1102:
1147:
207:
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975:. Movable type printing was a tedious process if one were to assemble thousands of individual characters for the printing of simply one or a few books, but if used for printing thousands of books, the process was efficient and rapid enough to be successful and highly employed. Indeed, there were many cities in China where movable type printing, in wooden and metal form, was adopted by the enterprises of wealthy local families or large private industries. The
1135:. Paper making was represented with a dance and an ink drawing on a huge piece of paper, printing by a set of dancing printing blocks, a replica of an ancient compass was showcased, and gunpowder by the extensive firework displays during the ceremony. A survey by the Beijing Social Facts & Public Opinion Survey Center found that Beijing residents found the program on the Four Great Inventions the most moving part of the opening ceremony.
830:(which describes military applications of gunpowder in great detail) in the mid-14th century, the explosive potential of gunpowder was perfected, as the level of nitrate in gunpowder formulas had risen to a range of 12% to 91%, with at least six different formulas in use that are considered to have maximum explosive potential for gunpowder. By that time, the Chinese had invented how to create explosive
657:
1175:
751:
1161:
905:
2043:
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have changed the whole face and stage of things throughout the world, the first in literature, the second in warfare, the third in navigation; whence have followed innumerable changes; insomuch that no empire, no sect, no star, seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these three mechanical discoveries.
44:
625:
was invented, the ancient
Chinese carved characters on pottery, animal bones and stones, cast them on bronzes, or wrote them on bamboo or wooden strips and silk fabric. These materials, however, were either too heavy or too expensive for widespread use. The invention and use of paper brought about a revolution in writing materials.
1005:
who proclaimed that there was nothing to equal them among the ancient Greeks and Romans. After reports by
Portuguese sailors and Spanish missionaries began to filter back to Europe beginning in the 1530s, the notion that these inventions had existed for centuries in China took hold. By 1620, when Francis Bacon wrote in his
1000:, etc.), the concept of the Four Great Inventions originated from the West, and is adapted from the European intellectual and rhetorical commonplace of the Three Great (or, more properly, Greatest) Inventions. This commonplace spread rapidly throughout Europe in the 16th century and was appropriated only in modern times by
1064:
The four inventions do not necessarily summarize the achievements of science and technology in ancient China. The four inventions were regarded as the most important
Chinese achievements in science and technology, simply because they had a prominent position in the exchanges between the East and the
1004:
and
Chinese scholars. The origin of the Three Great Inventions—these being the printing press, firearms, and the nautical compass—was originally ascribed to Europe, and specifically to Germany in the case of the printing press and firearms. These inventions were a badge of honor to modern Europeans,
1069:
in Europe. As a matter of fact, ancient
Chinese scored much more than the four major inventions: in farming, iron and copper metallurgy, exploitation of coal and petroleum, machinery, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, porcelain, silk, and wine making. The numerous inventions and discoveries greatly
624:
While paper used for wrapping and padding was used in China since the 2nd century BC, paper used as a writing medium only became widespread by the 3rd century. However, a recent archaeological discovery has been reported from Gansu of paper with
Chinese characters on it dating to 8 BC. Before paper
554:
Gunpowder, compass, and printing—these are the three major inventions that foretell the arrival of bourgeois society. Gunpowder blasted the knight class to pieces, the compass opened the world market and established colonies, and printing became a tool of
Protestantism. In general, it has become a
685:
During the early Song dynasty, a spherical compass with a small needle made of magnetic steel was created after steady development. The little needle has one end pointing south and the other pointing north. During the
Northern Song dynasty (960–1127), the compass was brought to the Arab world and
542:
It is well to observe the force and virtue and consequence of discoveries. These are to be seen nowhere more clearly than those three which were unknown to the ancients , and of which the origin, though recent, is obscure and inglorious; namely printing, gunpowder, and the magnet. For these three
733:
The dry compass used in China was a dry suspension compass, a wooden frame crafted in the shape of a turtle hung upside down by a board, with the lodestone sealed in by wax, and if rotated, the needle at the tail would always point in the northern cardinal direction. Although the 14th-century
714:
book dated to 1040–1044, where there is a description of an iron "south-pointing fish" floating in a bowl of water, aligning itself to the south. The device is recommended as a means of orientation "in the obscurity of the night." The first suspended magnetic needle compass was written of by
568:
Joseph Edkins, a
Chinese missionary and sinologist, was the first to add papermaking to the three major inventions mentioned above, and in comparing Japan and China he noted that "we must always remember that they have no such remarkable inventions as printing, papermaking, the compass, and
670:
The compass in the Four Great
Inventions was formerly the compass of ancient China. It is a kind of direction-indicating tool, which is widely used in navigation, field exploration and other fields. In ancient times, it had a profound influence on trade, war and cultural exchange.
1123:
created a special stamp issue that featured the Four Great Inventions. The stamp series was first issued on August 18, 2005, during a ceremony where an enlarged first day cover was stamped. Allan Chiang (Postmaster General) and Prof. Chu Ching-wu (president of the
1020:(1823–1905), comparing China with Japan, noted that for all of Japan's virtues, it did not make inventions as significant as paper-making, printing, the compass and gunpowder. Edkins' notes on these inventions were mentioned in an 1859 review in the journal
812:
accidentally caught fire, which produced such a large explosion that a team of inspectors at the site a week later deduced that 100 guards had been killed instantly, with wooden beams and pillars blown sky high and landing at a distance of over 10
1990:
2013:
834:
by packing their hollow shells with this nitrate-enhanced gunpowder. An excavated trove of early Ming land mines showed that corned gunpowder was present in China by 1370. There is evidence suggesting that corned powder may have been used in
979:
court sponsored enormous printing projects using woodblock movable type printing during the 18th century. Although superseded by western printing techniques, woodblock movable type printing remains in use in isolated communities in China.
931:, on the other hand, preceded text printing by centuries in all cultures, and is first found in China at around 220. It reached Europe by the 14th century or before, via the Islamic world, and by around 1400 was being used on paper for
1009:
that "printing, gunpowder, and the nautical compass... have altered the face and state of the world: first, in literary matters; second, in warfare; third, in navigation," this was hardly an original idea to most learned Europeans.
563:
The Chinese people's genius for inventions has manifested in many aspects very early. The three Chinese inventions (navigation compass, printing, gunpowder) have provided an extraordinary impetus to the development of European
1048:
Recently, scholars have questioned the importance placed on the inventions of paper, printing, gunpowder, and the compass. Chinese scholars in particular question if too much emphasis is given to these inventions, over other
865:
Blocks made from wood were used in the oldest type of Chinese printing. Printing textiles and reproducing Buddhist scriptures were also done using these blocks. Short religious writings were carried as charms in this manner.
689:
People relied on interpreting the positions of the sun, moon, and pole stars to tell directions on open ocean or new area before the discovery of the compass. When the weather was gloomy or severe, traveling was difficult.
537:
Printing, gunpowder, and the mariner's compass were brought to Europe by Arab traders during the Renaissance and Reformation. Bacon, a leading philosopher, politician, and adviser to King James I of England, wrote:
741:
People could readily locate a direction when sailing on large oceans and exploring new area with the creation of the round compass, which led to the discovery of the New World and the development of sailing ships.
458:
451:
391:
2729:
444:
190:
514:
were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact on Chinese civilization – the Four Great Inventions serve merely to highlight the technological interaction between
738:
pirates in the 16th century (who had in turn learned of it from Europeans), the Chinese design of the suspended dry compass persisted in use well into the 18th century.
772:, and other military weapons. During the Song and Yuan dynasties (960–1368), gunpowder was in high demand due to numerous battles and the development of mass industry.
901:, although introduced in the 16th century, were not widely used in China until the 19th century. China, along with Korea, was one of the last countries to adopt them.
1320:
1125:
510:
These four inventions had a profound impact on the development of civilization throughout the world. However, some modern Chinese scholars have opined that other
1916:
2708:
2490:
1193:
411:
406:
401:
198:
2168:
2141:
2385:
2360:
1203:
853:
During the Tang dynasty, printing was created in China (AD 618–906). The first mention of printing is in an AD 593 imperial decree by the Sui Emperor
592:
396:
1995:
Vol. 1, Part 2 of Johnson's New Universal Cyclopædia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge. A.J. Johnson & Co. p. 924
1070:
advanced China's productive forces and social life. Many are at least as important as the four inventions, and some are even greater than the four.
889:, "it was the Chinese who really invented the means of communication that was to dominate until our age." Woodblock printing was better suited to
1459:
1101:
1093:. The term is not intended strictly, as although these innovations have been exceptionally developed in China, none were invented within China.
2228:
Boruchoff, David A. (2012), "The Three Greatest Inventions of Modern Times: An Idea and Its Public", in Hock, Klaus, Gesa; Mackenthun (eds.),
2688:
2607:
2571:
2543:
2237:
2125:
1252:
1106:
793:
in the range of 27% to 50%. By the end of the 12th century, Chinese formulas of gunpowder had a level of nitrate capable of bursting through
768:
Originally, gunpowder was used to make fireworks for festivals and major events. It was later utilized as an explosive substance in cannons,
342:
2612:
555:
means of scientific renaissance, and has become the most powerful lever to create the necessary preconditions for spiritual development.
2703:
2667:
894:
2617:
2576:
2278:
2255:
2091:
1861:
1836:
1811:
1771:
1556:
1505:
2662:
2647:
2627:
2528:
848:
354:
2642:
2637:
2455:
2405:
2369:
423:
417:
1053:. They have pointed out that other inventions in China were perhaps more sophisticated and had a greater impact within China.
2693:
2518:
1208:
1013:
Western writers and scholars from the 19th century onwards commonly attributed these inventions to China. The missionary and
531:
337:
149:
62:
2353:
1078:
often cites the four great inventions as a source of national pride for China and its historic contributions to humanity.
366:
76:
2592:
2508:
2395:
1953:
1132:
1041:
In the 20th century, this list was popularized and augmented by the noted British biochemist, historian, and sinologist
1022:
997:
789:(武经总要), was written by Zeng Gongliang and Yang Weide in 1044, the various Chinese formulas for gunpowder held levels of
324:
317:
2734:
2698:
2657:
2652:
2597:
2503:
2480:
1918:
The religious condition of the Chinese: With observations on the prospects of christian conversion amongst that people
993:
217:
2632:
2622:
2498:
2465:
2460:
2410:
2304:
2220:
1236:
1198:
1050:
886:
809:
511:
224:
2602:
2566:
2561:
2450:
2117:
1936:
2435:
1082:
279:
2346:
2165:
2149:
1460:
https://web.archive.org/web/20071106073725/http://www.worldarchaeologicalcongress.org/site/newsletters_11.php
2523:
2475:
2445:
2400:
2083:
2078:
Shan, Patrick Fuliang (2024). "What Did the CCP Learn from the Past?". In Fang, Qiang; Li, Xiaobing (eds.).
1940:
306:
2538:
2440:
1962:
1948:
1478:
1090:
371:
360:
347:
2470:
2415:
2328:
734:
European compass-card in box frame and dry pivot needle was adopted in China after its use was taken by
675:
428:
2184:
1279:
17:
2533:
2380:
1944:
1463:
1305:
964:
496:
296:
267:
250:
1045:, who devoted the later part of his life to studying the science and civilization of ancient China.
2430:
1888:
1321:"How Shall We Reveal Chinese Civilization' Modern Significance in the Comparison of Civilizations?"
1026:, comparing the contemporary science and technology in China and Japan. Other examples include, in
504:
311:
577:
2553:
1636:
1628:
1611:
Kreutz, Barbara M. (July 1973). "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass".
1593:
1258:
1113:
924:
870:
854:
1131:
The Four Great Inventions was featured as one of the main themes of the opening ceremony of the
2420:
2390:
2324:
2274:
2251:
2233:
2121:
2087:
1892:
1857:
1832:
1807:
1767:
1552:
1248:
1188:
1180:
947:
Printing in Northern China was further advanced by the 11th century, as it was written by the
890:
330:
286:
2195:
1889:"Olympics bring unexpected luck to China's sole village using age-old movable-type printing".
2513:
2039:
1992:
Johnson's New universal cyclopædia: a scientific and popular treasury of useful knowledge...
1620:
1585:
1548:
1355:
1240:
971:
1290–1333) who invented respectively wooden type setting, which later influenced developing
932:
301:
291:
107:
1405:
2172:
1975:
1491:
1081:
In 2017, the term "four great new inventions" became popularized in China in reference to
1035:
988:
Although Chinese culture is replete with lists of significant works or achievements (e.g.
776:
735:
480:
262:
1028:
Johnson's New Universal Cyclopædia: A Scientific and Popular Treasury of Useful Knowledge
897:, which the Chinese also invented, but which did not replace woodblock printing. Western
701:
between the 2nd century BC and 1st century AD, where it was called the "south-governor" (
128:
2333:. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2316:. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 5. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
2217:
The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
1513:
1233:
The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History
2425:
2267:
1166:
1086:
1042:
917:
898:
882:
785:
780:
723:
273:
1344:"A Tradition of Invention: The Paradox of Glorifying Past Technological Breakthroughs"
2723:
2290:
2212:
1640:
1597:
1541:
1228:
1128:) marked the issue of the special stamps by personally stamping the first day cover.
1120:
1038:
in 1915. None of these, however, referred to four inventions or called them "great."
1017:
989:
909:
878:
874:
527:
476:
1152:
976:
960:
948:
936:
913:
755:
727:
711:
656:
641:
633:
629:
114:
2338:
1360:
1343:
2683:
2314:
Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1, Tsien Hsuen-Hsuin, Paper and Printing
826:
698:
614:
602:
586:
500:
255:
49:
2185:
Beijing Olympics opening features four inventions of ancient China, China Daily
1056:
In the chapter "Are the Four Major Inventions the Most Important?" of his book
750:
1174:
1142:
1075:
1066:
1014:
1001:
831:
769:
610:
488:
483:
for their historical significance and as symbols of ancient China's advanced
1922:
836:
814:
794:
763:
694:
547:
515:
206:
142:
1262:
710:). The earliest reference to a magnetic device used for navigation is in a
628:
By the 6th century in China, sheets of paper were beginning to be used for
526:"The Three Great Inventions" was first proposed by the British philosopher
2196:"Four great inventions" at Olympic opening warmly-welcomed, People's Daily
43:
1543:
The Earth's magnetic field: Its history, origin and planetary perspective
956:
952:
716:
645:
606:
163:
2166:"Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" Special Stamps Issuing Ceremony
1244:
904:
1632:
968:
928:
821:
805:
798:
797:
metal containers, in the form of the earliest hollow, gunpowder-filled
790:
665:
637:
598:
492:
484:
53:
2303:. Science and Civilisation in China. Vol. 4. Cambridge, England:
2273:. Translated by Wang Pingxing. Beijing: China Intercontinental Press.
597:
Papermaking has traditionally been traced to China about AD 105, when
2288:
Li Shu-hua (1954). "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole".
1624:
1589:
2230:
Entangled Knowledge: Scientific Discourses and Cultural Difference
1573:
1100:
972:
903:
749:
655:
576:
857:, who mandates the printing of Buddhist pictures and scriptures.
1547:(2nd printing ed.). San Francisco: Academic press. p.
1510:
Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Antigua and Barbuda
618:
2342:
1105:
Dancing boxes representing movable-type printing blocks at the
678:(476–221 BC), when Chinese people utilized a device known as a
1697:
1695:
1693:
1668:
1666:
1653:
1651:
1112:
The four great inventions are significantly emphasized during
2248:
Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History
2294:. Vol. 45, no. 2: July. Oxford. pp. 175–196.
1787:
McGovern, Melvin (1967). "Early Western Presses in Korea".
1065:
West and acted as a powerful dynamic in the development of
644:(960–1279) that followed was the first government to issue
1766:. Vol. s 1-4. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
1989:
Barnard, Frederick Augustus Porter; Arnold Guyot (1880).
168:
154:
873:, at some point before the first dated book in 868 (the
601:, an official attached to the imperial court during the
2331:(collaborators) Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic
1304:
Ebrey, Patricia; Schirokauer, Conrad; Hansen, Valerie.
2142:""Four Great Inventions of Ancient China" stamp issue"
1427:
1425:
133:
119:
817:(~2 mi or ~3 km) away from the explosion.
2676:
2585:
2552:
2489:
162:
148:
141:
127:
113:
106:
101:
89:
75:
61:
32:
2266:
1540:
1539:Merrill, Ronald T.; McElhinny, Michael W. (1983).
605:(202 BC – AD 220), created a sheet of paper using
2014:"C.L.S.C. Notes on required readings for October"
1280:"Do We Need to Redefine the Top Four Inventions?"
973:metal moveable type printing in Korea (1372–1377)
726:, the Chinese in the Song dynasty and continuing
2301:Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics
2045:The Journal of international relations, Volume 5
1584:. Oxford: Oxford Student Publications: 175–196.
674:The compass's origins may be traced back to the
636:(618–907) paper was folded and sewn into square
1274:
1272:
1062:
804:In 1280, the bomb store of the large gunpowder
1126:Hong Kong University of Science and Technology
2354:
1802:Vainker, Shelagh in Anne Farrer, ed. (1990).
1574:"Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Bousso"
775:Gunpowder was invented in the 9th century by
705:
452:
81:
67:
8:
2709:National Natural Science Foundation of China
2037:"Some Fundamental Ideas of Chinese Culture,
1806:. British Museum publications. p. 112.
2323:Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7,
2020:. Vol. 8, no. 1. 1887. p. 59
660:Diagram of a Ming dynasty mariner's compass
2730:History of science and technology in China
2361:
2347:
2339:
1348:East Asian Science, Technology and Society
1194:History of science and technology in China
459:
445:
199:History of science and technology in China
185:
98:
1831:. Princeton: Metropolitan Museum of Art.
1456:World Archaeological Congress ENewsletter
1359:
1204:Science and technology of the Han dynasty
783:. By the time the Song dynasty treatise,
593:Science and technology of the Han dynasty
2327:, Krzysztof Gawlikowski, Edward McEwen,
2080:China under Xi Jinping: A New Assessment
963:printing. Then there were those such as
581:Hemp wrapping paper, China, circa 100 BC
559:British Sinologist Medhurst pointed out:
2161:
2159:
1854:An Introduction to a History of Woodcut
1220:
1060:, Chinese historian Deng Yinke writes:
197:
2232:, Münster: Waxmann, pp. 133–163,
2107:
2105:
2103:
1971:
1960:
1487:
1476:
29:
27:Canonical landmark inventions in China
18:Four Great Inventions of ancient China
1856:. Houghton Mifflin. pp. 64–127.
1107:2008 Summer Olympics opening ceremony
697:compass was used in China during the
7:
955:(1031–1095) that the common artisan
839:as early as the thirteenth century.
1512:. November 12, 2013. Archived from
640:to preserve the flavor of tea. The
2704:Chinese Academy of Social Sciences
1672:
1657:
908:The intricate frontispiece of the
25:
2246:Buchanan, Brenda J., ed. (2006).
1876:
1737:
1725:
1713:
1701:
1526:
1443:
1431:
682:to point in the right direction.
1506:"Four Great Inventions of China"
1173:
1159:
1145:
1034:in 1887, and by the sinologist,
849:History of printing in East Asia
205:
42:
2370:Science and technology in China
730:did make use of a dry compass.
169:
155:
2694:Chinese Academy of Engineering
2509:History of measurement systems
1923:Routledge-Warnes and Routledge
1377:China, its State and Prospects
1209:Technology of the Song dynasty
1051:significant Chinese inventions
877:), produced the world's first
392:Neolithic and early Bronze Age
134:
120:
82:
68:
1:
2321:Needham, Joseph, ed. (1994).
2312:Needham, Joseph, ed. (1985).
1804:Caves of the Thousand Buddhas
1684:
1394:. London: Trübner. p. 2.
1361:10.1080/18752160.2022.2095103
534:, and other scholars agreed.
2148:. 2008-11-20. Archived from
2114:Reinventing the Chinese City
1749:
1458:. Vol. 11. August 2006
1342:Seow, Victor (3 July 2022).
1133:2008 Beijing Summer Olympics
1074:In his political discourse,
998:Four Books and Five Classics
959:(990–1051) invented ceramic
2699:Chinese Academy of Sciences
2042:(Worcester, Mass.) (1915).
994:Four Great Classical Novels
2751:
2305:Cambridge University Press
2269:Ancient Chinese Inventions
2221:Princeton University Press
1957:. J. Francis. p. 839.
1937:Maurice, Frederick Denison
1829:Prints and People Nos 5-18
1319:Zhang Xiping (June 2023).
1237:Princeton University Press
1199:List of Chinese inventions
1116:and are a point of pride.
1058:Ancient Chinese Inventions
887:Metropolitan Museum of Art
846:
761:
663:
590:
584:
2376:
2118:Columbia University Press
2065:
1852:Hind, Arthur M. (1963) .
1572:Shu-hua, Li (July 1954).
869:The Chinese invention of
706:
232:the Four Great Inventions
180:
97:
41:
37:
2299:Needham, Joseph (1962).
1827:Mayor, A. Hyatt (1971).
1762:Mayor, A. Hyatt (1971).
1375:Medhurst, W. H. (1838).
1121:Hong Kong postal service
951:scientist and statesman
63:Traditional Chinese
2677:Institutes and programs
2386:Artificial intelligence
2084:Leiden University Press
1941:Charles Wentworth Dilke
1915:Edkins, Joseph (1859).
1410:Encyclopædia Britannica
1390:Edkins, Joseph (1884).
479:that are celebrated in
77:Simplified Chinese
2250:. Aldershot: Ashgate.
1951:; et al. (1859).
1949:William Hepworth Dixon
1613:Technology and Culture
1109:
1072:
943:Moveable type printing
921:
759:
758:, circa 1300s (decade)
661:
582:
566:
557:
545:
2519:History of metallurgy
1104:
907:
781:elixir of immortality
754:Hand cannon from the
753:
719:in his book of 1088.
676:Warring States period
659:
591:Further information:
580:
561:
552:
540:
532:Walter Henry Medhurst
473:Four Great Inventions
93:four great inventions
33:Four Great Inventions
2608:Computer programmers
2152:on 20 November 2008.
2112:Hu, Richard (2023).
1945:Thomas Kibble Hervey
632:as well. During the
475:are inventions from
325:Traditional medicine
318:Units of measurement
48:Five major steps in
2689:Research institutes
2613:Computer scientists
2572:Research institutes
2396:Automotive industry
2265:Deng Yinke (2005).
1379:. pp. 101–107.
1245:10.2307/j.ctvc77j74
990:Four Great Beauties
218:List of discoveries
2735:Chinese inventions
2481:Telecommunications
2171:2008-11-20 at the
1728:, pp. 209–210
1306:"China in 1000 CE"
1110:
1097:Cultural influence
1089:, e-commerce, and
925:Woodblock printing
922:
891:Chinese characters
871:woodblock printing
861:Woodblock printing
777:Chinese alchemists
760:
662:
583:
512:Chinese inventions
225:List of inventions
170:sei daai faat ming
156:sei daai faat ming
2717:
2716:
2668:Social scientists
2325:Robin D. S. Yates
2239:978-3-8309-2729-7
2127:978-0-231-21101-7
1970:Missing or empty
1764:Prints and People
1486:Missing or empty
1392:Religion in China
1254:978-1-4008-7444-6
1189:Dream Pool Essays
1181:Technology portal
1114:Chinese schooling
1007:Instauratio magna
933:old master prints
885:, curator at the
779:searching for an
469:
468:
418:People's Republic
184:
183:
176:
175:
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108:Standard Mandarin
16:(Redirected from
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2539:Maritime history
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1043:Joseph Needham
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883:A. Hyatt Mayor
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847:Main article:
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2048:. p. 171
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1954:The Athenæum
1952:
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1687:, p. 42
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1153:China portal
1130:
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1111:
1091:bike-sharing
1080:
1073:
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1055:
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1040:
1031:
1027:
1021:
1012:
1006:
987:
977:Qing dynasty
961:movable type
949:Song dynasty
946:
923:
916:China, 868 (
914:Tang dynasty
895:movable type
868:
864:
852:
825:
819:
803:
784:
774:
767:
756:Yuan dynasty
740:
732:
728:Yuan dynasty
721:
712:Song dynasty
702:
692:
688:
684:
679:
673:
669:
642:Song dynasty
634:Tang dynasty
630:toilet paper
627:
623:
596:
569:gunpowder."
567:
562:
558:
553:
546:
541:
536:
525:
509:
472:
470:
268:Architecture
231:
115:Hanyu Pinyin
2684:863 Program
2593:Astronomers
2534:Cartography
2504:Discoveries
2431:Mathematics
2066:Deng (2005)
1325:China Watch
1263:j.ctvc77j74
1002:sinologists
827:Huolongjing
770:fire-arrows
699:Han dynasty
615:fishing net
613:along with
611:bast fibres
603:Han dynasty
587:Papermaking
573:Papermaking
501:papermaking
424:agriculture
312:Mathematics
297:Cartography
256:sericulture
251:Agriculture
50:papermaking
2724:Categories
2658:Physicists
2653:Physicians
2598:Biologists
2499:Inventions
2205:References
2052:2011-11-28
2024:2011-11-28
1999:2011-11-28
1619:(3): 373.
1470:2007-11-11
1415:2007-11-11
1290:2008-11-04
1076:Xi Jinping
1067:capitalism
1015:sinologist
832:round shot
609:and other
518:and West.
489:technology
372:navigation
338:Metallurgy
245:By subject
129:Wade–Giles
2633:Inventors
2623:Engineers
2554:Education
2401:Aviation
2391:Astronomy
2329:Wang Ling
1645:(note 21)
1641:111540460
1598:143585290
1030:in 1880,
1023:Athenaeum
965:Wang Zhen
837:East Asia
795:cast iron
764:Gunpowder
746:Gunpowder
695:lodestone
548:Karl Marx
522:Evolution
497:gunpowder
367:Transport
331:herbology
287:Astronomy
56:in AD 105
2603:Chemists
2529:Printing
2514:Calendar
2466:Software
2461:Shipping
2446:Railways
2421:Internet
2411:Chemical
2169:Archived
1791:: 21–23.
1139:See also
984:Analysis
957:Bi Sheng
953:Shen Kuo
929:textiles
843:Printing
824:and his
736:Japanese
717:Shen Kuo
686:Europe.
607:mulberry
505:printing
355:Printing
343:Military
302:Ceramics
292:Calendar
191:a series
189:Part of
164:Jyutping
2491:History
1633:3102323
822:Jiao Yu
810:Weiyang
806:arsenal
801:bombs.
799:grenade
791:nitrate
724:Needham
666:Compass
652:Compass
621:waste.
599:Cai Lun
493:compass
485:science
307:Coinage
280:bridges
263:Alchemy
54:Cai Lun
2586:People
2436:Mining
2277:
2254:
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2090:
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855:Wen-ti
680:si nan
550:wrote:
386:By era
193:on the
2426:Logic
1637:S2CID
1629:JSTOR
1594:S2CID
1331:(18).
1259:JSTOR
1215:Notes
912:from
893:than
703:sīnán
429:space
2291:Isis
2275:ISBN
2252:ISBN
2234:ISBN
2122:ISBN
2088:ISBN
1976:help
1858:ISBN
1833:ISBN
1808:ISBN
1768:ISBN
1578:Isis
1553:ISBN
1492:help
1249:ISBN
935:and
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516:East
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487:and
471:The
412:Yuan
407:Song
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348:navy
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69:四大發明
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