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that in 1808 the twenty-year constitutional ban on ending the international slave trade would expire, in
December 1806 in his presidential message to Congress, he called for a law to ban it. He denounced the trade as "violations of human rights which have been so long continued on the unoffending inhabitants of Africa, in which the morality, the reputation, and the best interests of our country have long been eager to proscribe". Jefferson signed the new law and the international trade became illegal in January 1808. The legal trade had averaged 14,000 slaves a year; illegal smuggling at the rate of about 1,000 slaves a year continued for decades. "The two major achievements of Jefferson's presidency were the Louisiana Purchase and the abolition of the slave trade", according to historian
702:
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23:
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1034:, by force if necessary. In this case, unlike that of the Louisiana Territory, the dynamics of European politics worked against Jefferson. Napoleon had played Washington against Madrid to see what he could get, but by 1805 Spain was his ally. Spain had no desire to cede Florida, which was part of its leverage against an expanding United States. Revelations of the bribe which Jefferson offered to France over the matter provoked outrage and weakened Jefferson's hand, and he subsequently gave up on Florida.
464:
1004:
538:. Jefferson sought to make collective decisions with his cabinet, and each member's opinion was elicited before Jefferson made major decisions. Gallatin and Madison were particularly influential within Jefferson's cabinet; they held the two most important cabinet positions and served as Jefferson's key lieutenants. During Jefferson's administration, the key foreign policy concerns revolved around relationships with the major European powers, particularly the
1208:
policy", and Joseph Ellis calls it "an unadulterated calamity". Others, however, portray it as an innovative, nonviolent measure which aided France in its war with
Britain while preserving American neutrality. Jefferson believed that the failure of the embargo was due to selfish traders and merchants showing a lack of "republican virtue". He maintained that, had the embargo been widely observed, it would have avoided war in 1812.
955:, a double agent for the Spanish, decided to turn on Burr. Jefferson issued a proclamation warning that there were U.S. citizens illegally plotting to take over Spanish holdings. Though Burr was nationally discredited, Jefferson feared for the very Union. In a report to Congress January 1807, Jefferson declared Burr's guilt "placed beyond question". By March 1807, Burr was arrested in New Orleans and placed on
991:. The U.S. allowed war contraband to "continue to flow to the blacks through usual U.S. merchant channels and the administration would refuse all French requests for assistance, credits, or loans". The "geopolitical and commercial implications" of Napoleon's plans outweighed Jefferson's fears of a slave-led nation. After the rebels in Saint-Domingue proclaimed independence from France in the new republic of
1073:, the two brothers would be a continual source of irritation to westward settlers. The Indian Nations followed Tenskwatawa who had a vision of purifying his society by expelling American settlers, the "children of the Evil Spirit". The success of the Indians gave Britain hope that it could create an Indian satellite nation in parts of the American territory. The raids became a major cause of the later
781:
1000:. Historian Tim Matthewson notes that Jefferson "acquiesced in southern policy, the embargo of trade and nonrecognition, the defense of slavery internally and the denigration of Haiti abroad". According to the historian George Herring, "the Florida diplomacy reveals him at his worst. His lust for land trumped his concern for principle".
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throughout the South. The
Constitution had included a provision preventing Congress from enacting a law banning the importation of slaves until 1808. In the years before Jefferson took office, the growing fear of slave rebellions led to diminished enthusiasm in the South for the abolition of slavery, and many states began to enact
1165:
6,000 sailors from them, angering
Americans. The British began to enforce a blockade of Europe, ending their policy of tolerance towards American shipping. Though the British returned many seized American goods that had not been intended for French ports, the British blockade badly affected American
883:
from France. To the surprise of the
American delegation, Napoleon offered to sell the entire territory of Louisiana for $ 15 million. The Americans also pressed for the acquisition of the Floridas, but under the terms of the Treaty of Aranjuez, Spain retained control of both of those territories. On
1207:
Most historians consider
Jefferson's embargo to have been ineffective and harmful to American interests. Even the top officials of the Jefferson administration viewed the embargo as a flawed policy, but they saw it as preferable to war. Appleby describes the strategy as Jefferson's "least effective
1052:
thinking, President
Jefferson adopted an assimilation policy towards American Indians known as his "civilization program" which included securing peaceful U.S.–Indian treaty alliances and encouraging agriculture. Jefferson advocated that Indian tribes should make federal purchases by credit holding
945:
After Aaron Burr was disgraced in the duel of 1804 and his own presidential ambitions were ended, he was reported by the
British ambassador as wanting to "effect a separation of the western part of the United States ". Jefferson believed that to be so by November 1806, because Burr had been rumored
1128:
During his presidential term, Jefferson was disappointed that the younger generation was making no move to abolish slavery; he largely avoided the issue until 1806. He did succeed in convincing
Congress to block the foreign importation of slaves into the newly purchased Louisiana Territory. Seeing
995:
in 1804, Jefferson refused to recognize Haiti as the second independent republic in the
Americas. In part he hoped to win Napoleon's support over the acquisition of Florida. American slaveholders had been frightened and horrified by the slave massacres of the planter class during the rebellion and
937:
was a key factor in Burr's defeat, having made callous remarks regarding Burr. Believing that his honor was offended, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel. On July 11, 1804, Burr mortally wounded Hamilton in a duel at Weehawken, New Jersey. Burr was indicted for Hamilton's murder in New York and New
686:
to force Europe to comply. It forbade trade with both France and Britain, but they did not bend. Furthermore, Federalists denounced his policy as partisanship in favor of agrarian interests instead of commercial interests. It was highly unpopular in New England, which began smuggling operations,
1199:
in 1807, which was designed to force Britain and France into respecting U.S. neutrality by cutting off all American shipping to Britain or France. Almost immediately the Americans began to turn to smuggling in order to ship goods to Europe. Defying his own limited government principles, Jefferson
891:
quickly ratified the treaty, and the House immediately authorized funding. The purchase, concluded in December 1803, marked the end of French ambitions in North America and ensured American control of the Mississippi River. The Louisiana Purchase nearly doubled the size of the United States, and
713:
pirates of North Africa had been capturing American merchant ships, pillaging valuable cargoes and enslaving crew members, demanding huge ransoms for their release. Before independence, American merchant ships were protected from the Barbary pirates by the naval and diplomatic influence of Great
1095:
In the 1790s, many anti-slavery leaders had come to believe that the institution of slavery would become extinct in the United States in the foreseeable future. These hopes lay in part on the enthusiasm for the abolition of slavery in the North, and in the decline of the importation of slaves
765:
into breaking their alliance with Tripoli which ultimately moved it out of the war. Jefferson also ordered five separate naval bombardments of Tripoli, which restored peace in the Mediterranean for a while, although Jefferson continued to pay the remaining Barbary States until the end of his
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in the early 1790s, in large part because American shipping was allowed to act as neutral carriers with European powers. Though the British sought to restrict trade with the French, they had largely tolerated U.S. trade with mainland France and French colonies after the signing of the
1030:. He hoped to use that claim, along with French pressure, to force Spain to sell both West Florida and East Florida. In 1806, he won congressional approval of a $ 2 million appropriation to obtain the Floridas; eager expansionists also contemplated authorizing the president to acquire
1177:, which would have represented an extension of the Jay Treaty. Jefferson had never favored the Jay Treaty, which had prevented the United States from implementing economic sanctions on Britain, and he rejected the Monroe–Pinkney Treaty. Tensions with Britain heightened due to the
1160:
for neutral vessels, including American ships. Early in his tenure, Jefferson was able to maintain cordial relations with both France and Britain, but relations with Britain deteriorated after 1805. Needing sailors, the British Royal Navy seized hundreds of American ships and
583:
to John Jay, but after Jay expressed his preference for a judicial appointment, Washington selected Jefferson as the first permanent Secretary of State. Washington considered himself to be an expert in both foreign affairs and the Department of War, and as such, according to
959:
in Richmond, Virginia, with Chief Justice John Marshall presiding. On June 13, Jefferson was subpoenaed by Burr to release documents that favored Burr's defense. Jefferson stated he had no loyalty to Burr and only released a few documents Burr had requested having invoked
867:. One army was sent to Saint-Domingue, and a second army began preparing to travel to New Orleans. After French forces in Saint-Domingue were defeated by the rebels, Napoleon gave up on his plans for an empire in the Western Hemisphere. In early 1803, Jefferson dispatched
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commerce and provoked immense anger throughout the nation. Aside from commercial concerns, Americans were outraged by what they saw as an attack on national honor. In response to the attacks, Jefferson recommended an expansion of the navy, and Congress passed the
592:. Like Jefferson, Randolph tended to favor the French in foreign affairs, but he held very little influence in the cabinet. Knox, Hamilton, and Randolph all left the cabinet during Washington's second term; Randolph was forced to resign during the debate over the
1057:
and the Creek. However, Jefferson dreamed of a transcontinental nation, and he became increasingly skeptical of assimilation efforts. As his presidency continued, Jefferson prioritized white settlement of the western territories over peaceful assimilation.
714:
Britain, but that protection came to end after the colonies won their independence. In 1794, in reaction to the attacks, Congress had passed a law to authorize the payment of tribute to the Barbary States. At the same time, Congress passed the
812:
west of the river. In return for fifteen million dollars, or approximately eighteen dollars per square mile, the United States nominally acquired a total of 828,000 sq mi (2,140,000 km; 530,000,000 acres) in
2685:
836:. Given Spain's sparse presence in Louisiana, Jefferson believed that it was just a matter of time until Louisiana fell to either Britain or the United States. U.S. expansionary hopes were temporarily dashed when
976:
733:
Jefferson was reluctant to become involved in any kind of international conflict, but he believed that force would best deter the Barbary States from demanding further tribute. He ordered the U.S. Navy into the
950:
to conquer Mexico. At the very least, there were reports of Burr's recruiting men, stocking arms, and building boats. New Orleans seemed especially vulnerable, but at some point, the American general there,
824:
Jefferson believed that western expansion played an important role in furthering his vision of a republic of yeoman farmers. By the time Jefferson took office, Americans had settled as far west as the
1200:
used the military to enforce the embargo. Imports and exports fell immensely, and the embargo proved to be especially unpopular in New England. In March 1809, Congress replaced the embargo with the
964:. Jefferson refused to appear at Burr's trial. The weak government case led to Burr's acquittal, but with his reputation ruined he was never able to mount another adventure. Burr later died on his
892:
Treasury Secretary Gallatin was forced to borrow from foreign banks to finance the payment to France. Though the Louisiana Purchase was widely popular, some Federalists criticized it; Congressman
1188:, a June 1807 naval confrontation between an American ship and a British ship that ended in the death or impressment of several American sailors. Beginning with Napoleon's December 1807
647:. The Democratic-Republicans favored decentralization to the state governments, and the party attacked the taxes the Federalists imposed. The Democratic-Republicans also denounced the
821:; effectively, for the majority of the area, the United States bought the preemptive right to obtain Indian lands by treaty or by conquest, to the exclusion of other colonial powers.
671:, doubled the size of the growing nation by adding a huge swath of territory west of the Mississippi River, opening up millions of new farm sites for the yeomen farmers idealized by
1069:
were leading raids against American settlements in the Ohio Valley, with munitions provided by British traders in Canada. Attempting to form a confederation of Indian people in the
371:
280:
149:
494:
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719:
987:
After early 1802, when he learned that Napoleon intended to regain a foothold in Saint-Domingue and Louisiana, Jefferson proclaimed neutrality in relation to the
567:
62:
832:. Many in the United States, particularly those in the west, favored further territorial expansion, and especially hoped to annex the Spanish province of
1538:
887:
After Secretary of State James Madison gave his assurances that the purchase was well within even the strictest interpretation of the Constitution, the
844:. Though French pressure played a role in the conclusion of the treaty, the Spanish also believed that French control of Louisiana would help protect
651:, which the Federalists had passed to make it harder for immigrants to become citizens and to restrict statements critical of the federal government.
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189:
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515:
321:
258:
221:
80:
75:
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413:
326:
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1192:, the French began to seize ships trading with the British, leaving American shipping vulnerable to attacks by both of the major naval powers.
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candidate, defeated Adams. The chief political issues of the campaign revolved around foreign policy matters, including the fallout from the
487:
420:
346:
341:
1353:
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Napoleon's dreams of a re-established French colonial empire in North America threatened to reignite the tensions of the recently concluded
2284:
1114:
1100:
designed to restrict the behavior of free blacks. Jefferson himself owned more than 600 slaves during his adult life, writing in his book,
930:
726:. By the end of the 1790s, the United States had concluded treaties with all of the Barbary States, but weeks before Jefferson took office
22:
2680:
918:
621:
435:
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by freed African Americans. However, he opposed some other measures to restrict slavery within the U.S., and also criticized voluntary
588:, "he was in practice his own Foreign Secretary and War Secretary". Jefferson left the cabinet at the end of 1793, and was replaced by
2618:
2597:
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1734:
660:
1971:
1106:, that he feared that freeing enslaved people into American society would cause civil unrest between white people and former slaves.
450:
872:
705:
The Barbary Coast of North Africa 1806. The map left is Morocco at Gibraltar, the center map is Tunis; right, Tripoli stretches east
620:, and retained Washington's cabinet. Jefferson, as the recipient of the second-largest number of electoral college votes, became
580:
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455:
285:
247:
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April 30, the two delegations agreed to the terms of the Louisiana Purchase, and Napoleon gave his approval the following day.
2637:
1102:
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after, and a southern-dominated Congress was "hostile to Haiti". They feared its success would encourage slave revolt in the
983:
is an anti-Jefferson satire, relating to Jefferson's covert negotiations for the purchase of West Florida from Spain in 1804.
922:
814:
605:
440:
382:
336:
275:
242:
201:
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361:
1380:"A Revolution of 1800 After All: The Political Culture of the Earlier Early Republic and the Origins of American Democracy"
1118:
1022:, which remained under the control of Spain. Jefferson argued that the Louisiana Purchase had extended as far west as the
701:
535:
1090:
445:
1156:
in 1794. Jefferson favored a policy of neutrality in the European wars, and was strongly committed to the principle of
1097:
939:
632:
430:
351:
111:
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their lands as collateral for repayment. Various tribes accepted Jefferson's policies, including the Shawnees led by
1201:
1142:
300:
1174:
1148:
841:
676:
644:
126:
106:
1563:
Lee, Robert (1 March 2017). "Accounting for Conquest: The Price of the Louisiana Purchase of Indian Country".
1770:"Colonel Aaron Burr died at his residence, on Staten Island, » 15 Oct 1836 » the Spectator Archive"
743:
648:
463:
909:
310:
1270:. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, United States Department of State.
797:
672:
387:
270:
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833:
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Thomas Jefferson envisioned America as the force behind a great "Empire of Liberty", that would promote
1267:
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wrote, "We are to give money of which we have too little for land of which we already have too much".
2251:
1110:
1086:
1049:
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to be variously plotting with some western states to secede for an independent empire, or to raise a
926:
888:
2583:
2031:
1167:
1130:
1070:
961:
683:
366:
2083:
Robert E. Cray, "Remembering the USS Chesapeake: The politics of maritime death and impressment".
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1008:
988:
934:
864:
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775:
723:
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817:. However, France only controlled a small fraction of this area, most of which was inhabited by
2409:
The Wars of the Barbary Pirates: To the Shores of Tripoli – The Rise of the US Navy and Marines
1914:
Restoring the Chain of Friendship: British Policy and the Indians of the Great Lakes, 1783–1815
925:. Having been dropped from the 1804 Democratic-Republican ticket, Burr ran for the position of
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675:. President James Monroe rounded out the Southeast when he obtained Florida from Spain in the
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597:
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305:
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took the position of Attorney General. In 1795, Pickering became the Secretary of State, and
2494:
1572:
1513:"Louisiana Purchase Definition, Date, Cost, History, Map, States, Significance, & Facts"
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531:
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Jersey causing him to flee to Georgia, although he remained President of the Senate during
518:. By July 1801, Jefferson had assembled his cabinet, which consisted of Secretary of State
2338:
1979:
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589:
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356:
331:
742:. The administration's initial efforts were largely ineffective, and in 1803 the frigate
2518:
2429:
2317:
1899:
Dwight L Smith, "A North American Neutral Indian Zone: Persistence of a British Idea",
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860:
855:. He initially planned to re-establish a French empire in the Americas centered around
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Setting the World Ablaze: Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and the American Revolution
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began attacking American merchant ships in an attempt to extract further tribute.
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2407:
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Jefferson's non-recognition of Haiti did little to advance his goal of acquiring
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893:
856:
785:
95:
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2000:
John B. Boles, "Thomas Jefferson: Architect of American Liberty," pp. 117, 2017
757:, making Decatur a national hero. Jefferson and the young American navy forced
643:. The Federalists favored a strong central government and close relations with
2233:
Thomas Jefferson: The American Presidents Series: The 3rd President, 1801–1809
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511:
425:
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852:
845:
640:
1735:"June 13, 1807: Thomas Jefferson subpoenaed in Aaron Burr's treason trial"
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and proved ineffective in stopping harsh treatment from British warships.
2319:
American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies in the Founding of the Republic
1062:
837:
668:
1418:
2131:
1268:"Biographies of the Secretaries of State: Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826)"
762:
1413:
Harris G. Warren, "Textbook Writers and the Florida" Purchase" Myth".
788:(2,144,480 square kilometers), doubling the size of the United States.
2501:. American Presidency. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
1031:
543:
1782:
2126:
Jeffrey A. Frankel, "The 1807–1809 Embargo Against Great Britain".
1834:
828:, though vast pockets of land remained vacant or inhabited only by
2610:
The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia
1204:, which allowed trade with nations aside from Britain and France.
1173:
To restore peaceful relations with Britain, Monroe negotiated the
1002:
992:
975:
779:
758:
700:
547:
1195:
In response to attacks on American shipping, Congress passed the
2366:
A Leap in the Dark: The Struggle to Create the American Republic
840:
convinced Spain to transfer the province to France in the 1801
631:, sometimes called the "Revolution of 1800", Jefferson, as the
1956:
William Cohen, "Thomas Jefferson and the Problem of Slavery,"
1729:
1727:
1725:
2431:
The Road to Monticello: The Life and Mind of Thomas Jefferson
1945:
Making the American Self: Jonathan Edwards to Abraham Lincoln
1835:
Matthewson, Tim. "Jefferson and the Non-recognition of Haiti"
2454:
From Colony to Superpower: U.S. Foreign Relations since 1776
550:—each of which continued to hold substantial territories in
2686:
Foreign policy by United States presidential administration
1113:
and outlawed it while he was president. He advocated for a
942:. The two Burr indictments were "quietly allowed to die".
753:
led a successful raid on Tripoli's harbor that burned the
709:
For decades prior to Jefferson's accession to office, the
510:
took office in 1801 after defeating incumbent President
1170:, which restricted many, but not all, British imports.
863:, a sugar-producing Caribbean island in the midst of a
667:
of 1803, made by Jefferson in a $ 15 million deal with
940:
Supreme Court Justice Samuel Chase's impeachment trial
749:
was captured by Tripoli. In February 1804, Lieutenant
1402:
Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of Thomas Jefferson
738:
to defend against the Barbary Pirates, beginning the
2388:
Adams vs. Jefferson: The Tumultuous Election of 1800
2020:
Jefferson and the President: Second Term, 1805–1809
1382:. Jeffrey L. Pasley University of Missouri-Columbia
1026:, and had included West Florida as far east as the
808:in 1803. This consisted of most of the land in the
89:
68:
58:
46:
2651:Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic
2648:
2540:
2517:
2451:
2428:
2363:
2316:
2036:The wolf by the ears: Thomas Jefferson and slavery
1137:Relations with European powers and the Embargo Act
2565:Habits of Empire: A History of American Expansion
1061:When Jefferson assumed power, the Shawnee leader
2589:Thomas Jefferson and the New Nation; a Biography
1147:American trade boomed after the outbreak of the
2476:Thomas Jefferson: Westward the Course of Empire
1117:of all slaves within the United States and the
1007:The United States in 1805, two years after the
579:. Washington initially offered the position of
1970:Jackson Fossett, Dr. Judith (June 27, 2004).
1706:
1704:
1702:
1611:
1609:
1109:Jefferson consistently spoke out against the
488:
8:
1400:Robert W. Tucker, and David C. Hendrickson,
933:, and was defeated. Federalist Party leader
784:The 1803 Louisiana Purchase totaled 827,987
1599:
1597:
1595:
1354:"Thomas Jefferson: The Revolution of 1800"
600:succeeded Knox as Secretary of War, while
495:
481:
140:
21:
1539:"The True Cost of the Louisiana Purchase"
1242:
568:History of U.S. foreign policy, 1776–1801
1316:
1304:
1292:
1254:
629:1800 United States presidential election
612:replaced Pickering as Secretary of War.
2297:Thomas Jefferson: Reputation and Legacy
1340:
1328:
1217:
143:
1783:Matthewson, Tim. "Jefferson and Haiti"
616:took office in 1797 after winning the
577:1788 presidential election unanimously
575:took office in 1789 after winning the
122:
42:March 4, 1801 – March 4, 1809
17:
1044:Thomas Jefferson and Native Americans
663:and counter British imperialism. The
604:became Secretary of the Treasury and
347:Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves
7:
2499:The Presidency of George Washington
1499:
1457:
1445:
919:vice president of the United States
51:
2543:Thomas Jefferson: The Art of Power
2520:The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
2279:. New York: Simon & Schuster.
1274:from the original on July 28, 2017
810:Mississippi River's drainage basin
722:that became the foundation of the
718:, which initiated construction on
238:3rd President of the United States
14:
1934:Wood, 2009, pp. 533–534, 537–538.
2406:Fremont-Barnes, Gregory (2006).
1960:56, no. 3 (1969): 503–26, p. 510
1759:Meacham (2012), pp. 405, 419–22.
1487:
682:President Jefferson planned the
468:
462:
286:Military Peace Establishment Act
148:
125:
2212:
1841:140, no. 1 (March 1996), p. 22.
1787:The Journal of Southern History
180:Early life and political career
2691:Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
2632:. W. W. Norton & Company.
2630:The Rise of American Democracy
2524:. University Press of Kansas.
2300:. Edinburgh University Press.
2230:Appleby, Joyce Oldham (2003).
1839:American Philosophical Society
1798:Matthewson (1995), pp. 226–27.
1675:
1663:
1103:Notes on the State of Virginia
202:Notes on the State of Virginia
37:Presidency of Thomas Jefferson
1:
2275:Bordewich, Fergus M. (2016).
2151:
2085:Journal of the Early Republic
2009:Peterson, 1970, pp. 781, 783.
1789:61, no. 2 (May 1995), p. 221.
1741:. A&E Television Networks
1537:Lee, Robert (March 1, 2017).
871:to France to join ambassador
554:—and with conflicts with the
451:Jefferson–Hemings controversy
2479:. Rowman & Littlefield.
2473:Kaplan, Lawrence S. (1999).
2294:Cogliano, Francis D (2008).
2176:
2155:
1642:
1415:Florida Historical Quarterly
1091:Thomas Jefferson and slavery
534:, and Secretary of the Navy
522:, Secretary of the Treasury
2655:. Oxford University Press.
2592:. Oxford University Press.
2458:. Oxford University Press.
2450:Herring, George C. (2008).
2435:. Oxford University Press.
2391:. Oxford University Press.
2370:. Oxford University Press.
2347:. Oxford University Press.
2260:. Oxford University Press.
2196:
2128:Journal of Economic History
2108:McDonald, 1976, pp. 132–133
2074:McDonald, 1976, pp. 100–101
1958:Journal of American History
1624:Nugent, 2008, pp. 57–59, 61
1565:Journal of American History
968:residence in October 1836.
875:in purchasing New Orleans,
796:was the acquisition of the
633:Democratic-Republican Party
431:Democratic-Republican Party
190:Declaration of Independence
2707:
2681:1800s in the United States
2607:Rodriguez, Junius (2002).
2516:McDonald, Forrest (1976).
2236:. Henry Holt and Company.
2208:
2192:
2180:
1233:McDonald, 1976, pp. 36–38.
1143:Origins of the War of 1812
1140:
1084:
1041:
921:from 1801 to 1805, during
903:
773:
694:
618:1796 presidential election
565:
516:1800 presidential election
301:Lewis and Clark Expedition
2315:Ellis, Joseph J. (2008).
2130:(1982) 42#2 pp. 291–308.
2056:McDonald, 1976, pp. 56–57
1972:"Forum: Thomas Jefferson"
1877:Appleby, 2003, pp. 107–10
1825:Matthewson (1996), p. 22.
1431:Jefferson and the Embargo
1224:Appleby, 2003, pp. 37–41.
1149:French Revolutionary Wars
1111:international slave trade
1038:Native American relations
848:from American expansion.
362:Chesapeake–Leopard affair
342:Native American relations
121:
101:
33:
29:
20:
2647:Wood, Gordon S. (2009).
2427:Hayes, Kevin J. (2008).
2167:Wood, 2009, pp. 650–651.
2142:Wood, 2009, pp. 652–657.
2117:Wood, 2009, pp. 644–649.
2099:Wood, 2009, pp. 640–642.
2087:(2005) 25#3 pp. 445–74.
2065:Wood, 2009, pp. 622–626.
1943:Howe, Daniel W. (1997),
1925:Wood, 2009, pp. 523–527.
1903:(1989) 61 (2–4): 46–63.
1901:Northwest Ohio Quarterly
1859:Wood, 2009, pp. 374–375.
1807:Appleby, 2003, pp. 78–79
1719:Wood, 2009, pp. 383–384.
1696:Wood, 2009, pp. 369–370.
1687:Appleby, 2003, pp. 64–65
1615:Wood, 2009, pp. 366–367.
1603:Appleby, 2003, pp. 63–64
1589:Wood, 2009, pp. 357–359.
1478:Wood, 2009, pp. 636–639.
1469:Wood, 2009, pp. 634–636.
157:This article is part of
2562:Nugent, Walter (2008).
2385:—— (2004).
2047:McDonald, 1976, pp. 4–5
1868:Herring (2008), p. 109.
1850:Herring (2008), p. 108.
1816:Herring (2008), p. 107.
1654:Nugent, 2008, pp. 65–66
1633:Nugent, 2008, pp. 61–62
1517:Encyclopedia Britannica
649:Alien and Sedition Acts
2628:Wilentz, Sean (2005).
2362:Ferling, John (2003).
1119:colonization of Africa
1011:
984:
923:Jefferson's first term
798:territory of Louisiana
789:
706:
673:Jeffersonian democracy
388:University of Virginia
271:Jeffersonian democracy
2539:Meacham, Jon (2012).
2412:. Osprey Publishing.
2252:Bernstein, Richard B.
1710:Banner (1972), p. 34.
1577:10.1093/jahist/jaw504
1417:41.4 (1963): 325-331
1356:. PBS. Archived from
1175:Monroe–Pinkney Treaty
1158:freedom of navigation
1006:
979:
904:Further information:
806:French First Republic
783:
704:
566:Further information:
372:Judicial appointments
185:Early life and career
63:Democratic-Republican
2584:Peterson, Merrill D.
2547:. Random House LLC.
2323:. Random House LLC.
2032:Miller, John Chester
1500:Fremont-Barnes, 2006
1458:Fremont-Barnes, 2006
1446:Fremont-Barnes, 2006
1429:Louis Martin Sears,
1115:gradual emancipation
1087:Atlantic slave trade
1048:In keeping with his
927:Governor of New York
917:served as the third
352:Red River Expedition
2022:(1974), pp. 543–44.
1912:Timothy D. Willig,
1739:This Day in History
1360:on October 30, 2013
1202:Non-Intercourse Act
1168:Non-importation Act
1131:John Chester Miller
1071:Northwest Territory
962:executive privilege
931:April 1804 election
684:Embargo Act of 1807
530:, Attorney General
526:, Secretary of War
414:cultural depictions
2277:The First Congress
1319:, pp. 161, 164–165
1295:, pp. 139, 164–165
1012:
1009:Louisiana Purchase
989:Haitian Revolution
985:
935:Alexander Hamilton
910:Burr–Hamilton duel
842:Treaty of Aranjuez
794:Louisiana Purchase
790:
776:Louisiana Purchase
770:Louisiana Purchase
724:United States Navy
707:
669:Napoleon Bonaparte
665:Louisiana Purchase
581:Secretary of State
441:Views on education
311:Burr–Hamilton duel
296:Louisiana Purchase
291:Yazoo land scandal
217:First Party System
212:Secretary of State
207:Minister to France
2662:978-0-199-83246-0
2508:978-0-7006-0359-6
2495:McDonald, Forrest
2377:978-0-19-515924-0
972:Florida and Haiti
957:trial for treason
873:Robert Livingston
826:Mississippi River
740:First Barbary War
736:Mediterranean Sea
716:Naval Act of 1794
697:First Barbary War
691:First Barbary War
677:Adams–OnĂs Treaty
637:French Revolution
598:Timothy Pickering
573:George Washington
505:
504:
337:Florida and Haiti
306:First Barbary War
281:Twelfth Amendment
195:Committee of Five
174:
173:
139:
138:
2698:
2666:
2654:
2643:
2624:
2603:
2579:
2558:
2546:
2535:
2523:
2512:
2490:
2469:
2457:
2446:
2434:
2423:
2402:
2381:
2369:
2358:
2334:
2322:
2311:
2290:
2286:978-1-45169193-1
2271:
2257:Thomas Jefferson
2247:
2216:
2206:
2200:
2190:
2184:
2174:
2168:
2165:
2159:
2149:
2143:
2140:
2134:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2109:
2106:
2100:
2097:
2091:
2081:
2075:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2054:
2048:
2045:
2039:
2029:
2023:
2016:
2010:
2007:
2001:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1987:
1978:. Archived from
1967:
1961:
1954:
1948:
1941:
1935:
1932:
1926:
1923:
1917:
1910:
1904:
1897:
1891:
1888:Tecumseh: A Life
1884:
1878:
1875:
1869:
1866:
1860:
1857:
1851:
1848:
1842:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1817:
1814:
1808:
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1799:
1796:
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1774:
1773:
1766:
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1731:
1720:
1717:
1711:
1708:
1697:
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1679:
1673:
1667:
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1655:
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1646:
1640:
1634:
1631:
1625:
1622:
1616:
1613:
1604:
1601:
1590:
1587:
1581:
1580:
1560:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1534:
1528:
1527:
1525:
1524:
1509:
1503:
1497:
1491:
1485:
1479:
1476:
1470:
1467:
1461:
1455:
1449:
1443:
1437:
1427:
1421:
1411:
1405:
1398:
1392:
1391:
1389:
1387:
1376:
1370:
1369:
1367:
1365:
1350:
1344:
1338:
1332:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1308:
1302:
1296:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1279:
1264:
1258:
1252:
1246:
1240:
1234:
1231:
1225:
1222:
1065:and his brother
865:slave revolution
830:Native Americans
819:Native Americans
586:Forrest McDonald
532:Levi Lincoln Sr.
508:Thomas Jefferson
497:
490:
483:
472:
471:
466:
446:Views on slavery
327:2nd inauguration
264:1st inauguration
170:
169:
167:
166:Thomas Jefferson
160:
152:
145:
144:
141:
129:
40:
38:
25:
18:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2696:
2695:
2671:
2670:
2669:
2663:
2646:
2640:
2627:
2621:
2606:
2600:
2582:
2576:
2561:
2555:
2538:
2532:
2515:
2509:
2493:
2487:
2472:
2466:
2449:
2443:
2426:
2420:
2405:
2399:
2384:
2378:
2361:
2355:
2337:
2331:
2314:
2308:
2293:
2287:
2274:
2268:
2250:
2244:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2219:
2207:
2203:
2191:
2187:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2162:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2125:
2121:
2116:
2112:
2107:
2103:
2098:
2094:
2082:
2078:
2073:
2069:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:(1980), p. 142.
2030:
2026:
2017:
2013:
2008:
2004:
1999:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1982:on July 6, 2004
1969:
1968:
1964:
1955:
1951:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1911:
1907:
1898:
1894:
1890:(1999), p. 144.
1885:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1867:
1863:
1858:
1854:
1849:
1845:
1833:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1806:
1802:
1797:
1793:
1781:
1777:
1768:
1767:
1763:
1758:
1754:
1744:
1742:
1733:
1732:
1723:
1718:
1714:
1709:
1700:
1695:
1691:
1686:
1682:
1674:
1670:
1664:Rodriguez, 2002
1662:
1658:
1653:
1649:
1641:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1623:
1619:
1614:
1607:
1602:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1562:
1561:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1536:
1535:
1531:
1522:
1520:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1498:
1494:
1488:Bernstein. 2003
1486:
1482:
1477:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1456:
1452:
1444:
1440:
1428:
1424:
1412:
1408:
1399:
1395:
1385:
1383:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1363:
1361:
1352:
1351:
1347:
1339:
1335:
1327:
1323:
1315:
1311:
1303:
1299:
1291:
1287:
1277:
1275:
1266:
1265:
1261:
1253:
1249:
1241:
1237:
1232:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1145:
1139:
1093:
1083:
1046:
1040:
981:The Prairie Dog
974:
953:James Wilkinson
912:
902:
900:Burr conspiracy
778:
772:
751:Stephen Decatur
699:
693:
657:
655:Foreign affairs
590:Edmund Randolph
570:
564:
556:Barbary pirates
524:Albert Gallatin
501:
469:
467:
460:
436:Religious views
405:
402:
379:
378:Post-presidency
376:
357:Pike Expedition
332:Burr conspiracy
318:
315:
255:
252:
239:
236:
227:Vice presidency
181:
165:
163:
162:
161:
158:
156:
135:
134:
131:
130:
117:
116:
115:
109:
85:
41:
36:
34:
12:
11:
5:
2704:
2702:
2694:
2693:
2688:
2683:
2673:
2672:
2668:
2667:
2661:
2644:
2638:
2625:
2620:978-1576071885
2619:
2604:
2599:978-0195000542
2598:
2580:
2575:978-1400042920
2574:
2559:
2554:978-0679645368
2553:
2536:
2531:978-0700603305
2530:
2513:
2507:
2491:
2486:978-0842026307
2485:
2470:
2465:978-0199743773
2464:
2447:
2442:978-0195307580
2441:
2424:
2419:978-1846030307
2418:
2403:
2398:978-0195167719
2397:
2382:
2376:
2359:
2354:978-0195134094
2353:
2335:
2330:978-0307263698
2329:
2312:
2307:978-0748624997
2306:
2291:
2285:
2272:
2267:978-0195181302
2266:
2248:
2243:978-0805069242
2242:
2226:
2224:
2221:
2218:
2217:
2213:Peterson, 1960
2211:, pp. 504–05;
2201:
2195:, pp. 504–05;
2185:
2169:
2160:
2152:Cogliano, 2008
2144:
2135:
2119:
2110:
2101:
2092:
2076:
2067:
2058:
2049:
2040:
2024:
2018:Dumas Malone,
2011:
2002:
1993:
1962:
1949:
1936:
1927:
1918:
1905:
1892:
1879:
1870:
1861:
1852:
1843:
1827:
1818:
1809:
1800:
1791:
1775:
1761:
1752:
1721:
1712:
1698:
1689:
1680:
1668:
1656:
1647:
1635:
1626:
1617:
1605:
1591:
1582:
1571:(4): 921–942.
1555:
1529:
1504:
1492:
1480:
1471:
1462:
1450:
1438:
1422:
1406:
1393:
1371:
1345:
1333:
1321:
1309:
1297:
1285:
1259:
1247:
1243:Bordewich 2016
1235:
1226:
1216:
1215:
1213:
1210:
1138:
1135:
1082:
1079:
1039:
1036:
998:American South
973:
970:
901:
898:
861:Saint-Domingue
815:Middle America
774:Main article:
771:
768:
695:Main article:
692:
689:
656:
653:
622:Vice President
602:Oliver Wolcott
563:
560:
540:United Kingdom
528:Henry Dearborn
503:
502:
500:
499:
492:
485:
477:
474:
473:
461:
459:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
417:
416:
403:
401:
400:
395:
390:
385:
377:
375:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
344:
339:
334:
329:
324:
316:
314:
313:
308:
303:
298:
293:
288:
283:
278:
273:
267:
266:
261:
253:
251:
250:
245:
237:
235:
234:
229:
224:
219:
214:
209:
204:
199:
198:
197:
187:
179:
176:
175:
172:
171:
159:a series about
155:
153:
137:
136:
132:
124:
123:
119:
118:
110:
104:
103:
102:
99:
98:
93:
87:
86:
84:
83:
78:
72:
70:
66:
65:
60:
56:
55:
48:
44:
43:
31:
30:
27:
26:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2703:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2678:
2676:
2664:
2658:
2653:
2652:
2645:
2641:
2635:
2631:
2626:
2622:
2616:
2612:
2611:
2605:
2601:
2595:
2591:
2590:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2571:
2567:
2566:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2545:
2544:
2537:
2533:
2527:
2522:
2521:
2514:
2510:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2471:
2467:
2461:
2456:
2455:
2448:
2444:
2438:
2433:
2432:
2425:
2421:
2415:
2411:
2410:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2390:
2389:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2346:
2345:
2340:
2339:Ferling, John
2336:
2332:
2326:
2321:
2320:
2313:
2309:
2303:
2299:
2298:
2292:
2288:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2263:
2259:
2258:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2239:
2235:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2215:, pp. 289–90.
2214:
2210:
2205:
2202:
2199:, pp. 166–68.
2198:
2194:
2189:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2177:Appleby, 2003
2173:
2170:
2164:
2161:
2157:
2156:Meacham, 2012
2153:
2148:
2145:
2139:
2136:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2120:
2114:
2111:
2105:
2102:
2096:
2093:
2090:
2086:
2080:
2077:
2071:
2068:
2062:
2059:
2053:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2037:
2033:
2028:
2025:
2021:
2015:
2012:
2006:
2003:
1997:
1994:
1981:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1963:
1959:
1953:
1950:
1946:
1940:
1937:
1931:
1928:
1922:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1906:
1902:
1896:
1893:
1889:
1886:John Sugden,
1883:
1880:
1874:
1871:
1865:
1862:
1856:
1853:
1847:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1831:
1828:
1822:
1819:
1813:
1810:
1804:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1776:
1771:
1765:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1716:
1713:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1684:
1681:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1665:
1660:
1657:
1651:
1648:
1644:
1643:Wilentz, 2005
1639:
1636:
1630:
1627:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1586:
1583:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1559:
1556:
1544:
1540:
1533:
1530:
1518:
1514:
1508:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1493:
1489:
1484:
1481:
1475:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1451:
1447:
1442:
1439:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1420:
1416:
1410:
1407:
1403:
1397:
1394:
1381:
1375:
1372:
1359:
1355:
1349:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1334:
1331:, pp. 406–407
1330:
1325:
1322:
1318:
1317:McDonald 1974
1313:
1310:
1306:
1305:McDonald 1974
1301:
1298:
1294:
1293:McDonald 1974
1289:
1286:
1273:
1269:
1263:
1260:
1256:
1255:McDonald 1974
1251:
1248:
1245:, pp. 159–160
1244:
1239:
1236:
1230:
1227:
1221:
1218:
1211:
1209:
1205:
1203:
1198:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1185:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1169:
1164:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1144:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1126:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1092:
1088:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1059:
1056:
1051:
1050:Enlightenment
1045:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1029:
1028:Perdido River
1025:
1021:
1017:
1010:
1005:
1001:
999:
994:
990:
982:
978:
971:
969:
967:
966:Staten Island
963:
958:
954:
949:
943:
941:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
911:
907:
899:
897:
895:
890:
885:
882:
878:
874:
870:
866:
862:
858:
854:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
827:
822:
820:
816:
811:
807:
803:
802:United States
799:
795:
787:
782:
777:
769:
767:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
747:
741:
737:
731:
729:
725:
721:
717:
712:
711:Barbary Coast
703:
698:
690:
688:
685:
680:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
661:republicanism
654:
652:
650:
646:
645:Great Britain
642:
638:
634:
630:
625:
623:
619:
615:
611:
610:James McHenry
607:
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561:
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552:North America
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520:James Madison
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284:
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276:Fiscal policy
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259:1800 election
257:
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232:Personal life
230:
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222:1796 election
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128:
120:
114: →
113:
112:James Madison
108:
105:←
100:
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32:
28:
24:
19:
16:
2650:
2629:
2613:. ABC-CLIO.
2609:
2588:
2564:
2542:
2519:
2498:
2475:
2453:
2430:
2408:
2387:
2365:
2343:
2318:
2296:
2276:
2256:
2232:
2204:
2197:Kaplan, 1999
2188:
2172:
2163:
2147:
2138:
2127:
2122:
2113:
2104:
2095:
2084:
2079:
2070:
2061:
2052:
2043:
2035:
2027:
2019:
2014:
2005:
1996:
1984:. Retrieved
1980:the original
1975:
1965:
1957:
1952:
1944:
1939:
1930:
1921:
1913:
1908:
1900:
1895:
1887:
1882:
1873:
1864:
1855:
1846:
1838:
1830:
1821:
1812:
1803:
1794:
1786:
1778:
1764:
1755:
1745:February 20,
1743:. Retrieved
1738:
1715:
1692:
1683:
1671:
1659:
1650:
1638:
1629:
1620:
1585:
1568:
1564:
1558:
1546:. Retrieved
1542:
1532:
1521:. Retrieved
1519:. 1998-07-20
1516:
1507:
1502:, pp. 32–36.
1495:
1483:
1474:
1465:
1453:
1441:
1430:
1425:
1414:
1409:
1401:
1396:
1384:. Retrieved
1374:
1362:. Retrieved
1358:the original
1348:
1341:Ferling 2004
1336:
1329:Ferling 2003
1324:
1312:
1300:
1288:
1276:. Retrieved
1262:
1250:
1238:
1229:
1220:
1206:
1194:
1190:Milan Decree
1183:
1179:
1172:
1146:
1127:
1108:
1101:
1094:
1060:
1047:
1020:West Florida
1016:East Florida
1013:
986:
980:
944:
913:
886:
881:West Florida
877:East Florida
869:James Monroe
850:
823:
791:
786:square miles
766:presidency.
755:Philadelphia
754:
746:Philadelphia
745:
732:
720:six frigates
708:
681:
658:
626:
571:
536:Robert Smith
506:
456:Bibliography
248:Inauguration
133:Dorsett seal
50:
35:
15:
2209:Hayes, 2008
2193:Hayes, 2008
2181:Ellis, 1996
1986:December 4,
1676:Ellis, 2008
1197:Embargo Act
1123:manumission
1098:Black Codes
1081:Slave trade
1075:War of 1812
1067:Tenskwatawa
894:Fisher Ames
857:New Orleans
606:Charles Lee
367:Embargo Act
317:Second term
96:White House
2675:Categories
2639:0393058204
2179:, p. 145;
2154:, p. 250;
1523:2023-06-25
1212:References
1180:Chesapeake
1154:Jay Treaty
1141:See also:
1085:See also:
1055:Black Hoof
1042:See also:
1024:Rio Grande
948:filibuster
915:Aaron Burr
906:Aaron Burr
624:to Adams.
614:John Adams
594:Jay Treaty
562:Background
512:John Adams
426:Monticello
254:First term
243:Presidency
107:John Adams
2568:. Knopf.
2183:, p. 237.
2158:, p. 475.
1678:, p. 208.
1645:, p. 108.
1548:1 October
1490:, p. 146.
1386:April 23,
1364:April 23,
1307:, pp. 139
1163:impressed
853:Quasi-War
846:New Spain
834:Louisiana
804:from the
744:USS
641:Quasi-War
421:Memorials
383:Education
2586:(1970).
2497:(1974).
2341:(2000).
2254:(2003).
2132:in JSTOR
1666:, p. 97.
1460:, p. 32.
1448:, p. 36.
1278:July 14,
1272:Archived
1063:Tecumseh
838:Napoleon
639:and the
69:Election
52:See list
2223:Sources
1947:, p. 74
1435:reprint
1433:(1927)
1343:, 96–97
1184:Leopard
800:by the
763:Algiers
728:Tripoli
627:In the
514:in the
47:Cabinet
2659:
2636:
2617:
2596:
2572:
2551:
2528:
2505:
2483:
2462:
2439:
2416:
2395:
2374:
2351:
2327:
2304:
2283:
2264:
2240:
2089:online
1916:(2008)
1419:online
1404:(1990)
1186:affair
1032:Canada
929:in an
889:Senate
879:, and
546:, and
544:France
409:Legacy
404:Legacy
1543:Slate
1257:p. 41
993:Haiti
759:Tunis
548:Spain
398:Death
59:Party
2657:ISBN
2634:ISBN
2615:ISBN
2594:ISBN
2570:ISBN
2549:ISBN
2526:ISBN
2503:ISBN
2481:ISBN
2460:ISBN
2437:ISBN
2414:ISBN
2393:ISBN
2372:ISBN
2349:ISBN
2325:ISBN
2302:ISBN
2281:ISBN
2262:ISBN
2238:ISBN
1988:2010
1976:Time
1747:2017
1550:2019
1388:2012
1366:2012
1280:2017
1089:and
1018:and
908:and
859:and
792:The
761:and
91:Seat
81:1804
76:1800
1573:doi
1569:103
2677::
2034:,
1974:.
1837:,
1785:,
1737:.
1724:^
1701:^
1608:^
1594:^
1567:.
1541:.
1515:.
1133:.
1125:.
1077:.
679:.
596:.
558:.
542:,
2665:.
2642:.
2623:.
2602:.
2578:.
2557:.
2534:.
2511:.
2489:.
2468:.
2445:.
2422:.
2401:.
2380:.
2357:.
2333:.
2310:.
2289:.
2270:.
2246:.
1990:.
1772:.
1749:.
1579:.
1575::
1552:.
1526:.
1390:.
1368:.
1282:.
1182:–
496:e
489:t
482:v
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