. 716:Supermarket shortage 685:Environmental racism 2784:Sharma, Shreela V. 2679:10.1511/2011.90.209 2639:2003EnPlA..35..151W 2423:2022IJDRR..8303351D 1912:2016TrGIS..20...79Z 1900:Transactions in GIS 1819:10.1093/aepp/ppu035 1725:2017AAAG..107..794D 1464:on October 21, 2013 1068:10.1511/2011.90.209 690:Fenceline community 48:Dillons Supermarket 38:(pictured) have no 3744:Economic geography 3230:10.1093/qje/qjz015 3168:Health & Place 2952:Am J Public Health 2667:American Scientist 1965:Health & Place 1920:10.1111/tgis.12142 1568:Health & Place 1401:Health & Place 1056:American Scientist 918:Health & Place 603: 497: 373: 365: 342:convenience stores 200: 56: 36:Burlingame, Kansas 3626:(Pt B): 257–260. 3436:978-0-309-13728-7 3109:Nutrition Journal 2537:(13): 1162–1170. 1368:978-1-138-34600-0 1287:Nutrition Reviews 890:on April 21, 2019 612:urban agriculture 564:built environment 390:Hurricane Katrina 332:According to the 265:supply and demand 192:convenience store 121:intersectionality 16:(Redirected from 3771: 3729:Open Source Food 3711: 3710: 3700: 3682: 3673:(12): e1001914. 3658: 3652: 3651: 3611: 3605: 3604: 3564: 3555: 3554: 3514: 3503: 3502: 3462: 3449: 3448: 3412: 3406: 3405: 3395: 3355: 3342: 3341: 3331: 3313: 3289: 3280: 3279: 3251: 3242: 3241: 3224:(4): 1793–1844. 3211: 3200: 3199: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3142: 3124: 3100: 3094: 3093: 3075: 3066:(6): 1117–1123. 3051: 3045: 3044: 3034: 3016: 2992: 2986: 2985: 2975: 2943: 2937: 2936: 2900: 2894: 2893: 2891: 2889: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2819: 2810: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2781: 2775: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2764: 2757: 2748: 2737: 2736: 2734: 2732: 2700: 2691: 2690: 2662: 2653: 2652: 2650: 2618: 2603: 2602: 2600: 2598: 2578: 2572: 2571: 2569: 2567: 2554: 2518: 2512: 2511: 2501: 2461: 2455: 2451: 2445: 2441: 2435: 2434: 2402: 2396: 2395: 2393: 2391: 2372: 2363: 2354: 2348: 2339: 2333: 2324: 2318: 2309: 2303: 2294: 2288: 2279: 2273: 2264: 2258: 2249: 2243: 2234: 2228: 2219: 2213: 2204: 2198: 2189: 2183: 2174: 2168: 2159: 2153: 2144: 2138: 2129: 2123: 2114: 2108: 2099: 2093: 2084: 2078: 2069: 2063: 2062: 2014: 2005: 2004: 1956: 1950: 1949: 1939: 1891: 1876: 1875: 1844:Health and Place 1835: 1824: 1823: 1821: 1797: 1788: 1787: 1766: 1747: 1746: 1736: 1704: 1687: 1686: 1684: 1682: 1663: 1622: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1606:www.ers.usda.gov 1598: 1592: 1591: 1563: 1557: 1556: 1528: 1519: 1518: 1500: 1498:10.1.1.1005.1078 1480: 1474: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1463: 1448: 1439: 1433: 1432: 1396: 1381: 1380: 1352: 1346: 1345: 1343: 1342: 1327: 1321: 1320: 1302: 1278: 1269: 1268: 1258: 1226: 1213: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1202: 1191: 1182: 1176: 1175: 1165: 1147: 1123: 1114: 1113: 1111: 1109: 1090: 1084: 1083: 1081: 1079: 1047: 1041: 1040: 1038: 1036: 1016: 1010: 1009: 1007: 1005: 999: 992: 983: 977: 976: 974: 972: 953: 942: 941: 913: 900: 899: 897: 895: 886:. 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