122:
473:
33:
563:
266:
251:
196:
woodcreepers, and treecreepers. Most bark-gleaners work their way up tree trunks or along branches, though nuthatches are well known as the birds that can go the opposite direction, facing down and working their way down the trunk, as well. This requires strong legs and feet on the part of the nuthatch and piculet, while birds that face upwards tend to have stiff tail feathers to prop them up.
515:, oxpeckers pick at any open wounds the animals happen to have, consuming blood and pus, and possibly keeping the wounds free of maggots.) Historically, rhinoceros and other large wild mammals have been among the favored hosts, but as the populations of large mammals in the African savanna have declined in modern times, the population and range of both
152:, feed actively and appear energetic. Some will even hover in the air near a leaf or twig while gleaning from it; this behavior is called "hover-gleaning". Other birds are more methodical in their approach to gleaning, even seeming lethargic as they perch upon and deliberately pick over foliage. This behavior is characteristic of the
382:, has an even longer bill, which allows it to probe crevices in rocky cliffs. It also has skeletal adaptations to aid it in reaching deep into small spaces. These same traits are useful for gleaning the sides of buildings, as well. Another kind of rocky habitat is found along mountain streams, where birds such as the
577:
Gleaning, like other methods of foraging, is a highly visual activity, and as such has some implications for birds. First, to see requires light, and thus time allotted to gleaning is limited to daytime. Second, while a bird focuses on examining an area for prey items, it must necessarily divert its
377:
Crevice-gleaning is a niche particular to dry and rocky habitats. Adaptations for crevice-gleaning are similar to that of bark-gleaning. Just as the Bewick's wren, as mentioned in the preceding paragraph, has a long bill suited for poking around in the small places of woods and gardens, another North
195:
of
Southeast Asia, are similarly adapted for gleaning, with small, compact bodies and sharp bills, rather than the long, supportive tails and wedge-shaped bills more typical of woodpeckers. Birds such as the aforementioned piculet are specialized for gleaning the bark of trees, as are nuthatches,
293:
is very similar in size and shape, but slightly bulkier, and has less of a tendency to glean along twigs and more of a habit of flying from perch to perch. Having a very small bill seems to be good for taking tiny prey from the surfaces of leaves, and small-billed birds such as the
442:, perform a double-scratch by raking both legs simultaneously through the leaf-litter. They then catch prey items dislodged by the disturbance. Ground-foraging birds can be very hard for humans to observe, as they often occupy densely vegetated habitat, as in the case of the
593:; for example, one species may stick to conifers while another species inhabits broadleaf trees, or they may even divide up a habitat, with smaller species feeding among higher, smaller tree branches and larger species staying on lower, larger branches.
418:, a species of North American wood-warbler. It deliberately turns over leaves on the ground to search for spiders, worms, and such underneath. In other parts of the world, similar leaf-flipping behavior has been observed in unrelated birds, such as the
507:, these birds run their bills through the fur of the animal, using a scissors-like motion to extract ticks and lice from near the skin. When they pull the insect out to the end of the fur, they catch it and eat it. (On animals with bare hides, such as
183:, in which some member species are more adapted for hawking insects on the wing and others for gleaning, the gleaners have bills that resemble those of tits and warblers, unlike their larger-billed relatives. Also, some members of the
280:
Further specialization within a habitat is associated with behaviors and morphological adaptations (physical traits of size and shape). Tiny birds are lightweight enough to hang onto the ends of twigs and pluck small prey; the
469:, from which they scan the undersides of leaves above them. Upon spotting an insect or spider, they fly up in an arcing sally, pluck their prey item without stopping, and complete the arcing movement to land on a new perch.
121:
54:, by plucking them from foliage or the ground, from crevices such as rock faces and under the eaves of houses, or even, as in the case of ticks and lice, from living animals. This behavior is contrasted with
402:
of the forest floor, sometimes flicking, flipping, or scratching through dead leaves. Birds can use their bills to flick or toss dead leaves from the ground to reveal prey residing beneath. The
342:, the female subsists on insects and spiders, while the male has a typical hummingbird diet of nectar. Hummingbirds and other gleaners are also sometimes attracted to the sap wells created by
430:, will use their wings to create a blast of air to roll leaves over. Other birds rake a foot through the leaf litter, like a chicken, for the same purpose. This has been observed in
346:. Sapsuckers, which are in the woodpecker family, drill small holes in living tree branches to get the sap flowing. The sap and the insects it attracts are then consumed, and
687:
Barker, F. Keith; Clark, George A. Jr.; Grzybowski, Joseph A.; Humann, Alec; Jaramillo, Alvaro; Kricher, John; Reed, J. Michael; Sargent, Martha; Sargent, Robert (2001).
449:
A feeding technique that is somewhere between gleaning and hawking is where a bird flies from a perch and takes prey off foliage; this is called "sally-gleaning". The
350:
have been observed to follow the movements of sapsuckers and take advantage of this food source. Clusters of dead leaves also often harbor invertebrate prey, and the
136:
Foliage gleaning, the strategy of gleaning over the leaves and branches of trees and shrubs, can involve a variety of styles and maneuvers. Some birds, such as the
578:
attention from scanning its surroundings for predators. Birds that glean in tree branches will often join together in a flock, and often with other gleaners in a
589:
of Asia are foliage-gleaners, but are often found singly or in pairs. Also, where multiple species of gleaning birds forage in the same area, they may show
554:
are often seen in parking lots, where they pick off dead insects from car grilles. Some hummingbirds are known to take prey items from spiderwebs.
113:. Many birds make use of multiple feeding strategies, depending on the availability of different sources of food and opportunities of the moment.
472:
582:. It has been shown that individual birds feeding in flocks are able to spend more time looking for food and less time looking for predators.
585:
On the other hand, it is not a universal trait of gleaning birds to join with other species or even to be gregarious with their own kind. The
1110:
1027:
828:
764:
58:
insects from the air or chasing after moving insects such as ants. Gleaning, in birds, does not refer to foraging for seeds or fruit.
465:
employ a distinct version of sally-gleaning. These small birds choose a perch within their lush forest and plantation habitats in the
1056:
1002:
973:
898:
866:
796:
656:
538:
have been observed to follow farmers’ plows to glean the grubs exposed in the fresh soil. Similarly, on the island of Borneo, the
160:. Another tactic is to hang upside-down from the tips of branches to glean the undersides of leaves. Tits such as the familiar
363:
371:
179:. These features are even seen in gleaning birds that are not closely related. For example, in flycatchers of the family
579:
330:
take small insects from flowers while probing for nectar, and some species glean actively among bark and leaves. The
562:
1098:
965:
890:
858:
820:
756:
32:
216:
689:
199:
Birds often specialize in a particular niche, such as a particular stratum of forest or type of vegetation. In
1018:
Schulenberg, Thomas S.; Stotz, Douglas F.; Lane, Daniel F.; O'Neill, John P.; Parker, Theodore A. III (2007).
815:
Schulenberg, Thomas S.; Stotz, Douglas F.; Lane, Daniel F.; O'Neill, John P.; Parker, Theodore P. III (2007).
224:
1142:
566:
520:
476:
390:
of Asia pick over stream-side rocks and exposed roots for aquatic insects and other moisture-loving prey.
286:
254:
240:
228:
161:
1137:
648:
539:
383:
36:
551:
495:. They perch on living animals and glean parasites from the animals' hides. On furry animals, such as
1132:
443:
331:
319:
299:
165:
153:
82:
610:
543:
516:
439:
367:
355:
315:
212:
204:
145:
265:
991:
A Guide to the
Identification and Natural History of the Sparrows of the United States and Canada
347:
303:
916:"Red-breasted Sapsucker (Sphyrapicus ruber), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.)"
855:
A guide to the birds of India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Sri Lanka, and the
Maldives
1106:
1052:
1023:
998:
969:
894:
862:
824:
792:
760:
652:
590:
359:
307:
250:
200:
137:
125:
98:
94:
90:
86:
74:
1048:
466:
435:
351:
290:
141:
780:
695:
496:
311:
232:
55:
1074:"Common Grackle (Quiscalus quiscula), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.)"
939:"Bewick's Wren (Thryomanes bewickii), The Birds of North America Online (A. Poole, Ed.)"
446:, which specializes in gleaning leaf litter in gullies in the forest of Southeast Asia.
994:
535:
419:
411:
220:
192:
175:
Gleaning birds are typically small with compact bodies and have small, sharply pointed
169:
149:
1126:
788:
618:
454:
269:
709:
Cimprich, David A.; Moore, Frank R.; Guilfoyle, Michael P. (2000). A. Poole (ed.).
512:
450:
399:
358:
of North
America have long bills well-suited for probing them, as do certain Asian
244:
431:
427:
379:
339:
327:
106:
78:
17:
508:
180:
66:
50:
is a feeding strategy by birds in which they catch invertebrate prey, mainly
488:
462:
403:
343:
282:
236:
51:
61:
Gleaning is a common feeding strategy for some groups of birds, including
586:
547:
415:
398:
Foraging for invertebrate prey on the ground often involves gleaning the
387:
335:
323:
295:
62:
962:
A guide to the birds of Panama: with Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and
Honduras
318:
of South Asia, show a preference for gleaning in tangles of vines. The
500:
188:
184:
531:
524:
504:
492:
208:
110:
1073:
938:
915:
710:
523:
have also changed, and now the birds will use donkeys and domestic
414:
of Asia do this. An example of a bird that employs flipping is the
561:
471:
423:
407:
264:
249:
157:
120:
102:
70:
31:
458:
176:
164:
are often observed feeding in this manner. Some birds, like the
914:
Walters, Eric L.; Miller, Edward H.; Lowther, Peter E. (2002).
698:. pp. 360–361, 377, 390, 404, 427, 435–436, 441, 451, 545.
374:
are also examples of birds that glean clusters of dead leaves.
27:
Feeding behavior of plucking invertebrates from solid surfaces
1105:. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. pp. 327, 629–630.
366:. In Central and South America, foliage-gleaners such as the
887:
A guide to the birds of Puerto Rico and the Virgin
Islands
289:
of North
America exhibit this feeding style. The related
853:
Grimmett, Richard; Inskipp, Carol; Inskipp, Tim (1999).
1022:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 426.
172:
of North
America use a combination of these tactics.
759:. pp. 109, 145, 194, 215, 220, 238, 252, 253.
550:as they turn up soil while foraging in the forest.
215:gleans lower-storey foliage in lowland forest, the
207:is often found gleaning in thickets and stands of
960:Ridgely, Robert S.; Gwynne, Jr., John A. (1989).
615:A Field Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe
43:) hanging from the end of a branch and gleaning.
322:of South America specializes in gleaning among
861:. pp. 582, 584, 724, 740, 753, 763, 766.
692:– The Sibley Guide to Bird Life & Behavior
810:
808:
457:are tiny flycatchers that feed this way. The
8:
937:Kennedy, E. Dale; White, Douglas W. (2000).
231:specializes in the upper-storey forest. The
227:gleans in the mid- to upper-storey, and the
1072:Peer, Brian D.; Bollinger, Eric K. (2000).
487:An unusual feeding strategy is that of the
880:
878:
534:forage underwater in fast-moving streams.
848:
846:
844:
842:
840:
613:; Mountfort, Guy; Hollom, P.A.D. (1954).
682:
680:
678:
676:
674:
672:
670:
668:
223:are birds of the mid-storey forest, the
1093:
1091:
746:
744:
742:
740:
738:
736:
602:
638:
636:
634:
632:
630:
628:
298:forage in broad-leafed woodlands. The
406:of Central and South America and the
7:
1076:. Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology
1043:Feare, Chris; Craig, Adrian (1998).
941:. Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology
918:. Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology
721:. Ithaca: Cornell Lab of Ornithology
643:Dunn, Jon; Garrett, Kimball (1997).
326:on moss-covered tree branches. Many
651:. pp. 18, 377, 437, 470, 551.
276:) hanging from a leaf and gleaning.
285:of Europe and its counterpart the
25:
719:The Birds of North America Online
235:is a bird of coastal scrub and
785:Birds of Britain & Ireland
483:) foraging on a living animal.
364:rusty-cheeked scimitar-babbler
1:
885:Raffaele, Herbert A. (1989).
372:buff-throated foliage-gleaner
132:) gleaning among flower buds.
580:mixed-species foraging flock
1159:
1103:Ornithology, Third Edition
966:Princeton University Press
891:Princeton University Press
859:Princeton University Press
823:. pp. 318, 328, 530.
821:Princeton University Press
757:Princeton University Press
117:Techniques and adaptations
989:Rising, James D. (1996).
530:There are other tactics.
394:Other foraging techniques
386:of North America and the
334:is one such hummingbird.
308:Central and South America
217:rufous-chested flycatcher
690:National Audubon Society
201:South and Southeast Asia
69:(including chickadees),
558:Behavioral implications
225:yellow-breasted warbler
574:
567:Black-capped chickadee
521:yellow-billed oxpecker
484:
477:Yellow-billed oxpecker
426:. Some birds, such as
287:golden-crowned kinglet
277:
262:
261:) gleaning from twigs.
255:Golden-crowned kinglet
241:black-capped white-eye
229:greater green leafbird
162:black-capped chickadee
133:
44:
791:. pp. 208, 213.
751:Myers, Susan (2009).
649:Peterson Field Guides
573:) inspecting foliage.
565:
540:Bornean ground-cuckoo
475:
384:Louisiana waterthrush
268:
253:
187:family, particularly
124:
83:Old World flycatchers
37:African penduline-tit
35:
1051:. pp. 252–259.
893:. pp. 103–137.
571:Poecile atricapillus
444:Bornean wren-babbler
332:Puerto Rican emerald
320:ash-browed spinetail
300:long-billed gnatwren
239:, while the related
166:ruby-crowned kinglet
154:bay-breasted warbler
1045:Starlings and Mynas
552:Brewer's blackbirds
440:green-tailed towhee
378:American wren, the
368:red-faced spinetail
356:worm-eating warbler
348:rufous hummingbirds
316:striped tit-babbler
205:mountain tailorbird
203:, for example, the
130:Orthotomus sutorius
575:
485:
481:Buphagus africanus
304:speckled spinetail
278:
263:
134:
99:New World warblers
95:Old World warblers
87:Tyrant flycatchers
45:
41:Anthoscopus caroli
1112:978-0-7167-4983-7
1029:978-0-691-13023-1
830:978-0-691-13023-1
766:978-0-691-14350-7
711:"Red-eyed Vireo (
591:niche segregation
436:American sparrows
338:on the island of
243:is restricted to
138:common chiffchaff
126:Common tailorbird
16:(Redirected from
1150:
1117:
1116:
1095:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1081:
1069:
1063:
1062:
1049:Christopher Helm
1040:
1034:
1033:
1015:
1009:
1008:
986:
980:
979:
957:
951:
950:
948:
946:
934:
928:
927:
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923:
911:
905:
904:
882:
873:
872:
850:
835:
834:
812:
803:
802:
781:Couzens, Dominic
777:
771:
770:
748:
731:
730:
728:
726:
706:
700:
699:
684:
663:
662:
640:
623:
622:
607:
467:Greater Antilles
412:laughingthrushes
291:common firecrest
213:Abbott's babbler
146:Wilson's warbler
21:
18:Foliage gleaning
1158:
1157:
1153:
1152:
1151:
1149:
1148:
1147:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1097:
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1089:
1079:
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1071:
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1059:
1042:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1017:
1016:
1012:
1005:
988:
987:
983:
976:
968:. p. 250.
959:
958:
954:
944:
942:
936:
935:
931:
921:
919:
913:
912:
908:
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884:
883:
876:
869:
852:
851:
838:
831:
814:
813:
806:
799:
779:
778:
774:
767:
753:Birds of Borneo
750:
749:
734:
724:
722:
713:Vireo olivaceus
708:
707:
703:
696:Alfred A. Knopf
686:
685:
666:
659:
642:
641:
626:
611:Peterson, Roger
609:
608:
604:
599:
560:
536:Common grackles
396:
312:ashy tailorbird
259:Regulus satrapa
233:Javan white-eye
119:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1156:
1154:
1146:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1118:
1111:
1099:Gill, Frank B.
1087:
1064:
1057:
1035:
1028:
1010:
1003:
997:. p. 23.
995:Academic Press
981:
974:
952:
929:
906:
899:
874:
867:
836:
829:
804:
797:
772:
765:
732:
701:
664:
657:
624:
621:. p. 251.
601:
600:
598:
595:
559:
556:
438:, such as the
420:jungle babbler
395:
392:
362:, such as the
274:Parus cinereus
245:montane forest
221:brown fulvetta
193:rufous piculet
170:red-eyed vireo
118:
115:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1155:
1144:
1143:Bird behavior
1141:
1139:
1136:
1134:
1131:
1130:
1128:
1114:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1075:
1068:
1065:
1060:
1058:0-7136-3961-X
1054:
1050:
1046:
1039:
1036:
1031:
1025:
1021:
1020:Birds of Peru
1014:
1011:
1006:
1004:0-12-588971-2
1000:
996:
993:. San Diego:
992:
985:
982:
977:
975:0-691-08529-3
971:
967:
963:
956:
953:
940:
933:
930:
917:
910:
907:
902:
900:0-691-02424-3
896:
892:
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870:
868:0-691-00687-3
864:
860:
856:
849:
847:
845:
843:
841:
837:
832:
826:
822:
818:
817:Birds of Peru
811:
809:
805:
800:
798:0-00-711112-6
794:
790:
789:HarperCollins
786:
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776:
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658:0-395-78321-6
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455:South America
452:
451:pygmy tyrants
447:
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
393:
391:
389:
385:
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375:
373:
369:
365:
361:
357:
353:
352:Bewick's wren
349:
345:
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333:
329:
325:
321:
317:
313:
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297:
292:
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270:Cinereous tit
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150:North America
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68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
49:
42:
38:
34:
30:
19:
1138:Bird feeding
1102:
1078:. Retrieved
1067:
1044:
1038:
1019:
1013:
990:
984:
961:
955:
943:. Retrieved
932:
922:26 September
920:. Retrieved
909:
886:
854:
816:
784:
775:
752:
723:. Retrieved
718:
712:
704:
688:
647:. New York:
644:
614:
605:
584:
576:
570:
542:will follow
529:
513:hippopotamus
486:
480:
448:
432:buttonquails
428:hummingbirds
397:
376:
328:hummingbirds
279:
273:
258:
198:
191:such as the
174:
135:
129:
107:hummingbirds
79:treecreepers
75:woodcreepers
60:
47:
46:
40:
29:
1133:Ornithology
404:leaftossers
400:leaf litter
380:canyon wren
340:Puerto Rico
1127:Categories
617:. London:
597:References
527:as hosts.
517:red-billed
509:rhinoceros
344:sapsuckers
336:Found only
310:, and the
185:woodpecker
181:Tyrannidae
63:nuthatches
52:arthropods
587:leafbirds
548:sun bears
544:wild pigs
489:oxpeckers
463:Caribbean
388:forktails
324:epiphytes
283:goldcrest
237:mangroves
156:and many
105:and some
1101:(2007).
783:(1997).
645:Warblers
416:ovenbird
360:babblers
296:blue tit
189:piculets
144:and the
91:babblers
48:Gleaning
1080:5 April
945:5 April
725:5 April
619:Collins
532:Dippers
501:giraffe
497:buffalo
461:of the
434:. Some
142:Eurasia
111:cuckoos
56:hawking
1109:
1055:
1026:
1001:
972:
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