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360:, with pale gray upperparts and white underparts. Its legs are red and its bill is red, tipped with black. In winter, the forehead becomes white and a characteristic black eye mask remains. Juvenile Forster's terns are similar to the winter adult. The call is similar to that of common terns, but also some harsher sounds suggestive of a small gull like
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caused nest desertion and chick mortality. This species is listed under the
Migratory Birds Treaty act in the U.S. It is endangered in Illinois and Wisconsin while being of special concern in Michigan and Minnesota. Preservation of wetlands and introduction of artificial nesting sites may help preserve the species in high-risk areas ().
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Floating nests are usually tolerant to a slight increase or decrease of water levels but re-nesting is common. Strong wave action, wind or flooding, usually induced by storms, can often damage the nest and eggs. Weather is the main explanation for nest failure and egg loss. Unsheltered nests are more
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with shell removal being done by the parents. The chicks have upper and lower mandible egg teeth, which they lose 3 to 5 days after hatching. The chicks usually leave the nest with the parents 4 days post hatching and move into areas of denser vegetation. Fledging occurs 28 days after hatching. After
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Forster's terns tend to nest in marshy areas, either in freshwater or in estuaries. The nests are usually located deep within the marsh, either on tidal islands or evaporation pond islands, but also on manmade dikes. Nests are composed of adjacent marsh vegetation. Many nests are considered floating
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The major constituent of
Forster's tern diet is fish. Carp, minnow, sunfish, trout-perch, trout, perch, killifish, stickleback, shiner are common prey in freshwater whereas pompano, herring, menhaden and shiner perch are often consumed in brackish or marine habitats. On the West Coast of the United
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According to the IUCN, the status of the
Forster's tern is of little concern, however, degradation of marsh habitat may be threatening. Boating activity may also affect nest vegetation and increase erosion, which may lead to further degradation of tern nesting grounds. Excessive noise may also have
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Both parents are involved in brood caring and
Forster's tern does not exhibit sex-specific differences in space use. Males tend to guard the nest more often during the day while the female is more present at night. When disturbed, newborn chicks tend to crouch and remain silent. Forster's tern is a
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The breeding season for
Forster's tern can start as early as April on the Gulf Coast of the United States and extend from May to mid-June depending on latitude. Forster's tern is a colonial nester with colony size ranging from one to a thousand nests. Adults establish a very small territory around
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The
Forster's tern is a shallow plunge-diver, having its head pointing downward when hunting. The attack usually starts in a hovering position before initiating a headfirst dive with wings partially folded backward. Insects may occasionally be caught by the wing and preys are swallowed in the air.
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The egg's primary color ranges from a greenish to a brownish hue. They are evenly spotted with dark brown, almost black or gray spots. There are color variations between and within clutches; earlier eggs are usually paler, greener and larger. Coloration of the eggs may vary depending on location.
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Forster's Terns have been recorded using man-made platforms, most notably in
Wisconsin, where they were built to substitute for the Cat Island Chain. They demonstrated overall success, with Forster's Terns preferring to use them to avoid the vulnerabilities that come with a natural nest.
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It is a colonial nesting species that builds a shallow nest using marsh vegetation and often competes with gulls for nesting sites. A breeding colony may vary in numbers from a few couples to a thousand individuals. In many occasions, Forster's tern will share nesting sites with the
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In the case of large colonies, nesting area availability decreases. Forster's tern will then nest on sand, gravel or mud. The nests will consist of a hollow in the substrates, either lined with grass or not and driftwood, shells, dried fish, bones and feathers are also often used.
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Hoffman DJ, Eagles-Smith CA, Ackerman JT, Adelsbach TL, Stebbins KR. 2011. Oxidative stress response of
Forster's terns (Sterna forsteri) and Caspian terns (Hydroprogne caspia) to mercury and selenium bioaccumulation in liver, kidney, and brain. Environmental Toxicology. 30(4):
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This species is unlikely to be confused with the common tern in winter because of the black eye mask, but is much more similar in breeding plumage. Forster's has a gray center to its white tail, and the upperwings are whiter, without the darker primary wedge of the common tern.
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Kubiak TJ, Harris HJ, Smith LM, Schwarts TR, Stalling DL, Trick JA, Sileo L, Docherty DE and Erdman TC. 1989. Microcontaminants and reproductive impairment of the
Forster's tern on Green Bay, Lake Michigan 1983. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 18(5):
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Ackerman JT, Eagles-Smith CA, Takekawa JY, Bluso JD and
Adelsbach TL. 2008. Mercury concentrations in blood and feathers of prebreeding forster's terns in relation to space use of san Francisco bay, California, usa, habitats. Environmental Toxicology. 27(4):
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the aggressor, diving towards it and issuing loud calls. Aggressiveness increases immediately prior to and during hatching of the chicks. Ducks and grebes nesting in the same area often benefit from the tern's aggressive behavior toward potential predators
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dwelling species. It can be found either in freshwater, brackish or saltwater. It is often found over shallow open water deep in the marsh. Main habitats are marshes, estuaries, islands, salt marshes and marshy areas surrounding lakes and streams.
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Increasing populations of carp in drainage systems, causing damage to marsh vegetation, may limit habitat availability for Forster's tern. There have also been anecdotal reports of intense spawning activity of carp damaging tern's floating nests.
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There is a similar involvement from both male and female in incubation and chick rearing. Males tend to incubate the eggs diurnally and females, mostly nocturnally. Reproductive success varies from year to year and from colony to colony.
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Forster's tern also winters in marshes along the southern coast of the US and Mexico but can sometimes reach the northern extremity of Central America. It is also common for the tern to winter in the Caribbean.
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The common call of the Forster's tern is a descending kerr. The threat call used in defensive attack is a low harsh zaar. A succession of kerrs is used by the female as a begging call during courtship.
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Strong CM, Spear LB, Ryan TP and Dakin RE. 2004. Forster's Tern, Caspian Tern, and California Gull colonies in San Francisco Bay: Habitat use, numbers and trends, 1982-2003. Waterbirds. 27(4): 411-423.
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When breeding, an intense black cap extending down the neck appears. The wings and the back are pale gray while the underside is bright white. It has a black-tipped orange bill and bright orange legs.
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Ackerman JT and Eagles-Smith CA. 2009. Selenium bioaccumulation and body condition in shorebirds and terns breeding in San Francisco Bay, California, USA. Environmental Toxicology. 28(10): 2134-2141.
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and are made of marsh grasses, then can be set on top of the vegetation or deposited on floating rafts of vegetation. In Manitoba, there is a strong association between Forster's tern nests and
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Brunjes JH and Webster WD. 2003. Marsh rice rat, Oryzomus palustris, predation on Forster's Tern, Sterna forsteri, eggs in coastal North Carolina. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 117(4): 654-655.
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Bridge, Eli S.; Jones, Andrew W.; Baker, Allan J. (2005). "A phylogenetic framework for the terns (Sternini) inferred from mtDNA sequences: implications for taxonomy and plumage evolution".
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This is a medium-small tern, 33–36 cm (13–14 in) long with a 64–70 cm (25–28 in) wingspan and a weight ranging from 130 to 190 g (4.6-6.7 oz ). It is most similar to the
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Bluso-Demers JD, Ackerman JT and Takekawa JY. 2010. Colony attendance patterns by mated Forster's Terns Sterna forsteri using an automated data-logging receiver system. Ardea. 98(1): 59-65.
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Taylor RA and Wurtsbaugh WA. 1991. Predation risk and the importance of cover for juvenile rainbow trout in lentic systems. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 120(6): 728-738.
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water. This may prevent detection but it may also be a sign of higher prey density and increased presence near the surface. Preferences for water clarity may depend on prey availability.
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Ackerman JT, Bluso-Demers JD and Takekawa JY. 2009. Postfledging Forster's tern movements, habitat selection, and colony attendance in San Francisco Bay. The Condor. 111(1): 100-110.
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Henkel LA. 2006. Effects of water clarity on the distribution of marine birds in nearshore waters of Monterey Bay, California. Journal of Field Ornithology. 77(2): 151-156
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The Forster's tern feeds by plunge-diving for fish, but will also hawk for insects in its breeding marshes. It usually feeds from saline environments in winter, like most
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This species breeds in colonies in marshes. It nests in a ground scrape and lays two or more eggs. Like all white terns, it is fiercely defensive of its nest and young.
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McNicholl MK. 1971. The breeding biology and ecology of forster's tern (Sterna forsteri) at delta, Manitoba. Thesis. Department of Zoology. University of Manitoba.
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1272:<Close DA, Fitzpatrick MS and Li HW. 2002. The ecological and cultural importance of a species at risk of extinction, pacific lamprey. Fisheries. 27(7): 19-25.
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Bluso-Demers J, Colwell MA, Takekawa JY and Ackerman JT. 2008. Space use by Forster's Terns breeding in South San Francisco Bay. Waterbirds. 31(3): 357-369.
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Visser JM and Peterson GW. 1994. Breeding populations and colony site dynamics of seabirds nesting in Louisiana. Colonial Waterbirds. 17(2): 146-152
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the nest and nests are usually clumped together. Males will practice courtship feeding and females will beg for food using a kerr kerr kerr call.
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Prey handling behavior may include dropping and re-catching fish before swallowing them. In some areas, Forster's tern tends to prefer forage to
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Hall JA. 1988. Early chick mobility and brood movements in the Forster's Tern (Sterna forsteri). Journal of Field Ornithology. 59(3): 247-251.
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In its non-breeding plumage, the crown is white and a black comma-shaped patch covers the eye and the ear-covert. The wings are gray with the
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prone to destruction than sheltered ones. Nest made on higher ground are also more shielded from flooding but are more exposed to the wind.
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a few weeks of fledging, young terns leave the natal colony but join the group for roosting, while migrating towards the wintering ground.
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McNicholl MK. 1982. Factors affecting reproductive success of Forster's Terns at Delta Marsh, Manitoba. Colonial Waterbirds. 5(1): 32-38.
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Pryor GS. 1996. Observations of shorebird predation by snapping turtles in Eastern Lake Ontario. The Wilson Bulletin. 108(1): 190-192.
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that often hovers before attacking. When hunting, its head is pointed downward whereas when travelling, it is pointed forward.
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of mercury is increased in marshes and salt ponds, hence increasing the susceptibility of the Forster's tern. High levels of
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Siglin RJ and Weller MW. 1963. Comparative nest defense behavior of four species of marsh birds. The Condor. 65(5): 432-437.
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in Canada and the US. Due to the instability of its nesting habitat, Forster's tern exhibits a high annual turnover rate.
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Forster's tern exhibits very aggressive behavior when threatened by nest predators; if a nest is disturbed, the colony
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A typical clutch off eggs ranges from 2 to 4. The incubation period may last 24 or 25 days after laying. The young are
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Dakin RE. 2000. Nest site selection by Forster's terns (Sterna forsteri). Master's Theses. San Jose State University.
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and grasshoppers are often consumed, but aquatic insect larvae, crustaceans and amphibian can complement the diet.
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States and Canada, Forster's tern is also known to prey on Pacific lamprey juveniles. Insects such as dragonflies,
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Fraser G. 1997. Feeding Ecology of Forster's Terns on Lake Osakis, Minnesota. Colonial Waterbirds. 20(1): 87-94.
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being dark silvery gray, while the underside is white. The bill is black and the legs are a dull brownish red.
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Nuechterlein, GL. (1981). "'Information parasitism' in mixed colonies of western grebes and Forster's terns".
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Predator success usually remains low during breeding season due to the aggressive mobbing response of adults.
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Yellow-headed blackbirds sharing nesting sites have been known to actively join tern mobs against predators.
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Forster's tern is a medium-sized tern with a slender body, deeply forked long tail and relatively long legs.
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Salt GW and Willard DE. 1971. The hunting behavior and success of Forster's Tern. Ecology. 52(6): 989-998.
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It near annual vagrant to Western Europe and has occasionally wintered in Great Britain and Ireland.
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are also one of few mammalian predators that can venture in the marsh and prey on eggs and young.
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The juveniles have coloring similar to a non-breeding adult but often have darker primaries.
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http://scholarworks.sjsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2980&context=etd_theses/
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concentrations may induce biochemical stress, reducing the overall health of terns.
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Forster's tern is often found in marshes over shallow open water. It is a shallow
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terns. It usually dives directly, and not from the "stepped-hover" favored by the
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houses. They are, in fact, highly solicited nesting grounds. Also in Manitoba,
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903:"Forster's Tern Identification, All About Birds, Cornell Lab of Ornithology"
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As with many species of piscivorous birds, Forster's tern is susceptible to
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single prey loader and provision chicks with prey correlated to their size.
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McNicholl, MK. 1983. Hatching of Forster's Terns. The Condor. 85(1): 50-52.
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may prey on adults and young. There have also been anecdotal reports of
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recognize the tern's alarm call; this can be interpreted as information
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are possibly the most efficient Forster's Tern egg predator.
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The Sibley Field Guide to Birds of Eastern North America
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Whitish or cream colored eggs have also been reported.
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Forster's tern is a member of the gull and tern family
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705:may also have deleterious effects on their health.
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816:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2018-2.RLTS.T22694646A132564836.en
659:notably prey on the eggs of the Forster's tern.
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635:such as falcons and hawks, as well as owls and
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1475:- USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
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874:The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names
655:are also possible predators while gulls and
603:are the main plants used for nest building.
1379:"Green Bay Tern Nesting Platform a Success"
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877:. London: Christopher Helm. p.
858:participating institution membership
643:preying on young still in the nest.
380:Juvenile calling in Queens, New York
1968:IUCN Red List least concern species
802:IUCN Red List of Threatened Species
433:and basal to the rest of the genus
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1053:(2nd ed.). New York: Knopf.
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499:Before breeding, males practice
429:) of South America; the two are
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791:BirdLife International (2018).
323:. It is also a rare but annual
1464:Forster's Tern Species Account
1383:U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
1020:The Cornell Lab of Ornithology
1:
1748:forsters-tern-sterna-forsteri
1357:10.1016/S0003-3472(81)80051-6
1988:Taxa named by Thomas Nuttall
1500:at VIREO (Drexel University)
1498:Forster's Tern photo gallery
1466:- Cornell Lab of Ornithology
288:commemorates the naturalist
1078:10.1016/j.ympev.2004.12.010
662:When their ranges overlap,
2004:
1479:Field Guide Page on Flickr
754:Forster's tern fishing on
339:on a number of occasions.
1504:Interactive range map of
871:Jobling, James A (2010).
845:Oxford English Dictionary
809:: e.T22694646A132564836.
653:black-crowned night heron
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441:Habitat and distribution
56:Nonbreeding plumage, at
1983:Birds described in 1834
850:Oxford University Press
677:Status and conservation
490:Yellow-headed blackbird
419:Johann Reinhold Forster
290:Johann Reinhold Forster
1978:Birds of North America
1485:"Forster's Tern media"
381:
331:, and has wintered in
284:"stearn", "tern", and
1899:Paleobiology Database
1049:Sibley, David Allen.
907:www.allaboutbirds.org
709:contaminants such as
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38:Breeding plumage, at
1707:Fauna Europaea (new)
693:of pollutants. High
445:Forster's tern is a
295:It breeds inland in
848:(Online ed.).
67:Conservation status
24:Forster's tern
1511:IUCN Red List maps
981:on 13 October 2016
423:snowy-crowned tern
382:
252: Non-breeding
1953:
1952:
1886:Open Tree of Life
1522:Taxon identifiers
1470:Forster's Tern -
888:978-1-4081-2501-4
856:(Subscription or
756:Lake Mattamuskeet
501:courtship feeding
276:. The genus name
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1016:"Forster's tern"
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649:great blue heron
645:American Bittern
641:snapping turtles
516:Diet and feeding
362:Bonaparte's gull
299:in the northern
280:is derived from
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188:S. forsteri
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769:ID composite
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1847:Neotropical
1808:NatureServe
1756:iNaturalist
1554:Wikispecies
1388:18 December
822:12 November
742:Nonbreeding
523:caddisflies
463:Great Lakes
461:and on the
427:S. trudeaui
372:Description
358:common tern
351:Arctic tern
327:in western
282:Old English
58:Bolsa Chica
1962:Categories
1938:Xeno-canto
1025:12 October
985:13 October
860:required.)
775:References
597:and often
576:parasitism
411:Sternidae
389:primaries
317:Caribbean
182:Species:
120:Kingdom:
114:Eukaryota
1813:2.101506
1800:22694646
1774:11374282
1611:22694646
1606:BirdLife
1539:Wikidata
1450:706-727.
1431:897-908.
1421:920-929.
1365:53152999
1086:15804415
839:"Sterna"
730:Breeding
703:selenium
628:Predator
476:Behavior
459:Prairies
401:Taxonomy
309:migrates
286:forsteri
160:Family:
134:Chordata
130:Phylum:
124:Animalia
110:Domain:
87:IUCN 3.1
1725:5229247
1593:Avibase
1545:Q430529
717:Gallery
695:mercury
633:Raptors
594:Scirpus
589:muskrat
558:Mobbing
407:Laridae
333:Ireland
325:vagrant
274:Laridae
268:) is a
213:Nuttall
170:Genus:
164:Laridae
150:Order:
140:Class:
85: (
1973:Sterna
1930:159057
1904:369223
1891:341030
1865:159057
1852:forter
1839:297819
1787:176887
1732:GNAB:
1681:EURING
1673:100940
1660:forter
1634:forter
1573:forter
1363:
1084:
975:ARKive
885:
651:, and
531:turbid
435:Sterna
347:Sterna
329:Europe
315:, the
313:Mexico
307:, and
305:Canada
278:Sterna
250:
244:
238:
232:
215:, 1834
175:Sterna
1925:WoRMS
1917:74524
1769:IRMNG
1699:96957
1668:EUNIS
1655:eBird
1647:6ZSCV
1631:BOW:
1624:10256
1361:S2CID
854:
637:crows
600:Typha
447:marsh
1873:ODNR
1860:OBIS
1834:NCBI
1795:IUCN
1782:ITIS
1761:4457
1720:GBIF
1686:6180
1619:BOLD
1390:2017
1303:>
1082:PMID
1027:2016
987:2016
914:2020
883:ISBN
824:2021
807:2018
711:PCBs
619:Eggs
582:Nest
564:mobs
335:and
270:tern
144:Aves
1821:NBN
1743:IBC
1642:CoL
1580:ADW
1569:ABA
1509:at
1353:doi
1074:doi
879:163
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