1244:
attack has been established, the outbreak can be characterized by analyzing the time, place, and person affected. This information is critical in identifying the source of the outbreak. By gathering data on cases over time, an epidemic curve can be created. The pattern of the disease is important in distinguishing between a natural outbreak and an intentional attack. In the case of a bioterrorism attack, the source is most likely a single point, with everyone coming into contact with the agent at the same time. Other factors that are investigated to determine if the outbreak is the result of a biological attack include a large epidemic, more severe disease than expected for a given pathogen, an uncommon disease for a specific area, and multiple simultaneous epidemics of different diseases.
89:
1372:(Rape, Abuse & Incest National Network), the largest anti-sexual violence organization in the United States, the backlog is the result of both a failure of law enforcement to send collected kits to forensic laboratories for analysis, and a lack of resources within these labs to process the kits effectively. In the absence of adequate funding, many districts would rather dedicate their funds to homicides or more high-profile cases, and cases of sexual violence are often swept to the side. With this, as the SAKs remain in storage, the prevalence of the issue increases, especially as more and more kits are being found each year.
1098:, and drug use. The primary objective of forensic toxicology is the accurate detection, identification, and interpretation of chemicals and their metabolites in biological samples for the purpose of providing objective evidence to support medical or legal decisions. The results of forensic toxicology analyses can be used to determine the cause and manner of death, assess the role of drugs or chemicals in impairment or toxicity, and provide evidence in criminal or civil proceedings. The field of forensic toxicology requires a thorough understanding of the
836:"is a group of alleles in an organism that are inherited together from a single parent". Sharing this haplotype among family members can cause an issue in forensic samples because these samples are often mixtures that contain more than one DNA contributor. The convolution and interpretation of mtDNA mixtures is more difficult than that of nuclear DNA, and some laboratories choose not to attempt the process Since mtDNA does not recombine, the genetic markers are not as diverse as autosomal STRs are in the case of nuclear DNA. Another issue is that of
720:
621:(polymerase chain reaction), which amplifies DNA segments in-vitro, even in trace amounts. DNA samples found in crimes scenes are often found in minute amounts and degraded states, and sometimes mixed with various body fluids from multiple individuals. Using PCR, these DNA samples can be amplified for analysis when they otherwise would be useless. Beyond forensics, PCR has made an impact on a wide range of fields, including disease diagnosis and virus detection.
903:
conventional techniques are unable to determine the identity of the remains due to the lack of soft tissue, anthropologists are required to deduce certain characteristics based on the skeletal remains. Race, sex, age and possible ailments can often be determined through bone measurements and looking for clues throughout the skeletal structure. This becomes necessary when conventional methods that use soft tissue fail to establish the identity of remains.
758:. qPCR is the preferred method of DNA quantitation for forensic cases because it is very precise, human-specific, qualitative, and quantitative. This technique analyses changes in fluorescence signals of amplified DNA fragments between each PCR cycle without needing to pause the reaction or open the temperature-sensitive PCR tubes. In addition to the components necessary for a standard PCR reaction (i.e. template DNA, carefully designed forward and reverse
1306:
712:
1276:. One such microorganism are diatoms, a type of microalgae that vary in shape and are unique to specific bodies of water. By analyzing the diatom composition in a sample of water, investigators can establish if a person or questioned piece of evidence has been in contact with a specific body of water. This is because
1253:
thanatomicrobiome may help estimate the post-mortem interval. Currently, extensive research is being conducted to determine if there is a consistent microbial decomposition "clock" that could be used by itself or in conjunction with other techniques, such as forensic entomology, to help estimate postmortem intervals.
690:(ALS), are used. Once a potential source is identified, presumptive tests are conducted to establish if there is a specified biological presence (semen, saliva, blood, urine, etc.). If positive, samples are collected and submitted for analysis to a laboratory, where confirmatory tests and further tests are performed.
1225:
least four anthrax-containing envelopes in the United States in
September and October 2001. This incident resulted in 11 people contracting inhalation anthrax, leading to five fatalities, while another 11 individuals were afflicted with cutaneous anthrax. Additionally, 31 persons tested positive for exposure to
774:
that complement and anneal to the DNA sequence of interest that lies between the two primers. A "reporter" (R) dye is attached at the 5’ end of the fluorescent probe, while a "quencher" (Q) dye is attached at the 3’ end. Before the DNA strands are extended by the polymerase, the reporter and quencher
1216:
Bioterrorism refers to the deliberate use of biological agents as weapons of warfare. These agents, which can be natural or genetically modified microorganisms, are intentionally disseminated to cause illness, death, or harm to humans, animals, or plants. Regardless of their origin, these biological
1059:
is a medical doctor who has extensive knowledge and expertise in both trauma and disease. They are responsible for performing autopsies and applying their knowledge of the human body and possible internal and external injuries to determine the cause and manner of death. The information obtained from
1051:
is a specialized field within forensic science that focuses on the examination of individuals who have died suddenly, unexpectedly, or violently to determine the cause and manner of death. A forensic autopsy is a postmortem examination of the body and analysis of bodily fluids to provide information
1039:
Dental evidence is a valuable tool in establishing human identity by comparing the dental features of a deceased person with antemortem dental records. Forensic odontologists can also assist in age estimation in living and deceased persons, which can be useful in cases where the identity of a person
923:, and other plant properties, to gather evidence that can aid in criminal or civil proceedings. The identification of plant material is crucial in forensic botany, as it can provide a link between an individual and a crime scene, pinpoint the geographical location of missing bodies, or establish the
823:
mtDNA can be extracted from degraded samples since its presence in cells is much higher than nuclear DNA. There can be more than 1,000 copies of mtDNA in a cell, while there are only two copies of nuclear DNA. Nuclear DNA is inherited from both the mother and the father but mtDNA is passed down from
783:
activity. The reporter dye is released from the 5’ end. It is no longer quenched, thus enabling fluorescence detection. A graph is constructed for the sample DNA comparing the presence of fluorescence (y-axis) to cycle number (x-axis) of the qPCR process. This is then compared to a standard curve of
650:
has numerous applications, such as paternity testing, identification of unknown human remains, breakthroughs in cold cases, as well as connecting suspects and/or victims to a piece (or pieces) of evidence, a scene, or another person (either a victim or suspect). Nuclear DNA evidence can be recovered
1271:
Forensic limnology is the application of limnology, the study of inland waters, to forensic science. In cases involving a body of water at or near the scene of a crime, a sample of the water can be extracted and analyzed to identify the presence and composition of microorganisms, which can act as a
1256:
One research group has made significant progress in describing such a microbial clock and believes they are within two to five years of testing it in a real crime scene scenario. However, if a reliable and consistent microbial clock is determined to exist, it remains to be seen whether it will pass
1060:
an autopsy can greatly assist investigative efforts and scene reconstruction. A forensic pathologist may also collect evidence from the body, such as trace evidence or biological fluids, that can be used in criminal investigations, and testify in court as expert witnesses regarding their findings.
999:
Forensic ornithology can be used in a variety of contexts, including criminal investigations, wildlife management, and conservation efforts. By providing accurate identification of bird remains, this field of study can help to bring perpetrators of wildlife crimes to justice and protect endangered
991:
Feathers are one of the most important pieces of evidence used in forensic ornithology. Each bird species has unique feather characteristics that can be observed at both macroscopic and microscopic levels. These characteristics include the size, shape, color, and pattern of the feather, as well as
1243:
When investigating a possible bioterrorist or biowarfare attack, the epidemiologic approach is unique from a typical epidemiologic investigation. The process begins by confirming that there has been an outbreak using laboratory and clinical evidence. Once the number of cases and definition of the
1224:
It is important to note that biological agents used as weapons are often found in the environment, making it challenging to determine whether an infection is accidental or the result of a deliberate attack. One of the most notable cases of bioterrorism in recent history involved the mailing of at
902:
is applied to forensics most regularly through the collection and analysis of human skeletal remains. The primary goals of anthropological involvement include identification and aiding in scene reconstruction by determining details regarding the circumstances of the victim's death. In cases where
1384:
every day so the base population to search and compare to increases. Biological testing for cold cases, specifically homicides, encounters similar roadblocks as the SAKs - lack of funds or the DNA samples have not been properly stored; thus too much degradation has occurred for viable analyses.
1252:
Post-mortem microbiology is a field that aims to detect unexpected infections causing sudden deaths, confirm clinically suspected but unproven infections, evaluate the efficacy of antimicrobial therapy, identify emergent pathogens, and recognize medical errors. Additionally, the analysis of the
587:
After this, advancements were made which contributed to the ease of using and detecting blood found at crime scenes, expanding the use of blood analysis in forensic biology. Leone Lattes discoverd a method to determine the blood group of dried bloodstains in 1915. Subsequently, Albrecht H.O., a
1280:
are specific to certain bodies of water, and if a sample contains diatoms found only in a specific body of water, it can be used as evidence to link a person or object to that location. Forensic limnology can be used in conjunction with other forensic techniques to provide a more comprehensive
1220:
Forensic microbiology plays a crucial role in the study of epidemiology. By examining microorganisms obtained from infected individuals, scientists can determine the source of infection, identify the type of infection present, and analyze the mutation pattern of the microorganism. Forensic
934:
In addition to identifying plant material, forensic botanists may also analyze soil samples for traces of plant material, which can provide valuable information about the environment in which a crime occurred. The analysis of plant material and soil samples can be performed through various
987:
Forensic ornithology is the application of scientific techniques to the examination and identification of bird remains for legal purposes. This field of study can aid in investigations related to wildlife crimes, such as poaching, smuggling, and illegal trade of birds and their feathers.
840:— when an individual has more than one type of mtDNA in their cells. This can cause an issue in interpreting data from questioned forensic samples and known samples that contain mtDNA. Having adequate knowledge and understanding of heteroplasmy can help ensure successful interpretation.
4161:
Rasko, D. A.; Worsham, P. L.; Abshire, T. G.; Stanley, S. T.; Bannan, J. D.; Wilson, M. R.; Langham, R. J.; Decker, R. S.; Jiang, L.; Read, T. D.; Phillippy, A. M.; Salzberg, S. L.; Pop, M.; Van Ert, M. N.; Kenefic, L. J.; Keim, P. S.; Fraser-Liggett, C. M.; Ravel, J. (2011-03-22).
1234:
However, advancements in PCR and whole-genome sequencing enabled scientists to collaborate with the FBI to identify the source of the letter spores. The combination of forensic microbiology and modern technology is essential in identifying and preventing bioterrorism attacks.
995:
Other types of bird remains can also be identified through forensic ornithology. Bones, for example, can be analyzed to determine the species of bird, as well as the age and sex of the individual. Blood samples can also be used to identify bird species through DNA analysis.
562:
The first recorded use of forensic procedures dates back to the 7th century when the concept of using fingerprints as a means of identification was first established. By the end of the 7th century, forensic procedures were being used to determine the guilt of criminals.
784:
the cycle fluorescence threshold (y-axis) versus the log of known DNA concentrations (x-axis). By comparing the sample data to the standard curve, one may extrapolate the DNA concentration in the sample, which is essential to move forward with PCR amplification and
930:
Forensic botany can also help investigators determine the cause of death in cases where plant toxins are involved. For example, the presence of certain plant species in the stomach contents of a deceased individual may indicate accidental or intentional poisoning.
1035:
who use their expertise to establish a person's identity, interpret injuries in the oral and perioral regions, analyze and compare bite marks, and assist forensic pathologists in determining the cause of death if there is a possible contributing dental condition.
827:
The main advantage of using mtDNA is its high copy number. However, there are a few disadvantages of using mtDNA as opposed to nuclear DNA. Since mtDNA is inherited maternally and passed to each offspring, all members of the maternal familial line will share a
2936:
Luo, Shiyu; Valencia, C. Alexander; Zhang, Jinglan; Lee, Ni-Chung; Slone, Jesse; Gui, Baoheng; Wang, Xinjian; Li, Zhuo; Dell, Sarah; Brown, Jenice; Chen, Stella Maris; Chien, Yin-Hsiu; Hwu, Wuh-Liang; Fan, Pi-Chuan; Wong, Lee-Jun (2018-12-18).
873:, mtDNA was used to solve a 22-year-old cold case where the nuclear DNA evidence was not originally strong enough. After mtDNA analysis, Arbie Dean Williams was convicted of the murder of 15-year-old Linda Strait, which had occurred in 1982.
824:
only the mother to all of her offspring. Due to this type of inheritance, mtDNA is useful for identification purposes in forensic work but can also be used for mass disasters, missing persons cases, complex kinship, and genetic genealogy.
819:
when forensic samples have been degraded, are damaged, or are in very small quantities. In many cases, these may be older human remains, sometimes ancient, and the only options for DNA collection are the body's bone, teeth, or hair.
1543:
880:. Hair fibers found on the bodies of two of the children were tested and the mtDNA found to be the same for each sample. For the investigators this was a big break because it meant that the murders were likely connected.
3118:
1021:, is the application of dental science to legal matters. It is a specialized field that has been instrumental in helping law enforcement detect and solve cases in criminal and civil proceedings.
4245:
Fernández-Rodríguez, A.; Burton, J.L.; Andreoletti, L.; Alberola, J.; Fornes, P.; Merino, I.; Martínez, M.J.; Castillo, P.; Sampaio-Maia, B.; Caldas, I.M.; Saegeman, V.; Cohen, M.C. (May 2019).
779:(the quencher completely absorbs/masks the fluorescence of the reporter). As the polymerase begins to extend the strand, the 5' end of the probe is degraded by the polymerase due to its
843:
There are some ways to improve success of mtDNA analysis. Preventing contamination at all testing stages and using positive and negative controls is a priority. In addition, the use of
3157:
992:
the arrangement and structure of the barbs and barbules. By examining these features, a forensic ornithologist can determine the species of bird to which a feather belongs.
866:
855:. In these cases primers amplifying smaller regions of HV1 and HV2 in the control region of mtDNA are used. This process has been referred to as the 'ancient DNA' approach.
704:
is performed in an attempt to individualize the sample to one person with a high degree of statistical confidence. Here, STR markers for autosomal STR are used in forensic
3622:
Longato, S.; Wöss, C.; Hatzer-Grubwieser, P.; Bauer, C.; Parson, W.; Unterberger, S. H.; Kuhn, V.; Pemberger, N.; Pallua, Anton K.; Recheis, W.; Lackner, R. (2015-04-07).
862:. There was only circumstantial evidence otherwise against Ware so the admittance of mtDNA from hairs found in the victim's throat and at the scene were key to the case.
3004:
Merheb, Maxime; Matar, Rachel; Hodeify, Rawad; Siddiqui, Shoib Sarwar; Vazhappilly, Cijo George; Marton, John; Azharuddin, Syed; AL Zouabi, Hussain (2019-05-09).
1316:
3289:
1126:. This technology has enabled the analysis of microorganisms for various applications in forensic science, including biocrime, bioterrorism and epidemiology.
3624:"Post-mortem interval estimation of human skeletal remains by micro-computed tomography, mid-infrared microscopic imaging and energy dispersive X-ray mapping"
3218:
Erdem, S.; Altunçul, H.; Filoğlu, G.; Ölçen, A. M.; Bülbül, Ö. (2011-12-01). "Sequencing of mtDNA HV1 and HV2 regions from samples with trace amount of DNA".
570:, also known as the "father of criminal identification". In 1879, he introduced a scientific approach to personal identification by developing the science of
1221:
microbiologists compare the microorganisms isolated from infected individuals to known sources of infectious pathogens to identify the cause of an outbreak.
1364:
As DNA is a critical form of evidence in the investigation of cases of sexual violence, the backlog of untested sexual assault kits (SAKs), also known as a
1380:
With the considerable advances in DNA analysis, old, open cases with intact evidence can be examined for biological evidence. New profiles are uploaded to
1208:
By analyzing the stage of decay from bacterial decomposition or the bacterial succession patterns, scientists can estimate the time elapsed since death.
544:
45:, which aids law enforcement in the identification of potential suspects or unidentified remains. This field encompasses various sub-branches, including
88:
1024:
The use of forensic odontology became more popular in the 1960s with the establishment of the first instructional program in the United States at the
1369:
37:
principles and techniques in the investigation of criminal and civil cases. Forensic biology is primarily concerned with analyzing biological and
1257:
scientific and legal muster. A judge would also have to determine that the microbial clock meets the standard for admission of expert testimony.
3787:
3006:"Mitochondrial DNA, a Powerful Tool to Decipher Ancient Human Civilization from Domestication to Music, and to Uncover Historical Murder Cases"
2464:
Nwawuba
Stanley, Udogadi; Mohammed Khadija, Abdullahi; Bukola, Adams Tajudeen; Omusi Precious, Imose; Ayevbuomwan Davidson, Esewi (July 2020).
1863:
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956:(study of bryophytes). Bryology is the easiest to find evidence since bryophyte (a species of plants) attaches to shoes and clothes easily.
686:
To be used, biological evidence must be initially visually recognized at the crime scene. To aid in this, alternative light sources, or an
2627:
Higuchi, R.; Fockler, C.; Dollinger, G.; Watson, R. (1993). "Kinetic PCR analysis: real-time monitoring of DNA amplification reactions".
1025:
751:
2871:
2746:
2673:
Higuchi, R.; Dollinger, G.; Walsh, P.S.; Griffith, R. (1992). "Simultaneous amplification and detection of specific DNA sequences".
1346:
496:
1621:
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1595:
445:
1519:
400:
298:
136:
911:
Forensic botany is the application of plant science to legal investigations. It involves the study of plant material, such as
2283:
847:
can be beneficial. When a sample of mtDNA is severely degraded or has been obtained from an ancient source, the use of small
537:
430:
258:
1764:
3952:
Pechal, Jennifer L.; Crippen, Tawni L.; Benbow, M. Eric; Tarone, Aaron M.; Dowd, Scot; Tomberlin, Jeffery K. (2014-01-01).
3679:
Margiotta, Gabriele; Bacaro, Giovanni; Carnevali, Eugenia; Severini, Simona; Bacci, Mauro; Gabbrielli, Mario (2015-08-01).
950:(study of pollen and spores). Palynology can produce evidence of decomposition time, location of death or the time of year.
4411:
4340:
3739:
2590:, Techniques in Life Science and Biomedicine for the Non-Expert, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 79–84,
1428:. However thanks to Hollywood's depiction of forensic science, the analysis of biological evidence has fallen prey to the
415:
3955:"The potential use of bacterial community succession in forensics as described by high throughput metagenomic sequencing"
3320:
4406:
732:
435:
268:
4087:"Biological weapons and bioterrorism preparedness: importance of public-health awareness and international cooperation"
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1813:
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in 1984, which examines variations in DNA that can identify individuals. This has become emminently useful not only in
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1119:
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638:, is one of the most popular pieces of evidence to recover at a crime scene. Evidence containing DNA is regarded as
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1368:, greatly affects the successful identification and prosecution of the perpetrators of these crimes. According to
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72:
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1432:, which results in the public's perception of its capabilities being severely distorted and its limits blurred.
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1028:. Since then, forensic odontology has become widely known by both dental and law enforcement professionals.
767:
740:
375:
360:
318:
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580:, in 1901, introduced the categorization of human blood into groups: A, B, AB, and O. From this discovery,
4013:
876:
In 2012, mtDNA evidence allowed investigators to establish a link in a 36-year-old investigation into the
789:
345:
209:
3860:
1985:
3066:
Jobling, Mark A.; Gill, Peter (October 2004). "Correction: Encoded evidence: DNA in forensic analysis".
1328:
1217:
weapons, which can be viruses, bacteria, or fungi, are highly infectious and pose a significant threat.
1118:
Forensic microbiology has become an increasingly promising area of research with the recent advances in
894:
731:, quantified, amplified, and visualized. There are several methods of DNA extraction possible including
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630:
158:
148:
106:
46:
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to track down the missing, verify family connections, and potentially connect suspects to crime sites.
4247:"Post-mortem microbiology in sudden death: sampling protocols proposed in different clinical settings"
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found in the DNA profile, the DNA analyst may place a statistical measure of confidence on DNA match.
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Epinecrotic microbial communities, the microorganisms that colonize the surface of a decomposing body
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574:. Anthropometry involves the use of a series of body measurements to distinguish human individuals.
475:
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214:
2466:"Forensic DNA Profiling: Autosomal Short Tandem Repeat as a Prominent Marker in Crime Investigation"
3861:"Chapter 6 - What Is the "Thanatomicrobiome" and What Is Its Relevance to Forensic Investigations?"
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1765:"ABO Blood Type Identification and Forensic Science (1900-1960) | The Embryo Project Encyclopedia"
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Zhang, Yanfang; Qu, Yiping; Gao, Ke; Yang, Qi; Shi, Bingyin; Hou, Peng; Ji, Meiju (2015-02-15).
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Handbook Of
Forensic Genetics: Biodiversity And Heredity In Civil And Criminal Investigation
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4164:"Bacillus anthracis comparative genome analysis in support of the Amerithrax investigation"
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Forensic toxicology is an interdisciplinary field that applies principles and methods from
2889:"High copy number of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) predicts good prognosis in glioma patients"
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techniques, including optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and DNA analysis.
770:, and a buffer solution containing Mg2+), qPCR reactions involve fluorescent dye-labelled
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are useful since even if they are ripped apart or broken down, DNA can still be analyzed.
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2407:"Forensic Autosomal Short Tandem Repeats and Their Potential Association With Phenotype"
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The thanatomicrobiome, the community of microorganisms that colonize a body after death
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Microorganisms can serve as valuable sources of evidence in criminal cases, including:
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192:
3568:"The Role of Forensic Botany in Reconstructing the Dynamics of Trauma from High Falls"
4400:
4103:
4086:
3859:
Javan, Gulnaz T.; Finley, Sheree J. (2018-01-01), Ralebitso-Senior, T. Komang (ed.),
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Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers, Second Edition
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42:
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3893:
Javan, Gulnaz T.; Finley, Sheree J.; Abidin, Zain; Mulle, Jennifer G. (2016-02-24).
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2523:"DNA Fingerprinting: Use of Autosomal Short Tandem Repeats in Forensic DNA Typing"
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Aquila, Isabella; Sacco, Matteo A.; Ricci, Pietrantonio; Gratteri, Santo (2019).
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Keerti, Akshunna; Ninave, Sudhir; Keerti, Akshunna; Ninave, Sudhir (2022-10-12).
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3119:"Forensic Mitochondrial DNA Analysis: Current Practice and Future Potential"
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In popular culture, forensic biology is frequently portrayed in shows like
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2694:
2648:
2284:"ALS Sheds a Different Light on Crime Scenes | Office of Justice Programs"
2228:"Discovery, development, and current applications of DNA identity testing"
3895:"The Thanatomicrobiome: A Missing Piece of the Microbial Puzzle of Death"
3705:
3022:
2640:
2539:
1365:
1136:
975:
953:
848:
844:
801:
698:
38:
3398:"Forensic Anthropology | Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History"
2686:
2212:
2188:
1647:"Alphonse Bertillon's Anthropometric Identification System | SciHi Blog"
3681:"Forensic botany as a useful tool in the crime scene: Report of a case"
3639:
2366:
National
Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs (July 2002).
1646:
1239:
Differentiating a biowarfare attack from a normal epidemiology outbreak
1032:
589:
4031:
4029:
3465:
3137:
2136:
Philosophical
Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
2772:
Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers
2723:
Forensic DNA Typing: Biology, Technology, and
Genetics of STR Markers
1277:
920:
660:
3740:"Solving Bird Mysteries with Forensic Ornithology - Podcast Episode"
3079:
2308:"Alternate Light Sources | Forensics | Forensic Supplies | Sirchie"
644:, and is recognized as the "golden standard" in forensic science.
4291:"News Feature: Can microbes keep time for forensic investigators?"
1091:
800:
to identify a possible suspect. Based on known frequencies of the
797:
775:
are close enough in space that no fluorescence is detected by the
727:
Laboratory analysis of DNA evidence involves the sample DNA being
718:
710:
680:
656:
652:
4341:"What are diatoms and what can they tell us about water quality?"
3450:"Evolution of Forensic Anthropological Methods of Identification"
2107:"DNA Evidence: Basics of Identifying, Gathering and Transporting"
1052:
on the cause of death, manner of death, and mechanism of injury.
1986:"Forensic Biology | Sub-Fields | Significance & Application"
1151:
916:
912:
676:
668:
566:
An early pioneer in criminal identification through biology was
3374:"New DNA work may offer break in 36-year-old Michigan slayings"
3346:"After 24 years, Strait murder resolved | The Spokesman-Review"
1299:
635:
4389:
Creating a Plan to Test a Large Number of Sexual
Assault Kits
4085:
Roffey, R.; Lantorp, K.; Tegnell, A.; Elgh, F. (2002-08-01).
4038:"Microbial forensics: new breakthroughs and future prospects"
2725:(2 ed.). Burlington, MA, USA: Elsevier. pp. 75–79.
1315:
deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a
1864:"What Are Leone Lattes's Contributions to Forensic Science?"
610:, but also in resolving paternity and immigration disputes.
4222:"Epidemiology of Bioterrorism | Office of Justice Programs"
1596:"ALPHONSE BERTILLON: THE FATHER OF CRIMINAL IDENTIFICATION"
858:
The first use of mtDNA as evidence in court was in 1996 in
851:
can be used to improve the success of amplification during
796:. The obtained profile can be compared to known samples in
3764:"Forensic Odontology - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
3220:
Forensic
Science International: Genetics Supplement Series
1163:
Assisting in human identification through the analysis of
2866:. London, UK: Elsevier Academic Press. pp. 241–288.
2774:(2 ed.). Burlington, MA, USA: Elsevier. p. 78.
2747:"Choosing the Right Method for Nucleic Acid Quantitation"
1110:
used to detect and quantify them in biological matrices.
3836:"Forensic Autopsy - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"
2939:"Biparental Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA in Humans"
1715:
FARHUD, Dariush D; ZARIF YEGANEH, Marjan (2013-01-01).
1324:
966:(study of the growth of rings of trees stems and roots)
746:
Quantitation is commonly conducted using a form of the
592:
in 1928, which is used to detect trace blood stains at
2797:
Advanced Topics in Forensic DNA Typing: Interpretation
2405:
Wyner, Nicole; Barash, Mark; McNevin, Dennis (2020).
4036:
Oliveira, Manuela; Amorim, António (December 2018).
3290:"Mitochondrial DNA: State of Tennessee v. Paul Ware"
3321:"DNA Profiling Helps Solve 22-year-old Murder Case"
3953:
3788:"Encyclopedia of Forensic Sciences, Third Edition"
3566:
2581:
2063:
1937:"Desert Island Discs - Alec Jeffreys - BBC Sounds"
867:National Center for Missing and Exploited Children
671:(provided the root is still intact). Furthermore,
584:, became a fundamental tool in forensic science.
2799:. Oxford, UK: Academic Press. pp. 213–444.
2588:DNA and RNA Isolation Techniques for Non-Experts
1692:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1930"
617:expanded the use of DNA profiling by developing
4295:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
4168:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2943:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
2232:Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center)
1622:"Criminal Identification: The Bertillon System"
943:Subdisciplines within forensic botany include:
4134:Amorim, Antonio; Budowle, Bruce (2016-08-30).
3422:"Forensic anthropology | science | Britannica"
2012:Fisher, Barry A. J.; Fisher, David R. (2012).
723:STR electropherogram of a three-person mixture
4387:National Institute of Justice (March 2016). "
4284:
4282:
2668:
2666:
2622:
2620:
2072:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 573–579,
1313:The examples and perspective in this section
1090:to aid in medical or legal investigations of
538:
8:
1571:"How Forensic Science has Evolved Over Time"
27:Forensic application of the study of biology
2716:
2714:
2712:
2580:Gautam, Akash (2022), Gautam, Akash (ed.),
1331:, or create a new section, as appropriate.
545:
531:
67:
4365:"Addressing the Rape Kit Backlog | RAINN"
4316:
4306:
4262:
4197:
4187:
4102:
4061:
4007:
4005:
3928:
3910:
3704:
3655:
3505:Miller Coyle, Heather, ed. (2004-09-15).
3481:
3039:
3021:
2980:
2962:
2912:
2556:
2538:
2497:
2470:The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences
2440:
2422:
2259:
2163:
1740:
1347:Learn how and when to remove this message
675:can be recovered from the shaft of hair,
3960:International Journal of Legal Medicine
3254:"A New DNA Test Helps Win a Conviction"
2822:"Mitochondrial DNA Typing in Forensics"
2014:Techniques of Crime Scene Investigation
1717:"A Brief History of Human Blood Groups"
1462:
1106:of drugs and chemicals, as well as the
79:
4042:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology
4014:"Bacteria, Biofilms and forensic PMSI"
3734:
3732:
3685:Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine
3542:"Forensic Botany and Its Applications"
2820:Gopalakrishnan, Anupama (2015-02-25).
733:organic (phenol-chloroform) extraction
3448:Wiersema, Jason M. (September 2016).
3443:
3441:
3367:
3365:
3315:
3313:
3283:
3281:
3179:
3177:
3061:
3059:
2857:
2855:
2853:
2851:
2849:
2847:
2845:
2843:
2841:
2361:
2359:
2333:
2331:
2329:
2327:
2132:"The future of forensic DNA analysis"
2068:, in Li, Stan Z.; Jain, Anil (eds.),
2007:
2005:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1471:"Forensic Biology | Forensic Science"
7:
3867:, Academic Press, pp. 133–143,
3222:. Progress in Forensic Genetics 14.
2189:"DNA profiling and its applications"
4251:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
4091:Clinical Microbiology and Infection
2893:American Journal of Cancer Research
1961:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1993"
1814:"Who Is Leone Lattes in Forensics?"
1026:Armed Forces Institute of Pathology
2016:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press.
1984:Kanojia, Shikha (11 August 2019).
1179:Geolocation purposes by analyzing
792:. DNA profiles are produced as an
25:
3812:"What is a Forensic Pathologist?"
2038:"Role of DNA in Forensic Science"
939:Subspecialties In Forensic Botany
878:murders of four Michigan children
4104:10.1046/j.1469-0691.2002.00497.x
4012:Petkar, Tejaswini (2022-10-03).
3260:. Associated Press. 1996-09-05.
3186:"Mitochondrial DNA Heteroplasmy"
2583:"DNA Isolation by Chelex Method"
2340:Fundamentals of Forensic Science
2338:Houck, Max; Siegal, Jay (2006).
1838:"Leone Lattes - Forensic's blog"
1721:Iranian Journal of Public Health
1496:Fundamentals of Forensic Science
1494:Houck, Max; Siegal, Jay (2006).
1304:
446:Traffic collision reconstruction
87:
3546:Legal Desire Media and Insights
860:State of Tennessee v. Paul Ware
693:For most forensic DNA samples,
299:Questioned document examination
2244:10.1080/08998280.2005.11928051
2130:Butler, John M. (2015-08-05).
2062:Hicks, T.; Coquoz, R. (2009),
1248:Post-mortem microbial analysis
1187:Microbiomes of bodies of water
865:In 2004, with the help of the
41:evidence in order to obtain a
1:
4289:Beans, Carolyn (2018-01-02).
2386:National Institute of Justice
2368:Using DNA to Solve Cold Cases
2111:National Institute of Justice
2078:10.1007/978-0-387-73003-5_106
1667:"Anthropometry | NIOSH | CDC"
1594:lepontissalien (2019-05-04).
1544:"ORIGINS OF FORENSIC SCIENCE"
1520:"Origins of Forensic Science"
1212:Bioterrorism and epidemiology
636:DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid
3573:Journal of Forensic Sciences
3232:10.1016/j.fsigss.2011.09.089
2596:10.1007/978-3-030-94230-4_10
1147:Hospital-acquired infections
3454:Academic Forensic Pathology
1913:"Luminol Test | Howtosmile"
1862:Staff Writer (2015-08-04).
1812:Staff Writer (2015-08-04).
1645:Tietz, Tabea (2021-04-23).
1327:, discuss the issue on the
1281:analysis of a crime scene.
1133:Clarifying causes of death
1120:massive parallel sequencing
1031:Forensic odontologists are
927:(PMI) of a human skeleton.
815:(mtDNA) is used instead of
117:Bloodstain pattern analysis
4428:
3697:10.1016/j.jflm.2015.05.003
2070:Encyclopedia of Biometrics
1887:Harris, Tom (2002-06-11).
1360:Sexual assault kit backlog
1288:
1264:
1124:next-generation sequencing
1067:
1007:
892:
808:Mitochondrial DNA analysis
702:short tandem repeats (STR)
628:
588:German chemist, developed
4264:10.1016/j.cmi.2018.08.009
4054:10.1007/s00253-018-9414-6
3972:10.1007/s00414-013-0872-1
3899:Frontiers in Microbiology
3511:(0 ed.). CRC Press.
3288:Davis, C. Leland (1998).
2342:. China: Academic Press.
2226:Saad, Rana (April 2005).
1498:. China: Academic Press.
786:capillary electrophoresis
748:polymerase chain reaction
673:Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA)
416:Fire accelerant detection
3912:10.3389/fmicb.2016.00225
3117:Melton, T. (July 2012).
2482:10.21315/mjms2020.27.4.3
2424:10.3389/fgene.2020.00884
4308:10.1073/pnas.1718156114
4189:10.1073/pnas.1016657108
3585:10.1111/1556-4029.13934
3193:Forensic Science Review
3126:Forensic Science Review
3068:Nature Reviews Genetics
2964:10.1073/pnas.1810946115
2382:"What Is STR Analysis?"
2065:"Forensic DNA Evidence"
1626:Cleveland Police Museum
756:quantitative PCR (qPCR)
741:differential extraction
319:Social network analysis
3744:www.scienceofbirds.com
3184:Melton, Terry (2004).
2148:10.1098/rstb.2014.0252
724:
716:
401:Electrical engineering
33:is the application of
3840:www.sciencedirect.com
3768:www.sciencedirect.com
3540:Swetha (2020-12-26).
3517:10.1201/9780203484593
3402:naturalhistory.si.edu
2862:Butler, John (2005).
2795:Butler, John (2015).
2770:Butler, John (2005).
2721:Butler, John (2005).
2411:Frontiers in Genetics
2187:Singh, Lalji (1991).
1174:Body fluid microbiome
1114:Forensic microbiology
1108:analytical techniques
895:Forensic anthropology
889:Forensic anthropology
722:
714:
688:Advanced Light Source
631:Forensic DNA analysis
431:Materials engineering
259:Facial reconstruction
47:forensic anthropology
4412:Forensic disciplines
4140:. World Scientific.
3865:Forensic Ecogenomics
3023:10.3390/cells8050433
2641:10.1038/nbt0993-1026
2540:10.7759/cureus.30210
1569:admin (2017-12-29).
1325:improve this section
1194:post-mortem interval
1157:Shaken baby syndrome
1080:analytical chemistry
1057:forensic pathologist
1033:dental professionals
983:Forensic ornithology
925:post-mortem interval
476:Perry Mason syndrome
264:Fingerprint analysis
4407:Branches of biology
4180:2011PNAS..108.5027R
4048:(24): 10377–10391.
2955:2018PNAS..11513039L
2949:(51): 13039–13044.
2826:Promega Connections
2687:10.1038/nbt0492-413
1889:"How Luminol Works"
1620:CPHS (2020-04-07).
1291:Forensic entomology
1285:Forensic entomology
1152:Sudden infant death
1070:Forensic toxicology
1064:Forensic toxicology
1015:Forensic odontology
1004:Forensic odontology
948:Forensic palynology
679:, and the roots of
641:biological evidence
499:forensic entomology
436:Polymer engineering
394:Related disciplines
309:Forensic geophysics
289:Gloveprint analysis
269:Firearm examination
239:Body identification
63:forensic toxicology
55:forensic odontology
51:forensic entomology
3640:10.1039/c4ay02943g
3628:Analytical Methods
3426:www.britannica.com
3258:The New York Times
2142:(1674): 20140252.
1917:www.howtosmile.org
1842:forensicfield.blog
1447:Forensic chemistry
1267:Forensic limnology
1261:Forensic limnology
1228:Bacillus anthracis
1192:Estimation of the
1088:clinical chemistry
1049:Forensic pathology
1044:Forensic pathology
1019:forensic dentistry
1010:Forensic dentistry
972:(study of lichens)
725:
717:
604:DNA fingerprinting
568:Alphonse Bertillon
411:Fire investigation
294:Palmprint analysis
254:Election forensics
137:Forensic genealogy
59:forensic pathology
4174:(12): 5027–5032.
4147:978-1-78634-079-5
3874:978-0-12-809360-3
3526:978-0-203-48459-3
3466:10.23907/2016.038
3350:www.spokesman.com
3138:10.1201/B15361-17
2806:978-0-12-405213-0
2781:978-0-12-147952-7
2732:978-0-12-147952-7
2605:978-3-030-94230-4
2349:978-0-12-356762-8
2199:(9/10): 580–585.
2087:978-0-387-73003-5
2023:978-1-4398-1005-7
1505:978-0-12-356762-8
1357:
1356:
1349:
813:Mitochondrial DNA
555:
554:
333:Digital forensics
274:Footwear evidence
16:(Redirected from
4419:
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4378:
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4355:
4354:
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3226:(1): e455–e456.
3215:
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3208:
3190:
3181:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
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3156:. Archived from
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3107:
3063:
3054:
3053:
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2899:(3): 1207–1216.
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2095:
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2059:
2053:
2052:
2050:
2049:
2042:News-Medical.net
2034:
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1994:
1993:
1981:
1975:
1974:
1972:
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1957:
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1617:
1611:
1610:
1608:
1607:
1600:TRACES DE FRANCE
1591:
1585:
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1534:
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1475:forensic.unl.edu
1467:
1452:Forensic science
1352:
1345:
1341:
1338:
1332:
1308:
1307:
1300:
1122:, also known as
1104:pharmacodynamics
1100:pharmacokinetics
1017:, also known as
978:(study of fungi)
964:Dendrochronology
794:electropherogram
739:extraction, and
665:epithelial cells
608:forensic science
578:Karl Landsteiner
547:
540:
533:
459:Related articles
366:Network analysis
356:Malware analysis
314:Forensic geology
91:
81:Forensic science
68:
31:Forensic biology
21:
18:Forensic Biology
4427:
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4422:
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3534:
3527:
3508:Forensic Botany
3504:
3503:
3499:
3447:
3446:
3439:
3430:
3428:
3420:
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3406:
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3111:
3080:10.1038/nrg1455
3074:(10): 739–751.
3065:
3064:
3057:
3003:
3002:
2998:
2935:
2934:
2930:
2886:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2861:
2860:
2839:
2830:
2828:
2819:
2818:
2814:
2807:
2794:
2793:
2789:
2782:
2769:
2768:
2764:
2755:
2753:
2751:www.promega.com
2745:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2720:
2719:
2710:
2672:
2671:
2664:
2626:
2625:
2618:
2610:
2608:
2606:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2520:
2519:
2515:
2463:
2462:
2458:
2404:
2403:
2399:
2390:
2388:
2380:
2379:
2375:
2365:
2364:
2357:
2350:
2337:
2336:
2325:
2316:
2314:
2312:www.sirchie.com
2306:
2305:
2301:
2292:
2290:
2282:
2281:
2277:
2225:
2224:
2220:
2193:Current Science
2186:
2185:
2181:
2129:
2128:
2124:
2115:
2113:
2105:
2104:
2100:
2092:
2090:
2088:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2047:
2045:
2036:
2035:
2031:
2024:
2011:
2010:
1997:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1969:
1967:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1945:
1943:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1921:
1919:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1897:
1895:
1886:
1885:
1881:
1872:
1870:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1847:
1845:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1822:
1820:
1811:
1810:
1806:
1797:
1795:
1787:
1786:
1782:
1773:
1771:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1714:
1713:
1709:
1700:
1698:
1690:
1689:
1685:
1676:
1674:
1665:
1664:
1660:
1651:
1649:
1644:
1643:
1639:
1630:
1628:
1619:
1618:
1614:
1605:
1603:
1593:
1592:
1588:
1579:
1577:
1568:
1567:
1563:
1553:
1551:
1548:CrimeMuseum.Org
1542:
1541:
1537:
1528:
1526:
1518:
1517:
1513:
1506:
1493:
1492:
1488:
1479:
1477:
1469:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1438:
1396:Law & Order
1391:
1389:Popular culture
1378:
1362:
1353:
1342:
1336:
1333:
1322:
1309:
1305:
1298:
1293:
1287:
1269:
1263:
1250:
1241:
1214:
1183:Soil microbiome
1171:Hair microbiome
1116:
1072:
1066:
1046:
1012:
1006:
985:
941:
909:
907:Forensic botany
897:
891:
886:
810:
633:
627:
560:
551:
506:
505:
504:
501:
498:
481:Pollen calendar
460:
452:
451:
450:
395:
387:
386:
385:
335:
325:
324:
323:
228:
220:
219:
195:
185:
184:
183:
127:DNA phenotyping
101:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4425:
4423:
4415:
4414:
4409:
4399:
4398:
4394:
4393:
4380:
4356:
4332:
4278:
4257:(5): 570–579.
4237:
4213:
4153:
4146:
4126:
4097:(8): 522–528.
4077:
4025:
4001:
3966:(1): 193–205.
3944:
3885:
3873:
3851:
3827:
3803:
3779:
3755:
3728:
3671:
3614:
3579:(3): 920–924.
3557:
3532:
3525:
3497:
3460:(3): 361–369.
3437:
3413:
3389:
3361:
3337:
3327:. 28 July 2010
3309:
3277:
3245:
3210:
3173:
3109:
3055:
2996:
2928:
2879:
2873:978-0121479527
2872:
2837:
2812:
2805:
2787:
2780:
2762:
2738:
2731:
2708:
2681:(4): 413–417.
2675:Bio/Technology
2662:
2629:Bio/Technology
2616:
2604:
2572:
2533:(10): e30210.
2513:
2456:
2397:
2373:
2355:
2348:
2323:
2299:
2275:
2238:(2): 130–133.
2218:
2179:
2122:
2098:
2086:
2054:
2029:
2022:
1995:
1976:
1965:NobelPrize.org
1952:
1928:
1904:
1879:
1854:
1829:
1804:
1789:"Leone Lattes"
1780:
1769:embryo.asu.edu
1756:
1707:
1696:NobelPrize.org
1683:
1658:
1637:
1612:
1586:
1561:
1550:. Crime Museum
1535:
1511:
1504:
1486:
1461:
1459:
1456:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1444:
1437:
1434:
1390:
1387:
1377:
1374:
1361:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1319:of the subject
1317:worldwide view
1312:
1310:
1303:
1297:
1296:Current issues
1294:
1289:Main article:
1286:
1283:
1274:trace evidence
1265:Main article:
1262:
1259:
1249:
1246:
1240:
1237:
1213:
1210:
1206:
1205:
1204:
1203:
1200:
1190:
1189:
1188:
1185:
1177:
1176:
1175:
1172:
1169:
1161:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1149:
1144:
1139:
1115:
1112:
1068:Main article:
1065:
1062:
1045:
1042:
1008:Main article:
1005:
1002:
1000:bird species.
984:
981:
980:
979:
973:
967:
961:
951:
940:
937:
908:
905:
893:Main article:
890:
887:
885:
882:
845:mini-amplicons
809:
806:
764:DNA polymerase
629:Main article:
626:
623:
615:Kary B. Mullis
559:
556:
553:
552:
550:
549:
542:
535:
527:
524:
523:
522:
521:
516:
508:
507:
503:
502:
495:
493:
491:Trace evidence
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
462:
461:
458:
457:
454:
453:
449:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
403:
397:
396:
393:
392:
389:
388:
384:
383:
381:Audio analysis
378:
376:Video analysis
373:
368:
363:
361:Mobile devices
358:
353:
351:Database study
348:
343:
341:Computer exams
337:
336:
331:
330:
327:
326:
322:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
230:
229:
227:Criminalistics
226:
225:
222:
221:
218:
217:
212:
207:
202:
196:
191:
190:
187:
186:
182:
181:
176:
171:
166:
161:
156:
151:
146:
141:
140:
139:
129:
124:
119:
114:
109:
103:
102:
97:
96:
93:
92:
84:
83:
77:
76:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4424:
4413:
4410:
4408:
4405:
4404:
4402:
4390:
4384:
4381:
4370:
4369:www.rainn.org
4366:
4360:
4357:
4346:
4342:
4336:
4333:
4328:
4324:
4319:
4314:
4309:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4292:
4285:
4283:
4279:
4274:
4270:
4265:
4260:
4256:
4252:
4248:
4241:
4238:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4214:
4209:
4205:
4200:
4195:
4190:
4185:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4169:
4165:
4157:
4154:
4149:
4143:
4139:
4138:
4130:
4127:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4105:
4100:
4096:
4092:
4088:
4081:
4078:
4073:
4069:
4064:
4059:
4055:
4051:
4047:
4043:
4039:
4032:
4030:
4026:
4015:
4008:
4006:
4002:
3997:
3993:
3989:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3956:
3948:
3945:
3940:
3936:
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3926:
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3918:
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3904:
3900:
3896:
3889:
3886:
3876:
3870:
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3855:
3852:
3841:
3837:
3831:
3828:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3793:
3792:ScienceDirect
3789:
3783:
3780:
3769:
3765:
3759:
3756:
3745:
3741:
3735:
3733:
3729:
3724:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3707:
3706:11368/2840167
3702:
3698:
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3690:
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3675:
3672:
3667:
3663:
3658:
3653:
3649:
3645:
3641:
3637:
3633:
3629:
3625:
3618:
3615:
3610:
3606:
3602:
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3569:
3561:
3558:
3547:
3543:
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3533:
3528:
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3493:
3489:
3484:
3479:
3475:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3444:
3442:
3438:
3427:
3423:
3417:
3414:
3403:
3399:
3393:
3390:
3379:
3375:
3368:
3366:
3362:
3351:
3347:
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3338:
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3316:
3314:
3310:
3298:
3291:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3267:
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3249:
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3241:
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3233:
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3225:
3221:
3214:
3211:
3206:
3202:
3198:
3194:
3187:
3180:
3178:
3174:
3163:on 2018-11-08
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3132:(2): 101–22.
3131:
3127:
3120:
3113:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3051:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3033:
3029:
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3007:
3000:
2997:
2992:
2988:
2983:
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2974:
2970:
2965:
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2932:
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2924:
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2133:
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2112:
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2099:
2089:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2066:
2058:
2055:
2043:
2039:
2033:
2030:
2025:
2019:
2015:
2008:
2006:
2004:
2002:
2000:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1980:
1977:
1966:
1962:
1956:
1953:
1942:
1941:www.bbc.co.uk
1938:
1932:
1929:
1918:
1914:
1908:
1905:
1894:
1893:HowStuffWorks
1890:
1883:
1880:
1869:
1868:Reference.com
1865:
1858:
1855:
1843:
1839:
1833:
1830:
1819:
1818:Reference.com
1815:
1808:
1805:
1794:
1790:
1784:
1781:
1770:
1766:
1760:
1757:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1738:
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1487:
1476:
1472:
1466:
1463:
1457:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1443:
1442:DNA profiling
1440:
1439:
1435:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1408:
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1403:
1398:
1397:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1375:
1373:
1371:
1367:
1359:
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1348:
1340:
1330:
1326:
1320:
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1301:
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1292:
1284:
1282:
1279:
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1268:
1260:
1258:
1254:
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1232:
1230:
1229:
1222:
1218:
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1198:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1180:
1178:
1173:
1170:
1168:
1165:
1164:
1162:
1158:
1155:
1153:
1150:
1148:
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1132:
1131:
1130:
1127:
1125:
1121:
1113:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1101:
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1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1071:
1063:
1061:
1058:
1053:
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1041:
1037:
1034:
1029:
1027:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1011:
1003:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
982:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
959:
955:
952:
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946:
945:
944:
938:
936:
932:
928:
926:
922:
918:
914:
906:
904:
901:
896:
888:
883:
881:
879:
874:
872:
868:
863:
861:
856:
854:
850:
846:
841:
839:
835:
831:
825:
821:
818:
814:
807:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
782:
778:
773:
769:
765:
761:
757:
753:
752:real-time PCR
749:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
721:
715:TaqMan Probes
713:
709:
707:
703:
700:
696:
691:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
649:
645:
643:
642:
637:
632:
624:
622:
620:
616:
611:
609:
605:
601:
600:Alec Jeffreys
597:
595:
591:
585:
583:
579:
575:
573:
572:anthropometry
569:
564:
557:
548:
543:
541:
536:
534:
529:
528:
526:
525:
520:
517:
515:
512:
511:
510:
509:
500:
497:Use of DNA in
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
463:
456:
455:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
398:
391:
390:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
346:Data analysis
344:
342:
339:
338:
334:
329:
328:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
304:Vein matching
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
279:Forensic arts
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
232:
231:
224:
223:
216:
213:
211:
210:Psychotherapy
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
197:
194:
189:
188:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
145:
142:
138:
135:
134:
133:
132:DNA profiling
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
104:
100:
99:Physiological
95:
94:
90:
86:
85:
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