1197:. A few days later, Duvalier gave a public speech during which he read the attendance sheet with the names of all 19 officers killed. After each name, he said "absent". After reading the whole list, Duvalier remarked that "all were shot". Haitian communists and even suspected communists bore the brunt of the government's repression. Duvalier targeted them to reassure the U.S. that he was not communist: Duvalier was exposed to communist and leftist ideas early in his life and rejected them. On 28 April 1969, Duvalier instituted a campaign to rid Haiti of all communists. A new law declared that "Communist activities, no matter what their form, are hereby declared crimes against the security of the State." Those convicted of Communist activity were subject to execution, and faced having their property confiscated.
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crucial political role for the regime, countering the influence of the armed forces, historically the government's primary source of power. The VSN gained its deadly reputation in part because members received no salary, although they took orders from the
Presidential Palace. They made their living, instead, through extortion and petty crime. Rural members of the VSN, who wore blue denim uniforms, had received some training from the army, while the plainclothes members, identified by their trademark dark glasses, served as Haiti's criminal investigation force.
489:
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920:. Upon his return to work, Duvalier accused Barbot of trying to supplant him as president and had him imprisoned. In April 1963, Barbot was released and began plotting to remove Duvalier from office by kidnapping his children. The plot failed and Duvalier then ordered a nationwide search for Barbot and his fellow conspirators. During the search, Duvalier was told that Barbot had transformed himself into a black dog, which prompted Duvalier to order that all black dogs in Haiti be put to death. The
1810:, commune de la Martinique, tailleur de son métier à la rue de l'Enterrement, dont le fils aîné Duval Duvalier fut fait officiellement le père adoptif de François Duvalier alors qu'il en était le demi‑frère. Pour maquiller sa paternité tardive, Florestal Duvalier, vieillard cacochyme, poussa son fils adulte Duval à reconnaître l'enfant, né de ses amours ancillaires avec une jeune domestique, Irutia Abraham, originaire de
484:
1138:, in what would be the only visit of a foreign head of state to Haiti under Duvalier. During the visit, the two discussed bilateral agreements between their two nations and the economic shortcomings brought about by international pressure. Duvalier awarded Haile Selassie the Necklace of the Order of Jean-Jacques Dessalines the Great, and the emperor, in turn, bestowed upon Duvalier the Great Necklace of the
1113:, with the goal of arresting a Haitian army officer believed to have been involved in Barbot's plot to kidnap Duvalier's children. The Dominican president reacted with outrage, publicly threatened to invade Haiti, and ordered army units to the border. However, as Dominican military commanders expressed little support for an invasion of Haiti, Bosch refrained from the invasion and sought mediation through
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President
Duvalier reigned supreme for fourteen years. Even in Haiti, where dictators had been the norm, François Duvalier gave new meaning to the term. Duvalier and his henchmen killed between 30,000 and 60,000 Haitians. The victims were not only political opponents, but women, whole families,
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Nonetheless, Duvalier enjoyed significant support among Haiti's majority black rural population, who saw in him a champion of their claims against the historically dominant mulatto elite. During his 14 years in power, he created a substantial black middle class, chiefly through government patronage.
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In the early years of his rule, Duvalier was able to take advantage of the strategic weaknesses of his powerful opponents, mostly from the mulatto elite. These weaknesses included their inability to coordinate their actions against the regime, whose power had grown increasingly stronger. In the name
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and other diseases. In 1954, Duvalier abandoned medicine, hiding out in Haiti's countryside from the
Magloire regime. In 1956, the Magloire government was failing, and although still in hiding, Duvalier announced his candidacy to replace him as president. By December 1956, an amnesty was issued and
3147:
Notre Doc qui êtes au Palais
National pour la Vie, que Votre nom soit béni par les générations présentes et futures, que Votre Volonté soit faite à Port‑au‑Prince et en Province. Donnez‑nous aujourd'hui notre nouvelle Haïti, ne pardonnez jamais les offenses des apatrides qui bavent chaque jour sur
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During the 1930s, Duvalier joined a group of black intellectuals, the Griots. The Griots had begun to study and sanctify Haiti's
African heritage. The group's work marked the beginning of a new campaign against the [child of two worlds] elite and an emerging ideology of
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Duvalier's government was one of the most repressive in the
Western Hemisphere. During his 14-year rule, he murdered and exiled numerous political opponents; estimates of those killed are as high as 60,000. Attacks on Duvalier from within the military were treated as especially serious. When bombs
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Article 1. Communist activities, no matter what their form, are hereby declared crimes against the security of the State ... The authors of an accomplices in crimes listed above shall receive the death penalty, and their goods and chattels shall be confiscated and sold for the benefit of the
2554:
This concordat let Dr. François
Duvalier ('Papa Doc') nominate seven key clerics, thus ensuring their personal loyalty to him. It also stipulates that future appointments should be 'preferentially to members of the indigenous clergy'. Both these measures helped bring the Haitian church under
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Although referred to as a militia, the VSN in fact became the
Duvaliers' front-line security force. As of early 1986, the organization included more than 9,000 members and an informal circle of thousands more. The VSN acted as a political cadre, secret police and instrument of terror. It played a
1022:. The U.S. thus halted most of its economic assistance in mid-1962, pending stricter accounting procedures, with which Duvalier refused to comply. Duvalier publicly renounced all aid from Washington on nationalist grounds, portraying himself as a "principled and lonely opponent of domination by a
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officer and then proceeded to create his own power base within the army by turning the
Presidential Guard into an elite corps aimed at maintaining his power. After this, Duvalier dismissed the entire general staff and replaced it with officers who owed their positions, and their loyalty, to him.
1028:
Duvalier misappropriated millions of dollars of international aid, including US$ 15 million annually from the United States. He transferred this money to personal accounts. Another of
Duvalier's methods of obtaining foreign money was to gain foreign loans, including US$ 4 million from
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captured and killed Barbot in July 1963. In other incidents, Duvalier ordered the head of an executed rebel packed in ice and brought to him so he could commune with the dead man's spirit. Peepholes were carved into the walls of the interrogation chambers, through which Duvalier watched Haitian
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to do. He's a U.S. diplomat and a Haitian‑American. And after Duvalier's death, he tweeted, I'm thinking of the look in my mother's eyes when she talks about her brother Joel, who was disappeared by that dictator. Duvalier and his father before him ran one of the most repressive regimes in the
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himself". The most celebrated image from the time shows a standing Jesus Christ with a hand on the shoulder of a seated Papa Doc, captioned, "I have chosen him". Duvalier declared himself an "immaterial being" as well as "the Haitian flag" soon after his first election. In 1964, he published a
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and tried to overthrow Duvalier; all were killed. Although the army and its leaders had quashed the coup attempt, the incident deepened Duvalier's distrust of the army, an important Haitian institution over which he did not have firm control. He replaced the chief-of-staff with a more reliable
1205:
Duvalier employed intimidation, repression, and patronage to supplant the old mulatto elites with a new elite of his own making. Corruption—in the form of government rake-offs of industries, bribery, extortion of domestic businesses, and stolen government funds—enriched the dictator's closest
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in which he was the sole candidate, though his term was to expire in 1963 and the constitution prohibited re-election. The election was flagrantly rigged; the official tally showed a total of 1,320,748 "yes" votes for another term for Duvalier, with none opposed. Upon hearing the results, he
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landowner and industrialist from the north. During their campaigning, Haiti was ruled by five temporary administrations, none lasting longer than a few months. Duvalier promised to rebuild and renew the country and rural Haiti solidly supported him as did the military. He resorted to
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Communism has established centres of infection ... No area in the world is as vital to American security as the Caribbean ... We need a massive injection of money to reset the country on its feet, and this injection can come only from our great, capable friend and neighbor the United
586:), indiscriminately tortured or killed Duvalier's opponents; the Tonton Macoute was thought to be so pervasive that Haitians became highly fearful of expressing any form of dissent, even in private. Duvalier further sought to solidify his rule by incorporating elements of
1518:—PUN (National Unity Party)—to constitute a single-party system. ... the existence of a single party as one of the defining characteristics of the totalitarian nature of Duvalierism ... the party had a thoroughly inconsequential role in the Duvalierist system.
1363:
On 8 February 1986, when the Duvalier regime fell, a crowd attacked Duvalier's mausoleum, throwing boulders at it, chipping off pieces from it, and breaking open the crypt. Duvalier's coffin was not inside, however. A prevailing rumor in the capital, according to
969:", a title previously held by seven Haitian presidents. This referendum was also blatantly rigged; an implausible 99.9% voted in favor, which should have come as no surprise since all the ballots were premarked "yes". The new document granted Duvalier—or
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whole towns. In April 1963, when an army officer suspected of trying to kidnap two of Duvalier's children took refuge in the Dominican chancery, Duvalier ordered the Presidential Guard to occupy the building. The Dominicans were incensed; President
1806:, opposant politique et véritable vainqueur des élections. Ce fut le premier acte illégal du dictateur. Oh ! Il en fut d'autres. Oh ! Par bassesse, le dictateur vengeait la mémoire de son vrai père Florestal Duvalier, citoyen français du
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Thousands of posters appeared as the Péligre dam was about to be opened proclaiming that 'Duvalier alone is able to harness the energy of Péligre and give it to his people'. Others had Jesus with his hand on Duvalier proclaiming 'I have chosen
2217:
While working in a hospital during the 1930s, [Simone Duvalier] met [François] Duvalier, and the couple married on 27 December 1939. They had four children: Marie‑Denise, Nicole, Simone, and Jean‑Claude
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as it is in the provinces. Give us this day our new Haiti and forgive not the trespasses of those antipatriots who daily spit on our country; lead them into temptation, and, poisoned by their own venom, deliver them from no
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was always tense: in his early years, Duvalier emphasized the differences between the two countries. In April 1963, relations were brought to the edge of war by the political enmity between Duvalier and Dominican president
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People with ties to Haiti are remembering one of that country's former dictators. Jean‑Claude 'Baby Doc' Duvalier died over the weekend. The old saying goes, speak nothing but good of the dead, but that is hard for
794:
François Duvalier was elected president on 22 September 1957. Duvalier received 679,884 votes to Déjoie's 266,992. Even in this election, however, there are multiple first-hand accounts of voter fraud and voter
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Peepholes were made in his torture chambers, to allow him to observe discreetly. Sometimes, he was in the room itself, while men and women were beaten, tortured, and plunged into baths of sulfuric acid.
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to the faithful containing the following version of the Lord's Prayer: 'Our Doc, who art in the National Palace for Life, hallowed be Thy name by present and future generations. Thy will be done in
1014:(1961–1963) was particularly disturbed by Duvalier's repressive and totalitarian rule and allegations that he misappropriated aid money, at the time a substantial part of the Haitian budget, and a
1162:, making Haiti one of few countries that recognized Biafra. Duvalier's decision to recognize Biafra was influenced by his anti-communist foreign policy and by Haiti's historical connection to the
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Current Haitian legislation contains a number of legal provisions that place considerable restrictions on the freedom of speech. The most important of these is the law of 28 April 1969:
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commented, "Latin America has witnessed many fraudulent elections throughout its history but none has been more outrageous than the one which has just taken place in Haiti". On 14 June 1964, a
1088:, where a trade embargo was imposed on Cuba. Cuba answered by breaking off diplomatic relations and Duvalier subsequently instituted a campaign to rid Haiti of communists. This move severed
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in November 1963, which Duvalier later claimed resulted from a curse that he had placed on Kennedy, the U.S. eased its pressure on Duvalier, grudgingly accepting him as a bulwark against
1182:
1109:. Bosch, a leftist, provided asylum and support to Haitian exiles who had plotted against the Duvalier regime. Duvalier ordered his Presidential Guard to occupy the Dominican Embassy in
680:
among Haitians and left a powerful impression on the young Duvalier. He was also aware of the latent political power of the poor black majority and their resentment against the small
1334:
Duvalier also held in his closet the head of former opponent Blucher Philogenes, who tried to overthrow him in 1963. He believed another political enemy, Clément Barbot, was able to
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and several French-speaking African countries, exacerbating an already serious lack of doctors and teachers. Some of the highly skilled professionals joined the ranks of several
3119:
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Duvalier promoted and installed members of the black majority in the civil service and the army. In July 1958, three exiled Haitian army officers and five American mercenaries
1441:, published in 1969, though several others by Haitian scholars and historians have appeared since Duvalier's death in 1971. One of the most informative, Patrick Lemoine's
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Not satisfied with being the Haitian flag, ... Duvalier also declared himself 'an immaterial being' shortly after he became 'President-for-Life', and issued a
1818:. La mère de Duvalier en devint folle. Son fils lui fut retiré si bien que l'enfant ne la connut jamais et fut élevé par une tante, madame Florestal .»
1392:. Duvalier, however, dismissed the piece and referred to its author as "a cretin, a stool pigeon, sadistic, unbalanced, perverted, a perfect ignoramous [
2746:
Haitian president François "Papa Doc" Duvalier infamously claimed that his curse on John F. Kennedy brought about the President's 1963 assassination.
1456:, which relied in part on records from a 1968 espionage trial in Haiti to detail numerous attempts on Duvalier's life. The trial's defendant, David Knox, was a
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945:
In 1961, Duvalier began violating the provisions of the 1957 constitution. First, he replaced the bicameral legislature with a unicameral body. Then he called
2114:
black power, Haitian style. It was on this ideology that Duvalier later based his political leadership. His pro‑black led to his advocacy of [Vodou].
1625:
ordered troops to the border and threatened to invade. However, the Dominican commanders were reluctant to enter Haiti, and Bosch was obliged to turn to the
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and other tropical diseases that had ravaged Haiti for years. His patients affectionately called him "Papa Doc", a moniker that he used throughout his life.
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and was appointed Director General of the National Public Health Service. In 1949, he served as Minister of Health and Labor, but when Duvalier opposed
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The government confiscated peasant landholdings and allotted them to members of the militia, who had no official salary and made their living through
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Pan-African Chronology II: A Comprehensive Reference to the Black Quest for Freedom in Africa, the Americas, Europe and Asia, 1865–1915
1398:], lying to his heart's content, the shame of proud and noble England, a spy, a drug addict, and a torturer". The book was later made into a
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His relationship with the United States proved difficult. In his early years, Duvalier rebuked the United States for its friendly relations with
4434:
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1580:. Country Studies. Research completed December 1999 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp.
1302:, or spirits, of Haitian Vodou. He often donned sunglasses in order to hide his eyes and talked with the strong nasal tone associated with the
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2451:. Country Studies. Research completed December 1999 (3rd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. p.
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After being elected president in 1957, Duvalier exiled most of the major supporters of Déjoie. He had a new constitution adopted that year.
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He once ordered the head of an executed rebel packed in ice and brought to the presidential palace so he could commune with his spirit.
748:'s 1950 coup d'état, he left the government and resumed practicing medicine. His practice included taking part in campaigns to prevent
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supporters. Most of them held sufficient power to intimidate the members of the old elite, who were gradually co-opted or eliminated.
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in which he was the only candidate. Afterwards, he consolidated his power step by step, culminating in 1964 when he declared himself
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notre Patrie, laissez‑les succomber à la tentation et sous le poids de leurs baves malfaisantes: ne les délivrez d'aucun mal. Amen.
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Peschanski, João Alexandre (2013). "Papa Doc's Feint: the misled opposition and the consolidation of Duvalier's rule in Haiti".
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Dobronravin, Nikolay (28 September 2020). "The Comintern, "Negro Self-Determination" and Black Revolutions in the Caribbean".
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on a scholarship that was meant to train Black doctors from the Caribbean to take care of African-American servicemen during
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to allow him permission to nominate the Catholic hierarchy for Haiti. Duvalier now exercised more power in Haiti than ever.
708:, an ethnological study of which later paid enormous political dividends for him. In 1938, Duvalier co-founded the journal
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were detonated near the Presidential Palace in 1967, Duvalier had nineteen officers of the Presidential Guard executed in
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de la magistrature. Il fut ostracisé pour avoir notarié l'acte de candidature à l'élection présidentielle du sénateur
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priest himself. In an effort to make himself even more imposing, Duvalier deliberately modeled his image on that of
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857:, which by 1961 was twice as big as the army, never developed into a real military force but was more than just a
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The dispossessed fled to the slums of the capital where they would find only meager incomes to feed themselves.
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proclaimed, "I accept the people's will. ... As a revolutionary, I have no right to disregard the will of the
2771:. Country Studies (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp.
1897:. Country Studies (2nd ed.). Washington, D.C.: Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. pp.
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and claimed that he was the physical embodiment of the island nation. He also revived the traditions of
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director of information. Knox lost and was sentenced to death, but he was later granted amnesty.
1426:, the documentary is deeply revealing of Duvalier's character and of the state of Haiti in 1969.
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Duvalier and Joel Barromi, Israeli ambassador to Haiti, surrounded by Haitian generals in 1963
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during these events, harming his mental health and perhaps explaining his subsequent actions.
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617:, and as a result, he remained in power until his death in 1971. He was succeeded by his son,
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2290:. Inter-American Dialogue. Vol. 3. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p.
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Constructing Democratic Governance: Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean in the 1990s
2034:. Heinemann CXC history (1st ed.). Oxford, England: Heinemann Educational Publishers.
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2181:. Historical Dictionaries of the Americas. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. p. 92.
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in 1934, and served as staff physician at several local hospitals. He spent a year at the
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Many books have been written about the Duvalier era in Haiti, the best known of which is
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Prior to his rule, Duvalier graduated from the Graduate School of Public Health of the
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2997:(Revised ed.). New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. pp. xvi.
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into a black dog and had the militia begin killing black dogs on sight in the capital.
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869:, Duvalier expelled almost all of Haiti's foreign-born bishops, an act that earned him
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décrit ainsi la détresse psychique du dictateur: « François Duvalier chasse
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His aunt, Madame Florestal, raised him. He completed a degree in medicine from the
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and associated circulatory problems. During the heart attack, he was comatose for
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Duvalier emerged from hiding, and on 12 December 1956, Magloire conceded defeat.
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2257:"Papa Doc, a Ruthless Dictator, Kept the Haitians in Illiteracy and Dire Poverty"
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1782:"Métaspora de Joël Des Rosiers ou l'art comme dépassement de la vie quotidienne"
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Murray, Rolland (2008). "Black Crisis Shuffle: Fiction, Race, and Simulation".
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2085:. Pan-African Chronologies. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. p. 394.
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credentials and Haiti's strategic location as a means of winning U.S. support:
977:, as he was called—absolute powers as well as the right to name his successor.
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From Dessalines to Duvalier: Race, Colour, and National Independence in Haiti
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990:
352:
3522:. Translated by Haspil, Frantz. Bloomington, Indiana: Trafford Publishing.
3499:
3088:
3028:
2964:
2814:
2401:
2325:
2241:
2065:
1940:
3774:
3351:
3343:
1354:
on 21 April 1971, seven days after his 64th birthday. His 19-year-old son
605:. He acquired the nickname "Papa Doc". He was unanimously "re-elected" in
1351:
1218:
894:
874:
850:
567:
551:
3167:. Vol. 82, no. 4. pp. 20–21. 26 July 1963. Archived from
2741:
2518:
3461:
3327:
1434:
1159:
1092:
for 38 years until the two countries re-established relations in 1997.
890:
777:
666:
633:
in 1907, the son of Duval Duvalier from the French Caribbean colony of
2330:
The vote, however, was for Papa Doc: Duvalier 679,884; [
2134:. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO. pp. 391–393.
1288:, later using them to consolidate his power with his claim of being a
853:—to extend and bolster support for the regime in the countryside. The
3057:(2nd ed.). Aldershot, England: Ashgate Publishing. p. 261.
1229:
agencies to work in development in newly independent nations such as
1155:
1069:
After Fulgencio Batista (a friend of Duvalier) was overthrown in the
658:
3598:"Bahamas Director of Information given death sentence in Haiti 1968"
1829:
Her name is recorded variously as "Ulyssia", "Uritia", and "Irutia".
1794:
Dans un mélange de subtilité allusive et de rigueur architecturale,
985:
728:, with whom he had four children: Marie‑Denise, Nicole, Simone, and
1956:
Plunging Into Haiti: Clinton, Aristide, and the Defeat of Diplomacy
546:
from 1957 until his death in 1971. He was elected president in the
3537:
3072:
2651:
2478:
2422:. Vol. 45, no. 6. Time. pp. 22–23. 11 August 1958.
2196:
2149:
1750:
1607:
1315:
1222:
1214:
1178:
984:
936:
30:"Papa Doc" redirects here. For the Colombian drug trafficker, see
2912:"Duvalier's Death Causes Mixed Reactions In Miami's Little Haiti"
1308:. The regime's propaganda stated that "Papa Doc was one with the
3483:
3335:
2443:"Haiti: National Security § The Duvalier Era, 1957–86"
2385:
2309:
2100:
2049:
1048:
749:
662:
3778:
3012:
2798:
2629:
Red Heat: Conspiracy, Murder, and the Cold War in the Caribbean
1924:
1370:, was that his son had removed his remains upon fleeing to the
538:; 14 April 1907 – 21 April 1971), also known as
3403:
1394:
1319:
1310:
1304:
1298:
1047:. Duvalier attempted to exploit tensions between the U.S. and
1886:"Haiti: Historical Setting § François Duvalier, 1957–71"
1568:"Haiti: Historical Setting § François Duvalier, 1957–71"
1080:
Duvalier enraged Castro by voting against the country in an
3267:"Profanation du tombeau de François Duvalier, Archives INA"
3055:
The International Law of Responsibility for Economic Crimes
2949:. Washington, D.C.: Organization of American States. 1979.
1642:"Real-Life Baron Samedi: Francois 'Papa Doc' Duvalier"
2632:(1st ed.). New York: Henry Holt and Company. p.
1422:, which included an interview with the president. Made by
4480:
Recipients of orders, decorations, and medals of Ethiopia
2760:"Haiti: Government and Politics § Foreign Relations"
1844:"Heroes & killers of the 20th century: The Duvaliers"
3187:"Duvalier, 64, Dies in Haiti; Son, 19, Is New President"
1331:
was heavily reworded to praise Duvalier instead of God.
2132:
Africa and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History
1117:
684:(black and white mixed-race) elite. Duvalier supported
653:
studying public health and in 1943, became active in a
1672:. Friends of Music Education for Haiti. pp. 2–3.
989:
Duvalier greeting David Tercero Castro, ambassador of
912:
While recovering, Duvalier left power in the hands of
4475:
University of Michigan School of Public Health alumni
1476:
Fatton, Robert Jr. (2013). "Michel-Rolph Trouillot's
2880:
The Voodoo Encyclopedia: Magic, Ritual, and Religion
2126:
Juang, Richard M.; Morrissette, Noelle Anne (2008).
1360:, nicknamed "Baby Doc", succeeded him as president.
929:; sometimes, he was in the room during the torture.
873:
from the Catholic Church. In 1966, he persuaded the
4278:
4248:
4153:
4063:
3886:
3812:
3044:
3042:
1077:would provide a safe haven for Haitian dissidents.
925:detainees being tortured and submerged in baths of
330:
322:
294:
283:
254:
244:
230:
210:
205:
193:
177:
155:
136:
126:
110:
98:
83:
64:
41:
2943:"Report on the situation of human rights in Haiti"
2363:
791:, which is how he described his opponent, Déjoie.
1010:(assassinated in 1961) while ignoring Haiti. The
740:In 1946, Duvalier aligned himself with President
672:The racism and violence that occurred during the
1879:
1877:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1865:
1863:
1861:
1532:"Haiti's Poverty Stirs Nostalgia for Old Ghosts"
1429:The first authoritative book on the subject was
3219:] (in Czech). Praha: Metafora. p. 52.
2228:
2226:
1265:Toussaint Louverture International Airport
1057:
822:In 1959, Duvalier created a rural militia, the
3294:"Haitians Take Out 28 Years of Anger on Crypt"
2354:
2352:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2342:
1717:
1374:in a transport plane to Paris the day before.
826:Milice de Volontaires de la Sécurité Nationale
3790:
2575:. Abingdon, England: Routledge. p. 357.
2023:
2021:
1837:
1835:
1715:
1713:
1711:
1709:
1707:
1705:
1703:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1661:
1659:
1561:
1559:
1557:
1154:, Duvalier granted diplomatic recognition to
1100:Duvalier's relationship with the neighboring
897:since early adulthood and also suffered from
542:, was a Haitian politician who served as the
507:
8:
4450:People excommunicated by the Catholic Church
3133:
3095:
2830:"Biographies: François Duvalier (1907–1971)"
2686:
2684:
2682:
2680:
1735: (1988). New York: The Overlook Press.
1480:: A Critique of the Totalitarian Paradigm".
1084: (OAS) meeting and subsequently at the
971:
905:His physician believed that he had suffered
885:On 24 May 1959, Duvalier suffered a massive
831:
824:
771:
690:
1259:Duvalier also initiated the development of
1209:Many educated professionals fled Haiti for
189:26 November 1948 – 14 October 1949
3797:
3783:
3775:
3636:
2416:"A Weird, Fatal Dash into Turbulent Haiti"
1166:, the predominant ethnic group of Biafra.
514:
500:
343:
49:
38:
2947:Inter-American Commission on Human Rights
2517:
1073:, Duvalier worried that new Cuban leader
4445:National Unity Party (Haiti) politicians
3145:from the original on 27 September 2015.
2278:"Haiti: Four Old and Two New Hypotheses"
1989:
1987:
1985:
1983:
1981:
1979:
1188:1971 newsreel film about Duvalier's rule
787:irritation at being governed by the few
273:
93:as Chairman of the Military Council
79:22 October 1957 – 21 April 1971
2922:from the original on 30 November 2014.
2882:. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO.
2370:(1st ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1854:from the original on 10 September 2015.
1550:from the original on 14 September 2015.
1468:
1416:featured Duvalier in a 1969 episode of
838:Militia of National Security Volunteers
704:, both of which led to his advocacy of
346:
3565:Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant
2552:from the original on 16 January 2015.
2234:"François Duvalier: Haitian President"
2031:The Haitian Revolution and its Effects
1792:from the original on 9 November 2015.
1454:Papa Doc: Portrait of a Haitian Tyrant
1226:
360:This article is part of a series about
122:14 October 1949 – 10 May 1950
3568:. Kingston, Jamaica: LMH Publishing.
3416:from the original on 31 October 2015.
3370:"Haiti Recalls Greene With Gratitude"
2366:Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy
1733:Haiti: The Duvaliers and Their Legacy
1445:, dealt specifically with victims of
720:
533:
7:
3659:Minister of Public Health and Labor
2971:from the original on 21 March 2012.
2699:] (in Czech). Prague: Metafora.
2542:"Haiti: Papa Doc's concordat (1966)"
27:President of Haiti from 1957 to 1971
3719:as Chairman of the Military Council
3428:"Papa Doc – The Black Sheep (1969)"
1996:"François 'Papa Doc' Duvalier"
688:ideals, and became involved in the
111:Minister of Public Health and Labor
714:. On 27 December 1939, he married
25:
4301:Transitional Presidential Council
3388:from the original on 25 May 2015.
3292:Brooke, James (9 February 1986).
2765:. In Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.).
1891:. In Haggerty, Richard A. (ed.).
1842:Harris, Bruce (12 October 2014).
674:United States occupation of Haiti
562:, his regime rapidly became more
444:Cuba–Haiti relations(anti-castro)
4415:State University of Haiti alumni
4380:20th-century non-fiction writers
4370:20th-century Haitian politicians
3877:
3624:
3516:(2011) . Prézeau, Maryse (ed.).
3466:Papa Doc: Haiti and Its Dictator
3241:"Evénements Haïti, Archives INA"
2284:; Lowenthal, Abraham F. (eds.).
1431:Papa Doc: Haiti and its Dictator
1410:and barred from entering Haiti.
1041:assassination of John F. Kennedy
758:1957 campaign for the presidency
676:, which began in 1915, inspired
621:, who was nicknamed "Baby Doc".
487:
482:
351:
4455:Politicians from Port-au-Prince
3918:Council of Secretaries of State
3519:Fort-Dimanche, Dungeon of Death
3051:"The Cult of State Sovereignty"
2865:10.15210/interfaces.v20i0.19464
2573:Heads of States and Governments
2445:. In Metz, Helen Chapin (ed.).
1960:University Press of Mississippi
1627:Organization of American States
1443:Fort‑Dimanche: Dungeon of Death
1082:Organization of American States
269:
4385:African and Black nationalists
3322:. New York: The Viking Press.
2255:Krebs, Albin (23 April 1971).
2178:Historical Dictionary of Haiti
2079:Jenkins, Everett Jr. (2011) .
1800:Joseph Dunès Olivier
1514:In 1963, Duvalier created the
1402:. Greene himself was declared
881:Heart attack and Barbot affair
840:)—commonly referred to as the
560:a military coup d'état in 1958
439:1964 constitutional referendum
164:Joseph Loubeau (Public Health)
1:
4435:Haitian public health doctors
3132:(in French). Port‑au‑Prince:
2878:Anderson, Jeffrey E. (2015).
1884:Haggerty, Richard A. (1991).
1788:(in French). Port‑au‑Prince.
1780:Péan, Leslie (24 July 2014).
1530:Lacey, Marc (23 March 2008).
1130:In 1966, Duvalier hosted the
145:Antonio Vieux (Public Health)
4375:20th-century Haitian writers
4120:Executive Government Council
3672:as Minister of Public Health
3652:as Minister of Public Health
3135:Edition imprimerie de l'état
2768:Dominican Republic and Haiti
2448:Dominican Republic and Haiti
2276:Maingot, Anthony P. (1996).
1894:Dominican Republic and Haiti
1577:Dominican Republic and Haiti
1452:In 2007, John Marquis wrote
1201:Social and economic policies
756:The two frontrunners in the
607:a 1961 presidential election
4440:Haitian Vodou practitioners
4425:Haitian non-fiction writers
3988:Commission for Public Order
3468:. London: The Bodley Head.
3404:"Papa Doc: The Black Sheep"
3126:Catechism of the Revolution
3121:Catechisme de la révolution
3097:Catechisme de la Révolution
3049:Kofele-Kale, Ndiva (2006).
2506:Teoria e Pesquisa
1623:Juan Bosch Gaviño
1255:and famine became endemic.
1140:Order of the Queen of Sheba
1090:Haitian relations with Cuba
947:a new presidential election
698:movement of Haitian author
570:. An undercover government
4496:
3713:Antonio Thrasybule Kébreau
3118:Fourcand, Jean M. (1964).
2758:Smucker, Glenn R. (1991).
2624:§ 'Our Real Friends'"
2567:Lentz, Harris M. (2014) .
2028:Bryan, Patrick E. (1984).
1796:Joël Des Rosiers
1516:Parti de l'unité nationale
1346:François Duvalier died of
558:platform. After thwarting
91:Antonio Thrasybule Kébreau
29:
4310:
3875:
3763:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3733:
3724:
3709:
3692:
3679:
3664:
3657:
3644:
3639:
2918:. Washington, D.C.: NPR.
2616:Von Tunzelmann, Alex
2171:Hall, Michael R. (2012).
1808:Morne des Esses
1728:Haiti: A Shattered Nation
1261:François Duvalier Airport
961:constitutional referendum
837:
338:
201:
182:
115:
72:
60:
48:
3744:Party political offices
3161:"Haiti: The Living Dead"
2853:Interfaces Brasil/Canadá
2555:Papa Doc's control.
1954:Pezzullo, Ralph (2006).
1731:. Rev. and updated from
1494:10.1215/07990537-2379009
893:overdose; he had been a
535:[fʁɑ̃swadyvalje]
178:Under Secretary of Labor
4460:Politicide perpetrators
4420:Haitian anti-communists
4390:Diabetes-related deaths
4039:Revolutionary Committee
3806:Heads of state of Haiti
2730:African American Review
1158:during its war against
780:, stoking the majority
4410:20th-century criminals
3933:Public Order Committee
3629:Quotations related to
3134:
3096:
2441:Tartter, Jean (2001).
1666:Joseph, Romel (2010).
1278:Duvalier fostered his
1189:
1062:
1012:Kennedy administration
994:
972:
942:
933:Constitutional changes
832:
825:
807:Consolidation of power
772:
691:
651:University of Michigan
599:University of Michigan
583:
304:University of Michigan
32:Evaristo Porras Ardila
4400:Genocide perpetrators
3171:on 27 September 2011.
1850:. Sydney, Australia.
1629:to settle the matter.
1566:Greene, Anne (2001).
1271:Personality cult and
1187:
1136:Haile Selassie I
1018:mission to train the
988:
940:
889:, possibly due to an
629:Duvalier was born in
625:Early life and career
548:1957 general election
531:French pronunciation:
240:Port-au-Prince, Haiti
4145:Jean-Claude Duvalier
3824:Dessalines/Jacques I
3767:Jean-Claude Duvalier
3757:National Unity Party
3737:Jean-Claude Duvalier
3702:as Minister of Labor
3687:as Minister of Labor
3376:. Associated Press.
3211:Shaw, Karl (2005) .
2546:Concordat Watch
2006:on 18 September 2015
1669:The Miracle of Music
1478:State Against Nation
1424:Yorkshire Television
1357:Jean-Claude Duvalier
1342:Death and succession
639:justice of the peace
477:Jean-Claude Duvalier
105:Jean-Claude Duvalier
4470:Presidents of Haiti
4465:Presidents for life
3869:Soulouque/Faustin I
3750:New political party
3438:on 29 November 2021
2930:western hemisphere.
2691:Shaw, Karl (2005).
2519:10.4322/tp.2013.016
2334:] 266,993.
2282:Domínguez, Jorge I.
2128:"François Duvalier"
2000:TheDictatorship.com
1962:. pp. 77–100.
1280:cult of personality
1132:Emperor of Ethiopia
907:neurological damage
647:University of Haiti
459:cult of personality
309:University of Haiti
148:Louis Bazin (Labor)
4430:Haitian physicians
3829:Christophe/Henry I
3727:President of Haiti
3640:Political offices
3458:Diederich, Bernard
3299:The New York Times
3191:The New York Times
2910:(6 October 2014).
2262:The New York Times
1572:Metz, Helen Chapin
1367:The New York Times
1190:
1152:Nigerian Civil War
1146:Nigeria and Biafra
1102:Dominican Republic
1096:Dominican Republic
1051:, emphasizing his
995:
966:President for Life
956:The New York Times
943:
760:were Duvalier and
611:president for life
544:president of Haiti
403:President of Haiti
67:President of Haiti
4405:Haitian criminals
4332:
4331:
4140:François Duvalier
3773:
3772:
3764:Succeeded by
3734:Succeeded by
3722:
3705:
3693:Succeeded by
3690:
3675:
3665:Succeeded by
3655:
3631:François Duvalier
3575:978-976-8202-49-9
3529:978-1-4269-6624-8
3475:978-0-370-01326-8
3368:(27 April 1991).
3366:French, Howard W.
3273:on 23 August 2012
3226:978-80-7359-002-4
3217:Šílenství mocných
3185:(23 April 1971).
3064:978-1-4094-9609-0
3004:978-0-8135-2240-1
2956:978-0-8270-1094-9
2782:978-0-8444-0728-9
2706:978-80-7359-002-4
2693:Šílenství mocných
2643:978-0-8050-9067-3
2582:978-1-884964-44-2
2462:978-0-8444-1044-9
2377:978-0-07-046029-4
2360:Abbott, Elizabeth
2301:978-0-8018-5404-0
2244:on 20 March 2012.
2188:978-0-8108-7549-4
2141:978-1-85109-441-7
2092:978-0-7864-4506-6
2041:978-0-435-98301-7
1908:978-0-8444-0728-9
1816:commune des Cayes
1804:Louis Déjoie
1742:978-1-59020-989-9
1723:Abbott, Elizabeth
1679:978-0-9769847-0-2
1591:978-0-8444-1044-9
1439:Bernard Diederich
1406:persona non grata
1294:Baron Samedi
1185:
1170:Internal policies
1033:Fulgencio Batista
1016:U.S. Marine Corps
993:to Haiti, in 1968
981:Foreign relations
762:Louis Déjoie
678:black nationalism
588:Haitian mythology
556:black nationalist
527:François Duvalier
524:
523:
429:1958 coup attempt
412:
378:
377:
369:François Duvalier
342:
341:
43:François Duvalier
18:Francois Duvalier
16:(Redirected from
4487:
4324:
4316:
4190:Pascal-Trouillot
3881:
3799:
3792:
3785:
3776:
3716:
3710:Preceded by
3699:
3684:
3680:Preceded by
3669:
3649:
3645:Preceded by
3637:
3628:
3613:
3612:
3610:
3608:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3556:
3550:
3549:
3514:Lemoine, Patrick
3510:
3504:
3503:
3454:
3448:
3447:
3445:
3443:
3434:. Archived from
3424:
3418:
3417:
3402:(17 June 1969).
3396:
3390:
3389:
3362:
3356:
3355:
3310:
3304:
3303:
3289:
3283:
3282:
3280:
3278:
3269:. Archived from
3263:
3257:
3256:
3254:
3252:
3243:. Archived from
3237:
3231:
3230:
3208:
3202:
3201:
3199:
3197:
3179:
3173:
3172:
3157:
3151:
3150:
3144:
3137:
3131:
3115:
3109:
3108:
3104:
3099:
3046:
3037:
3036:
2985:
2979:
2978:
2939:
2933:
2932:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2875:
2869:
2868:
2848:
2842:
2841:
2840:on 11 July 2015.
2836:. Archived from
2834:PolymerNotes.org
2825:
2819:
2818:
2764:
2755:
2749:
2748:
2725:
2719:
2718:
2688:
2675:
2674:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2564:
2558:
2557:
2538:
2532:
2531:
2521:
2501:
2495:
2494:
2438:
2432:
2431:
2412:
2406:
2405:
2369:
2356:
2337:
2336:
2273:
2267:
2266:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2240:. Archived from
2238:HaitianMedia.com
2230:
2221:
2220:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2076:
2070:
2069:
2025:
2016:
2015:
2013:
2011:
2002:. Archived from
1991:
1974:
1973:
1951:
1945:
1944:
1890:
1881:
1856:
1855:
1839:
1830:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1719:
1692:
1691:
1663:
1654:
1653:
1652:on 27 June 2009.
1648:. Archived from
1638:
1632:
1631:
1563:
1552:
1551:
1527:
1521:
1520:
1473:
1408:
1359:
1262:
1250:
1231:Ivory Coast
1228:
1186:
1122:
1119:
1071:Cuban Revolution
1036:
1025:
1021:
975:
968:
953:
923:
919:
916:, leader of the
904:
849:
845:
839:
835:
828:
798:
786:
775:
742:Dumarsais Estimé
727:
725:
703:
696:
644:
643:Ulyssia Abraham.
592:personality cult
537:
532:
516:
509:
502:
491:
486:
423:Duvalier dynasty
406:
374:
373:
372:
370:
362:
361:
355:
348:
347:
344:
277:
275:
271:
237:
220:
218:
206:Personal details
197:Dumarsais Estimé
187:
158:
139:
131:Dumarsais Estimé
120:
101:
86:
77:
55:Duvalier in 1963
53:
39:
21:
4495:
4494:
4490:
4489:
4488:
4486:
4485:
4484:
4395:Duvalier family
4335:
4334:
4333:
4328:
4322:
4314:
4306:
4274:
4244:
4149:
4059:
3882:
3873:
3808:
3803:
3769:
3760:
3739:
3730:
3715:
3698:
3696:Emile Saint-Lot
3683:
3668:
3661:
3648:
3621:
3616:
3606:
3604:
3596:
3595:
3591:
3576:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3530:
3512:
3511:
3507:
3476:
3456:
3455:
3451:
3441:
3439:
3426:
3425:
3421:
3409:Whicker's World
3398:
3397:
3393:
3364:
3363:
3359:
3312:
3311:
3307:
3291:
3290:
3286:
3276:
3274:
3265:
3264:
3260:
3250:
3248:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3195:
3193:
3181:
3180:
3176:
3159:
3158:
3154:
3142:
3129:
3117:
3116:
3112:
3102:
3065:
3048:
3047:
3040:
3005:
2989:Nicholls, David
2987:
2986:
2982:
2974:
2957:
2941:
2940:
2936:
2927:Patrick Gaspard
2916:Morning Edition
2902:
2901:
2897:
2890:
2877:
2876:
2872:
2850:
2849:
2845:
2828:Štraus, Stane.
2827:
2826:
2822:
2783:
2762:
2757:
2756:
2752:
2727:
2726:
2722:
2707:
2690:
2689:
2678:
2644:
2614:
2613:
2609:
2583:
2566:
2565:
2561:
2540:
2539:
2535:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2463:
2440:
2439:
2435:
2414:
2413:
2409:
2378:
2358:
2357:
2340:
2302:
2275:
2274:
2270:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2232:
2231:
2224:
2189:
2170:
2169:
2165:
2142:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2093:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2042:
2027:
2026:
2019:
2009:
2007:
1994:Wright, Giles.
1993:
1992:
1977:
1970:
1953:
1952:
1948:
1909:
1888:
1883:
1882:
1859:
1841:
1840:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1779:
1778:
1774:
1743:
1721:
1720:
1695:
1680:
1665:
1664:
1657:
1640:
1639:
1635:
1592:
1565:
1564:
1555:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1419:Whicker's World
1404:
1380:
1378:Books and films
1355:
1344:
1276:
1263:, now known as
1260:
1245:
1203:
1179:
1177:
1172:
1148:
1128:
1114:
1098:
1067:
1031:Cuban dictator
1030:
1023:
1019:
1008:Rafael Trujillo
1000:
983:
964:
963:made Duvalier "
951:
935:
921:
917:
902:
883:
871:excommunication
847:
841:
816:landed in Haiti
809:
804:
796:
781:
738:
717:Simone Duvalier
715:
701:Jean Price-Mars
699:
642:
627:
530:
520:
481:
472:Simone Duvalier
463:
449:"all were shot"
413:
411:
400:
368:
366:
365:
364:
363:
359:
358:
318:
279:
267:
263:
245:Political party
239:
235:
222:
216:
214:
188:
183:
173:
168:Emile Saint-Lot
156:
151:
137:
121:
116:
99:
84:
78:
73:
56:
44:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4493:
4491:
4483:
4482:
4477:
4472:
4467:
4462:
4457:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4427:
4422:
4417:
4412:
4407:
4402:
4397:
4392:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4367:
4362:
4360:1970s in Haiti
4357:
4355:1960s in Haiti
4352:
4350:1950s in Haiti
4347:
4337:
4336:
4330:
4329:
4327:
4326:
4320:
4311:
4308:
4307:
4305:
4304:
4297:
4292:
4286:
4284:
4283:(2021–present)
4276:
4275:
4273:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4256:
4254:
4246:
4245:
4243:
4242:
4237:
4232:
4227:
4222:
4217:
4212:
4207:
4202:
4197:
4192:
4187:
4182:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4161:
4159:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4147:
4142:
4137:
4132:
4127:
4122:
4117:
4112:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4092:
4087:
4082:
4077:
4071:
4069:
4061:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4052:
4047:
4042:
4035:
4030:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3980:
3978:Boisrond-Canal
3975:
3970:
3965:
3960:
3955:
3953:Boisrond-Canal
3950:
3945:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3928:Boisrond-Canal
3925:
3920:
3915:
3910:
3905:
3900:
3894:
3892:
3884:
3883:
3876:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3861:
3856:
3851:
3849:Rivière-Hérard
3846:
3841:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3820:
3818:
3810:
3809:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3794:
3787:
3779:
3771:
3770:
3765:
3762:
3755:Leader of the
3752:
3746:
3745:
3741:
3740:
3735:
3732:
3723:
3711:
3707:
3706:
3694:
3691:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3667:Joseph Loubeau
3666:
3663:
3656:
3646:
3642:
3641:
3635:
3634:
3620:
3619:External links
3617:
3615:
3614:
3589:
3574:
3551:
3528:
3505:
3474:
3449:
3419:
3391:
3374:New York Times
3357:
3314:Greene, Graham
3305:
3284:
3258:
3247:on 6 July 2010
3232:
3225:
3203:
3174:
3152:
3138:. p. 37.
3110:
3106:evil ...'
3103:Port-au-Prince
3063:
3038:
3003:
2980:
2955:
2934:
2904:Inskeep, Steve
2895:
2888:
2870:
2843:
2820:
2781:
2750:
2736:(2): 215–233.
2720:
2705:
2676:
2642:
2607:
2581:
2559:
2533:
2496:
2461:
2433:
2407:
2376:
2338:
2300:
2268:
2247:
2222:
2187:
2163:
2140:
2118:
2091:
2071:
2040:
2017:
1975:
1968:
1946:
1907:
1857:
1831:
1822:
1786:Le Nouvelliste
1772:
1741:
1693:
1678:
1655:
1633:
1590:
1553:
1536:New York Times
1522:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1379:
1376:
1372:U.S. Air Force
1343:
1340:
1336:change at will
1275:
1269:
1202:
1199:
1176:
1173:
1171:
1168:
1147:
1144:
1127:
1124:
1097:
1094:
1086:United Nations
1066:
1063:
1053:anti-communist
1020:Tonton Macoute
999:
996:
982:
979:
934:
931:
922:Tonton Macoute
918:Tonton Macoute
914:Clément Barbot
882:
879:
848:Haitian Creole
843:Tonton Macoute
808:
805:
803:
800:
737:
736:Political rise
734:
631:Port-au-Prince
626:
623:
613:after another
580:Haitian Creole
576:Tonton Macoute
522:
521:
519:
518:
511:
504:
496:
493:
492:
480:
479:
474:
462:
461:
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
434:Tonton Macoute
431:
426:
407:
399:
398:
393:
388:
380:
379:
376:
375:
356:
340:
339:
336:
335:
332:
328:
327:
324:
320:
319:
317:
316:
306:
300:
298:
292:
291:
285:
281:
280:
265:
259:
258:
256:
252:
251:
246:
242:
241:
238:(aged 64)
232:
228:
227:
224:Port-au-Prince
212:
208:
207:
203:
202:
199:
198:
195:
191:
190:
180:
179:
175:
174:
172:
171:
165:
161:
159:
153:
152:
150:
149:
146:
142:
140:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
113:
112:
108:
107:
102:
96:
95:
87:
81:
80:
70:
69:
62:
61:
58:
57:
54:
46:
45:
42:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4492:
4481:
4478:
4476:
4473:
4471:
4468:
4466:
4463:
4461:
4458:
4456:
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4448:
4446:
4443:
4441:
4438:
4436:
4433:
4431:
4428:
4426:
4423:
4421:
4418:
4416:
4413:
4411:
4408:
4406:
4403:
4401:
4398:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4368:
4366:
4363:
4361:
4358:
4356:
4353:
4351:
4348:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4340:
4321:
4319:
4313:
4312:
4309:
4303:
4302:
4298:
4296:
4293:
4291:
4288:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4277:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4247:
4241:
4238:
4236:
4233:
4231:
4228:
4226:
4223:
4221:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4211:
4208:
4206:
4203:
4201:
4198:
4196:
4193:
4191:
4188:
4186:
4183:
4181:
4178:
4176:
4173:
4171:
4168:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4157:
4152:
4146:
4143:
4141:
4138:
4136:
4133:
4131:
4128:
4126:
4123:
4121:
4118:
4116:
4113:
4111:
4108:
4106:
4103:
4101:
4098:
4096:
4093:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4078:
4076:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4062:
4056:
4053:
4051:
4048:
4046:
4043:
4041:
4040:
4036:
4034:
4033:Guillaume Sam
4031:
4029:
4026:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
3999:
3996:
3994:
3991:
3989:
3986:
3984:
3981:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3964:
3961:
3959:
3956:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3929:
3926:
3924:
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3895:
3893:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3860:
3857:
3855:
3852:
3850:
3847:
3845:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3835:
3832:
3830:
3827:
3825:
3822:
3821:
3819:
3816:
3815:Revolutionary
3811:
3807:
3800:
3795:
3793:
3788:
3786:
3781:
3780:
3777:
3768:
3759:
3758:
3751:
3747:
3742:
3738:
3729:
3728:
3721:
3720:
3714:
3708:
3704:
3703:
3697:
3689:
3688:
3678:
3674:
3673:
3660:
3654:
3653:
3647:Antonio Vieux
3643:
3638:
3632:
3627:
3623:
3622:
3618:
3603:
3602:Bahamianology
3599:
3593:
3590:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3567:
3566:
3561:
3560:Marquis, John
3555:
3552:
3547:
3543:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3525:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3509:
3506:
3501:
3497:
3493:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3477:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3453:
3450:
3437:
3433:
3429:
3423:
3420:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3405:
3401:
3400:Whicker, Alan
3395:
3392:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3361:
3358:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3333:
3329:
3325:
3321:
3320:
3319:The Comedians
3315:
3309:
3306:
3301:
3300:
3295:
3288:
3285:
3272:
3268:
3262:
3259:
3246:
3242:
3236:
3233:
3228:
3222:
3218:
3214:
3207:
3204:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3178:
3175:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3156:
3153:
3149:
3141:
3136:
3127:
3123:
3122:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3098:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3045:
3043:
3039:
3035:
3030:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3000:
2996:
2995:
2990:
2984:
2981:
2977:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2938:
2935:
2931:
2928:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2908:Green, Nadege
2905:
2899:
2896:
2891:
2889:9781610692083
2885:
2881:
2874:
2871:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2847:
2844:
2839:
2835:
2831:
2824:
2821:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2769:
2761:
2754:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2724:
2721:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2698:
2694:
2687:
2685:
2683:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2630:
2625:
2623:
2617:
2611:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2560:
2556:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2537:
2534:
2529:
2525:
2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2493:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2464:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2449:
2444:
2437:
2434:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2411:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2368:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2353:
2351:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2333:
2327:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2272:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2258:
2251:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2184:
2180:
2179:
2174:
2173:Woronoff, Jon
2167:
2164:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2119:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2084:
2083:
2075:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2055:
2051:
2047:
2043:
2037:
2033:
2032:
2024:
2022:
2018:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1988:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1969:9781604735345
1965:
1961:
1957:
1950:
1947:
1942:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1910:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1895:
1887:
1880:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1868:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1826:
1823:
1819:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1756:
1752:
1748:
1744:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1718:
1716:
1714:
1712:
1710:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1700:
1698:
1694:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1675:
1671:
1670:
1662:
1660:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1637:
1634:
1630:
1628:
1624:
1617:
1613:
1609:
1605:
1601:
1597:
1593:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1578:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1560:
1558:
1554:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1519:
1517:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1488:(3–42): 208.
1487:
1483:
1479:
1472:
1469:
1463:
1461:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1447:Fort Dimanche
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1409:
1407:
1401:
1397:
1396:
1391:
1390:
1389:The Comedians
1385:
1384:Graham Greene
1377:
1375:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1361:
1358:
1353:
1349:
1348:heart disease
1341:
1339:
1337:
1332:
1330:
1329:Lord's Prayer
1327:in which the
1326:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1312:
1307:
1306:
1301:
1300:
1296:, one of the
1295:
1291:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1274:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1256:
1254:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1236:
1232:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1212:
1211:New York City
1207:
1200:
1198:
1196:
1195:Fort Dimanche
1174:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1153:
1145:
1143:
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1026:
1024:great power".
1017:
1013:
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998:United States
997:
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987:
980:
978:
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967:
962:
958:
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927:sulfuric acid
915:
910:
908:
900:
899:heart disease
896:
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880:
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859:secret police
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852:
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827:
820:
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812:
806:
801:
799:
797:intimidation.
792:
790:
789:mulatto elite
784:
783:Afro-Haitians
779:
776:
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767:
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615:sham election
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234:21 April 1971
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3633:at Wikiquote
3607:25 September
3605:. Retrieved
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3271:the original
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3245:the original
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3190:
3183:Homer Bigart
3177:
3169:the original
3164:
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1645:
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596:
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526:
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454:Samedi Model
422:
415:
414:
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367:
261:Simone Ovide
236:(1971-04-21)
184:
157:Succeeded by
117:
100:Succeeded by
89:
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4365:1971 deaths
4345:1907 births
4325:Provisional
4253:(2011–2021)
4158:(1986–2011)
4068:(1930–1986)
3891:(1859–1930)
3817:(1804–1859)
3682:Louis Bazin
2512:(2): 1–10.
1164:Igbo people
1150:During the
903:nine hours.
867:nationalism
836:, English:
730:Jean‑Claude
724: Ovide
686:Pan-African
619:Jean‑Claude
572:death squad
289:Jean-Claude
138:Preceded by
85:Preceded by
4339:Categories
4251:earthquake
4215:Jonassaint
4066:Occupation
3761:1957–1971
3731:1957–1971
3662:1949–1950
3538:2011906135
3412:. London.
3328:B0078EPH2C
3213:Power Mad!
3073:2006006433
2697:Power Mad!
2652:2010037585
2622:Cuba Libre
2479:2001023524
2197:2011035933
2150:2007035154
2010:9 November
1848:moreorless
1751:2013496344
1608:2001023524
1464:References
1175:Repression
1107:Juan Bosch
1039:After the
802:Presidency
711:Les Griots
635:Martinique
564:autocratic
416:Government
323:Profession
296:Alma mater
217:1907-04-14
4235:Alexandre
3973:Simon Sam
3968:Hyppolite
3943:Hyppolite
3584:692302388
3492:221276122
3382:0362-4331
2991:(1996) .
2791:1057-5294
2668:25022986M
2660:648922964
2599:14865945W
2591:870226851
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2428:0024-3019
2218:Duvalier.
2213:25025684M
2205:751922123
2158:168716701
2109:913828919
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1767:25772018M
1759:859201061
1688:704908603
1600:1057-5294
1544:0362-4331
1510:144548346
1502:1534-6714
1482:Small Axe
1386:'s novel
1325:catechism
1247:extortion
1045:communism
1006:dictator
1004:Dominican
991:Guatemala
693:négritude
409:1957-1971
326:Physician
194:President
185:In office
127:President
118:In office
75:In office
65:34th
4318:De facto
4260:Martelly
4230:Aristide
4220:Aristide
4195:Aristide
4156:Duvalier
4100:Magloire
4028:Théodore
4023:Polynice
4013:Polynice
3958:Légitime
3923:Domingue
3898:Geffrard
3889:Imperial
3854:Guerrier
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3546:45461011
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3414:Archived
3386:Archived
3336:66012636
3316:(1966).
3140:Archived
3089:7991049M
3081:64289359
3029:8025482M
3021:32396546
2969:Archived
2920:Archived
2859:: 1–18.
2815:1531915M
2807:23179347
2742:40301207
2715:85144913
2618:(2011).
2550:Archived
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2402:2040347M
2394:18069022
2386:88016918
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2101:95008294
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2050:83239673
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1933:23179347
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1790:Archived
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1352:diabetes
1233:and the
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1126:Ethiopia
952:people".
895:diabetic
875:Holy See
851:bogeyman
846:after a
778:populism
773:noiriste
568:despotic
552:populist
540:Papa Doc
334:Papa Doc
331:Nickname
284:Children
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4265:Privert
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4170:Manigat
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3859:Pierrot
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2965:8344995
2799:91-9495
2773:346–349
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1925:91-9495
1899:232–235
1812:Maniche
1582:288–289
1574:(ed.).
1435:Al Burt
1160:Nigeria
1060:States.
891:insulin
855:Macoute
766:mulatto
682:mulatto
667:malaria
590:into a
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266:
226:, Haiti
170:(Labor)
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4225:Préval
4200:Cédras
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4279:Post–
4270:Moïse
4249:Post–
4210:Bazin
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4154:Post–
4064:Post–
4050:Borno
4018:Zamor
3993:Simon
3963:Jeune
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1285:Vodou
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1242:crime
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1223:Paris
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550:on a
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3609:2018
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3378:ISSN
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663:yaws
637:, a
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391:1957
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