27:
991:
176:
The Island Rule is a contested topic in evolutionary biology. Some argue that, since body size is a trait that is affected by multiple factors, and not just by organisms moving to an island, genetic variations across all populations could also cause the body mass differences between mainland and
140:). Foster proposed the simple explanation that smaller creatures get larger when predation pressure is relaxed because of the absence of some of the predators of the mainland, and larger creatures become smaller when food resources are limited because of land area constraints.
132:
J. Bristol Foster in 1964. In it, Foster compared 116 island species to their mainland varieties. Foster proposed that certain island creatures evolved larger body size (
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2010:
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2020:
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523:
Mazza, P.P.A.; Rossi, M.A.; Agostini, S. (2015). "Hoplitomerycidæ (Late
Miocene, Italy), an Example of Giantism in Insular Ruminants".
1966:
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Genes increase in frequency when relatedness of recipient to actor times benefit to recipient exceeds reproductive cost to actor
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2015:
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The correlation between the size of an animal and its diet quality; larger animals can consume lower quality diet
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Sexual size dimorphism increases with size when males are larger, decreases with size when females are larger
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get smaller or bigger depending on the resources available in the environment. For example, it is known that
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A population at limit of tolerance in one aspect is vulnerable to small differences in any other aspect
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Groups evolve from character variation in primitive species to a fixed character state in advanced ones
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Case, T.J. (1978). "A general explanation for insular body size trends in terrestrial vertebrates".
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Foster, J. B. (1965) The evolution of the mammals of the Queen
Charlotte Islands, British Columbia.
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In cladistics, the most primitive species are found in earliest, central, part of group's area
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560:"Uniformity in variety: Antler morphology and evolution in a predator-free environment"
500:
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19:"Island rule" redirects here. For the concept in black hole theoretical physics, see
544:
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1991:
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Embryos start from a common form and develop into increasingly specialised forms
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Inverse relationship between water temperature and no. of fin rays, vertebrae
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157:. In 1978, Ted J. Case published a longer paper on the topic in the journal
129:
509:
281:
35:, a very large fossil goose from the Gargano and Scontrone islands of the
2516:
2445:
1976:
1483:
1395:
1342:
1297:
980:
Parts in an organism become reduced in number and specialized in function
790:
Small species get larger, large species smaller, after colonizing islands
128:
The rule was first formulated by van Valen in 1973 based on the study by
122:
98:
78:
1017:
Large ectothermic animals more easily maintain constant body temperature
2506:
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357:
252:
Van Valen, L. (1973). "Body Size and
Numbers of Plants and Animals".
86:
74:
442:
265:
950:
No. of eggs of benthic marine invertebrates decreases with latitude
641:
169:
There are some cases that do not neatly fit the rule; for example,
102:
90:
25:
572:
559:
173:
have on several islands evolved into both dwarf and giant forms.
94:
1778:
1031:
820:
Hybrid sexes that are absent, rare, or sterile, are heterogamic
645:
125:
of insular species compared to their continental counterparts.
761:
Insect social parasites are often in same genus as their hosts
589:"The island rule: An assessment of biases and research trends"
297:"The island rule: An assessment of biases and research trends"
166:
Recent literature has also applied the island rule to plants.
336:
Foster, J.B. (1964). "The evolution of mammals on islands".
380:
Occasional Papers of the
British Columbia Provincial Museum
195:
The
Neanderthal's Necklace: In Search of the First Thinkers
960:
Probability of extinction of a group is constant over time
940:
The top of an animals coloration is darker than the bottom
398:
Island biogeography: ecology, evolution, and conservation
21:
Black hole information paradox § Recent developments
890:
Birds lay only as many eggs as they can provide food for
464:
Biddick, M.; Hendriks, A.; Burns, K.C. (2019-08-19).
2454:
2354:
2279:
2152:
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1949:
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1525:
1482:
1404:
1371:
1268:
1180:
1074:
998:
679:
633:
Why Do
Islands Breed Giants (And Sometimes Dwarfs)?
77:. Similar evolutionary paths have been observed in
850:An animals metabolic rate decreases with its size
470:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
400:. Oxford University Press, UK. pp. 73–75.
105:. It is part of the more general phenomenon of
1009:Where genetics opposes environment as a factor
771:Host and parasite phylogenies become congruent
587:Lokatis, Sophie; Jeschke, Jonathan M. (2018).
1790:
1043:
657:
8:
810:Lighter coloration in colder, drier climates
16:Ecogeographical rule in evolutionary biology
466:"Plants obey (and disobey) the island rule"
2011:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
1797:
1783:
1775:
1050:
1036:
1028:
830:Parasites co-vary in size with their hosts
664:
650:
642:
222:Jean-Baptiste de Panafieu, Patrick Gries,
900:Latitudinal range increases with latitude
612:
571:
499:
489:
320:
1909:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
1548:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1941:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
186:
1749:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
741:Loss of complex traits is irreversible
691:Shorter appendages in colder climates
7:
1764:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2214:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
800:Complete competitors cannot coexist
701:Extra limbs mirror their neighbours
295:Lokatis, S.; Jeschke, J.M. (2018).
109:which describes the differences in
1967:Ecological effects of biodiversity
751:Parasites co-vary with their hosts
14:
1303:Generalist and specialist species
731:Larger bodies in deep-sea animals
146:The Theory of Island Biogeography
2026:Occupancy–abundance relationship
989:
711:Larger bodies in colder climates
2046:Relative abundance distribution
1759:Plant defense against herbivory
1626:Competitive exclusion principle
1338:Mesopredator release hypothesis
197:, Thunder's Mouth Press, 2004,
193:Juan Luis Arsuaga, Andy Klatt,
136:) while others became smaller (
1631:Consumer–resource interactions
525:Journal of Mammalian Evolution
143:The idea was expanded upon in
1:
2477:Biological data visualization
2304:Environmental niche modelling
2031:Population viability analysis
558:van der Geer, A.A.E. (2018).
226:, Seven Stories Press, 2007,
1962:Density-dependent inhibition
2431:Liebig's law of the minimum
2266:Resource selection function
1157:Metabolic theory of ecology
721:Bodies get larger over time
2638:
2331:Niche apportionment models
2051:Relative species abundance
1255:Primary nutritional groups
1152:List of feeding behaviours
564:Palaeontologia Electronica
61:stating that members of a
18:
2580:
2512:Ecosystem based fisheries
2124:Interspecific competition
2016:Minimum viable population
1874:Maximum sustainable yield
1859:Intraspecific competition
1854:Effective population size
1734:Anti-predator adaptations
1245:Photosynthetic efficiency
1006:Countergradient variation
987:
856:Hennig's progression rule
537:10.1007/s10914-014-9277-2
2502:Ecological stoichiometry
2467:Alternative stable state
396:Whittaker, R.J. (1998).
2346:Ontogenetic niche shift
2209:Ideal free distribution
2119:Ecological facilitation
1869:Malthusian growth model
1839:Consumer-resource model
1696:Paradox of the plankton
1661:Energy systems language
1381:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
1348:Optimal foraging theory
1323:Heterotrophic nutrition
593:Journal of Biogeography
491:10.1073/pnas.1907424116
301:Journal of Biogeography
2492:Ecological forecasting
2436:Marginal value theorem
2234:Landscape epidemiology
2169:Cross-boundary subsidy
2104:Biological interaction
1454:Microbial intelligence
1142:Green world hypothesis
39:
2497:Ecological humanities
2396:Ecological energetics
2341:Niche differentiation
2204:Habitat fragmentation
1972:Ecological extinction
1919:Small population size
1671:Feed conversion ratio
1651:Ecological succession
1583:San Francisco Estuary
1497:Ecological efficiency
1439:Microbial cooperation
866:Jarman–Bell principle
32:Garganornis ballmanni
29:
2612:Evolutionary biology
2522:Evolutionary ecology
2487:Ecological footprint
2482:Ecological economics
2406:Ecological threshold
2401:Ecological indicator
2271:Source–sink dynamics
2224:Land change modeling
2219:Insular biogeography
2071:Species distribution
1810:Modelling ecosystems
1469:Microbial metabolism
1308:Intraguild predation
1097:Biogeochemical cycle
1063:Modelling ecosystems
635:", episode of PBS's
177:island populations.
69:evolved from normal
59:evolutionary biology
55:ecogeographical rule
45:, also known as the
2617:Ecogeographic rules
2607:Ecology terminology
2572:Theoretical ecology
2547:Natural environment
2411:Ecosystem diversity
2381:Ecological collapse
2371:Bateman's principle
2326:Limiting similarity
2239:Landscape limnology
2061:Species homogeneity
1899:Population modeling
1894:Population dynamics
1711:Trophic state index
605:2018JBiog..45..289L
482:2019PNAS..11617632B
435:1978Ecol...59....1C
350:1964Natur.202..234F
313:2018JBiog..45..289L
2583:Outline of ecology
2532:Industrial ecology
2527:Functional ecology
2391:Ecological deficit
2336:Niche construction
2299:Ecosystem engineer
2076:Species–area curve
1997:Introduced species
1812:: Other components
1744:Deimatic behaviour
1646:Ecological network
1578:North Pacific Gyre
1563:hydrothermal vents
1502:Ecological pyramid
1449:Microbial food web
1260:Primary production
1205:Foundation species
926:Schmalhausen's law
727:Deep-sea gigantism
40:
2589:
2588:
2472:Balance of nature
2229:Landscape ecology
2114:Community ecology
2056:Species diversity
1992:Indicator species
1987:Gradient analysis
1864:Logistic function
1772:
1771:
1729:Animal coloration
1706:Trophic mutualism
1444:Microbial ecology
1235:Photoheterotrophs
1220:Myco-heterotrophy
1132:Ecosystem ecology
1117:Carrying capacity
1082:Abiotic component
1025:
1024:
781:Insular gigantism
767:Fahrenholz's rule
614:10.1111/jbi.13160
566:(21.1.9A): 1–31.
407:978-0-19-850020-9
344:(4929): 234–235.
322:10.1111/jbi.13160
240:978-1-58322-784-8
211:978-1-56858-303-7
134:insular gigantism
2629:
2289:Ecological niche
2261:selection theory
2081:Umbrella species
2066:Species richness
2002:Invasive species
1982:Flagship species
1889:Population cycle
1884:Overexploitation
1849:Ecological yield
1799:
1792:
1785:
1776:
1681:Mesotrophic soil
1621:Climax community
1553:Marine food webs
1492:Biomagnification
1293:Chemoorganotroph
1147:Keystone species
1107:Biotic component
1052:
1045:
1038:
1029:
1018:
1010:
993:
982:
981:
972:
971:
962:
961:
952:
951:
942:
941:
932:
931:
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921:
912:
911:
902:
901:
892:
891:
886:Lack's principle
882:
881:
872:
871:
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861:
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851:
842:
841:
832:
831:
822:
821:
812:
811:
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801:
792:
791:
785:Insular dwarfism
773:
772:
763:
762:
753:
752:
743:
742:
733:
732:
723:
722:
713:
712:
703:
702:
693:
692:
673:Biological rules
666:
659:
652:
643:
619:
618:
616:
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578:
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555:
549:
548:
520:
514:
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476:(36): 17632–34.
461:
455:
454:
418:
412:
411:
393:
387:
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369:
358:10.1038/202234a0
333:
327:
326:
324:
292:
286:
285:
249:
243:
220:
214:
191:
155:Edward O. Wilson
151:Robert MacArthur
138:insular dwarfism
2637:
2636:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2628:
2627:
2626:
2602:Insular ecology
2592:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2576:
2562:Systems ecology
2450:
2421:Extinction debt
2386:Ecological debt
2376:Bioluminescence
2357:
2350:
2319:marine habitats
2294:Ecological trap
2275:
2155:
2148:
2091:
2085:
2041:Rapoport's rule
2036:Priority effect
1977:Endemic species
1945:
1904:Population size
1820:
1813:
1803:
1773:
1768:
1721:
1715:
1701:Trophic cascade
1611:Bioaccumulation
1594:
1521:
1478:
1400:
1367:
1264:
1176:
1137:Ecosystem model
1070:
1056:
1026:
1021:
1016:
1008:
994:
985:
979:
978:
976:Williston's law
969:
968:
966:von Baer's laws
959:
958:
956:Van Valen's law
949:
948:
939:
938:
929:
928:
919:
918:
909:
908:
899:
898:
896:Rapoport's rule
889:
888:
879:
878:
869:
868:
859:
858:
849:
848:
839:
838:
836:Hamilton's rule
829:
828:
826:Harrison's rule
819:
818:
809:
808:
799:
798:
789:
788:
770:
769:
760:
759:
750:
749:
740:
739:
730:
729:
720:
719:
710:
709:
707:Bergmann's rule
700:
699:
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689:
675:
670:
628:
623:
622:
586:
585:
581:
557:
556:
552:
522:
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517:
463:
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458:
443:10.2307/1936628
420:
419:
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395:
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377:
373:
335:
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330:
294:
293:
289:
266:10.2307/2407116
251:
250:
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221:
217:
192:
188:
183:
107:island syndrome
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
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2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2594:
2593:
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2586:
2581:
2578:
2577:
2575:
2574:
2569:
2564:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2542:Microecosystem
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2456:
2452:
2451:
2449:
2448:
2443:
2441:Thorson's rule
2438:
2433:
2428:
2423:
2418:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2398:
2393:
2388:
2383:
2378:
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2368:
2366:Assembly rules
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2321:
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2301:
2296:
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2285:
2283:
2277:
2276:
2274:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2251:
2249:Patch dynamics
2246:
2244:Metapopulation
2241:
2236:
2231:
2226:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2166:
2160:
2158:
2150:
2149:
2147:
2146:
2141:
2139:Storage effect
2136:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2106:
2101:
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2087:
2086:
2084:
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2078:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2048:
2043:
2038:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2021:Neutral theory
2018:
2013:
2008:
2006:Native species
1999:
1994:
1989:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1953:
1951:
1947:
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1943:
1938:
1937:
1936:
1931:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1881:
1879:Overpopulation
1876:
1871:
1866:
1861:
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1846:
1841:
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1815:
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1801:
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1731:
1725:
1723:
1717:
1716:
1714:
1713:
1708:
1703:
1698:
1693:
1688:
1686:Nutrient cycle
1683:
1678:
1676:Feeding frenzy
1673:
1668:
1663:
1658:
1656:Energy quality
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1616:Cascade effect
1613:
1608:
1602:
1600:
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1504:
1499:
1494:
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1479:
1477:
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1459:Microbial loop
1456:
1451:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1431:
1426:
1424:Lithoautotroph
1421:
1416:
1410:
1408:
1406:Microorganisms
1402:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1388:
1383:
1377:
1375:
1369:
1368:
1366:
1365:
1363:Prey switching
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1274:
1272:
1266:
1265:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1252:
1247:
1242:
1240:Photosynthesis
1237:
1232:
1227:
1222:
1217:
1212:
1207:
1202:
1197:
1195:Chemosynthesis
1192:
1186:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1174:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1104:
1099:
1094:
1089:
1087:Abiotic stress
1084:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1071:
1057:
1055:
1054:
1047:
1040:
1032:
1023:
1022:
1020:
1019:
1011:
1002:
1000:
996:
995:
988:
986:
984:
983:
973:
963:
953:
946:Thorson's rule
943:
933:
923:
913:
903:
893:
883:
873:
863:
853:
843:
833:
823:
816:Haldane's rule
813:
803:
793:
774:
764:
754:
747:Eichler's rule
744:
734:
724:
714:
704:
697:Bateson's rule
694:
683:
681:
677:
676:
671:
669:
668:
661:
654:
646:
640:
639:
627:
626:External links
624:
621:
620:
599:(2): 289–303.
579:
550:
515:
456:
413:
406:
388:
371:
328:
307:(2): 289–303.
287:
244:
215:
185:
184:
182:
179:
83:hippopotamuses
67:pygmy mammoths
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2634:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2599:
2597:
2584:
2579:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2567:Urban ecology
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2459:
2457:
2453:
2447:
2444:
2442:
2439:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2427:
2426:Kleiber's law
2424:
2422:
2419:
2417:
2414:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2397:
2394:
2392:
2389:
2387:
2384:
2382:
2379:
2377:
2374:
2372:
2369:
2367:
2364:
2363:
2361:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2344:
2342:
2339:
2337:
2334:
2332:
2329:
2327:
2324:
2320:
2317:
2316:
2315:
2312:
2310:
2307:
2305:
2302:
2300:
2297:
2295:
2292:
2290:
2287:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2278:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2199:Foster's rule
2197:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2151:
2145:
2142:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2088:
2082:
2079:
2077:
2074:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2062:
2059:
2057:
2054:
2052:
2049:
2047:
2044:
2042:
2039:
2037:
2034:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2019:
2017:
2014:
2012:
2009:
2007:
2003:
2000:
1998:
1995:
1993:
1990:
1988:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1968:
1965:
1963:
1960:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1939:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1912:
1910:
1907:
1905:
1902:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1892:
1890:
1887:
1885:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1870:
1867:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1850:
1847:
1845:
1842:
1840:
1837:
1835:
1832:
1830:
1827:
1826:
1824:
1822:
1816:
1811:
1807:
1800:
1795:
1793:
1788:
1786:
1781:
1780:
1777:
1765:
1762:
1760:
1757:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1718:
1712:
1709:
1707:
1704:
1702:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1689:
1687:
1684:
1682:
1679:
1677:
1674:
1672:
1669:
1667:
1664:
1662:
1659:
1657:
1654:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1589:
1586:
1584:
1581:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1555:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1530:
1528:
1524:
1518:
1517:Trophic level
1515:
1513:
1510:
1508:
1505:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1487:
1485:
1481:
1475:
1474:Phage ecology
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1464:Microbial mat
1462:
1460:
1457:
1455:
1452:
1450:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1440:
1437:
1435:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1419:Bacteriophage
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1386:Decomposition
1384:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1370:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1333:Mesopredators
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1278:Apex predator
1276:
1275:
1273:
1271:
1267:
1261:
1258:
1256:
1253:
1251:
1248:
1246:
1243:
1241:
1238:
1236:
1233:
1231:
1228:
1226:
1223:
1221:
1218:
1216:
1213:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1203:
1201:
1198:
1196:
1193:
1191:
1188:
1187:
1185:
1183:
1179:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1163:
1160:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1143:
1140:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1112:Biotic stress
1110:
1108:
1105:
1103:
1100:
1098:
1095:
1093:
1090:
1088:
1085:
1083:
1080:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1053:
1048:
1046:
1041:
1039:
1034:
1033:
1030:
1015:
1014:Gigantothermy
1012:
1007:
1004:
1003:
1001:
997:
992:
977:
974:
967:
964:
957:
954:
947:
944:
937:
934:
927:
924:
917:
914:
907:
906:Rensch's rule
904:
897:
894:
887:
884:
877:
876:Jordan's rule
874:
867:
864:
857:
854:
847:
846:Kleiber's law
844:
837:
834:
827:
824:
817:
814:
807:
806:Gloger's rule
804:
797:
794:
786:
782:
778:
777:Foster's rule
775:
768:
765:
758:
755:
748:
745:
738:
735:
728:
725:
718:
715:
708:
705:
698:
695:
688:
685:
684:
682:
678:
674:
667:
662:
660:
655:
653:
648:
647:
644:
638:
634:
630:
629:
625:
615:
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
583:
580:
574:
569:
565:
561:
554:
551:
546:
542:
538:
534:
531:(2): 271–77.
530:
526:
519:
516:
511:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
460:
457:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
417:
414:
409:
403:
399:
392:
389:
385:
381:
375:
372:
367:
363:
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
332:
329:
323:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
291:
288:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
248:
245:
241:
237:
233:
232:1-58322-784-9
229:
225:
219:
216:
212:
208:
204:
203:1-56858-303-6
200:
196:
190:
187:
180:
178:
174:
172:
167:
164:
162:
161:
156:
152:
148:
147:
141:
139:
135:
131:
126:
124:
120:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
51:island effect
48:
44:
43:Foster's rule
38:
34:
33:
28:
22:
2552:Regime shift
2537:Macroecology
2258:
2254:
2198:
2194:Edge effects
2164:Biogeography
2109:Commensalism
1957:Biodiversity
1834:Allee effect
1573:kelp forests
1526:Example webs
1391:Detritivores
1230:Organotrophs
1210:Kinetotrophs
1162:Productivity
936:Thayer's law
776:
757:Emery's rule
687:Allen's rule
636:
596:
592:
582:
573:10.26879/834
563:
553:
528:
524:
518:
473:
469:
459:
426:
422:
416:
397:
391:
383:
379:
374:
341:
337:
331:
304:
300:
290:
260:(1): 27–35.
257:
253:
247:
223:
218:
194:
189:
175:
171:artiodactyls
168:
165:
158:
144:
142:
127:
50:
46:
42:
41:
37:Late Miocene
30:
2622:Animal size
2189:Disturbance
2092:interaction
1914:Recruitment
1844:Depensation
1636:Copiotrophs
1507:Energy flow
1429:Lithotrophy
1373:Decomposers
1353:Planktivore
1328:Insectivore
1318:Heterotroph
1283:Bacterivore
1250:Phototrophs
1200:Chemotrophs
1172:Restoration
1122:Competition
916:Rosa's rule
796:Gause's law
737:Dollo's law
717:Cope's rule
429:(1): 1–18.
130:mammalogist
47:island rule
2596:Categories
2557:Sexecology
2134:Parasitism
2099:Antibiosis
1934:Resistance
1929:Resilience
1819:Population
1739:Camouflage
1691:Oligotroph
1606:Ascendency
1568:intertidal
1558:cold seeps
1512:Food chain
1313:Herbivores
1288:Carnivores
1215:Mixotrophs
1190:Autotrophs
1069:components
181:References
119:physiology
111:morphology
2462:Allometry
2416:Emergence
2144:Symbiosis
2129:Mutualism
1924:Stability
1829:Abundance
1641:Dominance
1599:Processes
1588:tide pool
1484:Food webs
1358:Predation
1343:Omnivores
1270:Consumers
1225:Mycotroph
1182:Producers
1127:Ecosystem
1092:Behaviour
254:Evolution
224:Evolution
213:, p. 199.
123:behaviour
97:(such as
79:elephants
73:on small
2517:Endolith
2446:Xerosere
2358:networks
2174:Ecocline
1720:Defense,
1396:Detritus
1298:Foraging
1167:Resource
545:16437411
510:31427521
386:, 1–130.
282:28563673
99:Key deer
71:mammoths
53:, is an
2507:Ecopath
2314:Habitat
2184:Ecotype
2179:Ecotone
2156:ecology
2154:Spatial
2090:Species
1950:Species
1821:ecology
1806:Ecology
1754:Mimicry
1722:counter
1666:f-ratio
1414:Archaea
1102:Biomass
1075:General
1067:Trophic
1059:Ecology
999:Related
601:Bibcode
501:6731657
478:Bibcode
451:1936628
431:Bibcode
423:Ecology
366:7870628
346:Bibcode
309:Bibcode
274:2407116
242:, p 42.
160:Ecology
115:ecology
75:islands
63:species
49:or the
1538:Rivers
1434:Marine
543:
508:
498:
449:
404:
364:
338:Nature
280:
272:
238:
230:
209:
201:
103:humans
101:) and
91:sloths
2455:Other
2356:Other
2309:Guild
2281:Niche
1533:Lakes
680:Rules
541:S2CID
447:JSTOR
362:S2CID
270:JSTOR
149:, by
1543:Soil
637:Nova
506:PMID
402:ISBN
278:PMID
236:ISBN
228:ISBN
207:ISBN
199:ISBN
153:and
121:and
95:deer
87:boas
609:doi
568:doi
533:doi
496:PMC
486:doi
474:116
439:doi
354:doi
342:202
317:doi
262:doi
57:in
2598::
2004:/
1808::
1065::
1061::
787:)
783:,
607:.
597:45
595:.
591:.
562:.
539:.
529:22
527:.
504:.
494:.
484:.
472:.
468:.
445:.
437:.
427:59
425:.
384:14
382:,
360:.
352:.
340:.
315:.
305:45
303:.
299:.
276:.
268:.
258:27
256:.
234:,
205:,
163:.
117:,
113:,
93:,
89:,
85:,
81:,
2259:K
2257:/
2255:r
1798:e
1791:t
1784:v
1051:e
1044:t
1037:v
779:(
665:e
658:t
651:v
631:"
617:.
611::
603::
576:.
570::
547:.
535::
512:.
488::
480::
453:.
441::
433::
410:.
368:.
356::
348::
325:.
319::
311::
284:.
264::
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
