751:, who according to Wesseling "had been pulling the strings ever since 1837." Khaznadar was minister of finance and foreign affairs and was assisted by the interior, defence, and naval ministers. In 1861, Tunisia was granted a constitution with a clear division of ministerial powers and responsibilities, but in practice, Khaznadar was the absolute sovereign. He pursued reformist policies promoting economic development, specifically aimed at improving, infrastructure, communication, and the armed forces. The Tunisian economy did not, however, generate enough revenue to sustain these reforms. Central administration, additionally, was weak. Tax collection was devolved onto tax-farmers, and only one-fifth of the revenues ever reached the national treasury. Many hill tribes and desert nomads lived in quasi-independence. Economic conditions deteriorated through the 19th century, as foreign fleets curbed corsairs, and droughts perennially wreaked havoc on production of cereals and olives. Because of accords with foreign traders dating back to the 16th century, custom duties were limited to 3 per cent of the value of imported goods; yet manufactured products from overseas, primarily textiles, flooded Tunisia and gradually destroyed local artisan industries.
755:
loan from foreign bankers. In 1867, an attempt to secure money failed; government revenues were insufficient to meet annual interest payments on the national debt. Tunisia plunged towards bankruptcy. Two years later France, Italy and
Britain set up an international finance commission to sort out Tunisia's economic problems and safeguard Western interests. Their actions enjoyed only partial success, largely because of opposition from foreign traders to increases in customs levies. In 1873, Khaznadar again undertook reforms and attacked the widespread financial abuses within the bureaucracy. The results were initially promising, but bad harvests and palace intrigue led to his downfall.
93:
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1642:, where in 1950, he issued a seven-point manifesto demanding the restitution of Tunisian sovereignty and election of a national assembly. A conciliatory French government acknowledged the desirability of autonomy, although it warned that this would come only at an unspecified time in the future; Paris proposed French and Tunisian "co-sovereignty" over the protectorate. An accord signed the next year, which granted increased powers to Tunisian officials, fell short of satisfying nationalists and outraged settlers. New French prime ministers took a harder line and kept Bourguiba under house arrest from 1951 to 1954.
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providing a means of bridging the gap between Arabo-Islamic and
European cultures." In a more pragmatic vein, schools teaching modern subjects in a European language would produce a cadre of Tunisians with the skills necessary to staff the growing government bureaucracy. Soon after the protectorate's establishment, the Directorate of Public Education set up a unitary school system for French and Tunisian pupils designed to draw the two peoples closer together. French was the medium of instruction in these Franco-Arab schools, and their curriculum imitated that of schools in
1282:
consortium buying the property believed the deal had been completed, but a
British citizen, ostensibly representing neighbouring landholders, preempted the sale and occupied the land (though without paying for it). A judge sent by London to investigate discovered that the British purchaser was acting on behalf of the Bey's government and Italian businessmen; moreover, he discovered that the Briton had used fraud to stake his claim. The sale was cancelled, and French buyers got the property. Paris moved to protect French claims, as London and
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79:
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1450:. French-speaking students who attended them studied Arabic as a second language. Ethnic mixing rarely occurred in schools in the cities, in which various religious denominations continued to run elementary schools. The Franco-Arab schools attained somewhat greater success in rural areas but never enrolled more than a fifth of Tunisia's eligible students. At the summit of the modern education system was the
1277:. Paris did not act immediately; the French parliament remained in an anti-colonial mood and no groundswell of popular opinion mandated a takeover of Tunisia. Several developments spurred France to action. In 1880, the British owners of the railway linking Tunis with the coast put their company up for sale. An Italian concern successfully bid for the enterprise, leaving France worried about possible
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At the same time, the rulers obtained the dismissal of
Tunisians who had supported the 1881 rebellion or had otherwise opposed the extension of French influence. A Frenchman held the office of Secretary-General of the Tunisian government, an office created in 1883 to advise the Prime Minister and oversee the work of the bureaucracy. French experts answerable only to the Secretary-General and the
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1186:, a French military force was harassed by 6,000 insurgents between 26 and 30 August and lost 30 soldiers. European civilians were not spared. On 30 September, the Oued Zarga station was attacked and nine employees were massacred. Following this massacre, Tunis was occupied on 7 October by French troops to reassure the foreign population.
1391:, roughly corresponding to provincial governors, were the most important figures in local administration. At the outset of the protectorate, some sixty of them had the responsibility of maintaining order and collecting taxes in districts either defined by tribal membership, or by geographical limits. The central government appointed the
1412:(Intelligence Service), fulfilled this duty. Successive Residents-General, fearing the soldiers' tendency toward direct rule – which belied the official French myth that Tunisians continued to govern Tunisia – worked to bring the Service des Renseignements under their control, finally doing so at the end of the century.
1657:— spurred French efforts to solve the Tunisian question quickly and peacefully. In a speech in Tunis, Mendès-France solemnly proclaimed the autonomy of the Tunisian government, although France retained control of substantial areas of administration. In 1955, Bourguiba returned to Tunis in triumph. At the same time, the
1415:
Shoring up the debt-ridden
Tunisian treasury was one of Cambon's main priorities. In 1884, France guaranteed the Tunisian debt, paving the way for the termination of the International Debt Commission's stranglehold on Tunisian finances. Responding to French pressure, the Bey's government then lowered
1314:
As a protectorate, Tunisia's status differed from that of
Algeria. The Bey remained in office as head of state, and Tunisia was deemed nominally independent, while existing treaties with other states stayed in force. France, however, took control of Tunisia's foreign affairs, finances, and maintained
875:
rail line; yet French strategy worked to circumvent this and other issues created by the sizable colony of
Tunisian Italians. Direct attempts by the French to negotiate with the Bey their entry into Tunisia failed. France waited, searching to find reasons to justify the timing of a preemptive strike,
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became worried of the strengthening of
Ottoman authority in the east, and was therefore not too unhappy in 1830 when another country, France, had settled on his western borders. According to Wesseling, the bey considered the conquest of his country by the Porte would be worse than a possible conquest
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The protectorate introduced new ideas in education. The French director of public education looked after all schools in
Tunisia, including religious ones. According to Perkins, "Many colonial officials believed that modern education would lay the groundwork for harmonious Franco-Tunisia relations by
1428:
they had maintained to protect their nationals from the
Tunisian judiciary. The French courts also tried cases in which one litigant was Tunisian, the other European. The protectorate authorities made no attempt to alter Muslim religious courts in which judges, or qadis, trained in Islamic law heard
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In 1861, Prime Minister Mustapha Khaznadar made an effort to modernise administration and increase revenues by doubling taxes. The primary effect, only fully felt by 1864, was widespread rural insurrection, coupled with great hardship for the general population. The government had to negotiate a new
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era contributed to this, which completely transformed the country above all for the benefit of the settlers, mostly Italians whose numbers were growing rapidly. A whole land legislation was put in place allowing the acquisition or the confiscation of land to create lots of colonization resold to the
1353:
French officials used several methods to control the Tunisian government. They urged the Bey to nominate members of the pre-colonial ruling elite to such key posts as prime-minister, because these people were personally loyal to the Bey and followed his lead in offering no resistance to the French.
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France did not enlarge its Maghreb domain beyond Algeria for half a century. The next area for expansion, at the beginning of the 1880s, was Tunisia. With an area of 155,000 square kilometers, Tunisia was a small prize, but it occupied strategic importance, across the Algerian frontier and only 150
1302:
granting France a protectorate over Tunisia. Although soldiers took until May 1882 to occupy the whole country and stamp out resistance, Tunisia had become a new French holding. Germany and Britain remained silent; Italy was outraged but powerless. French public opinion was largely supportive, and
1407:
These French officials replicated, at the local level, the work of the Resident-General, closely supervising the qaids and sheikhs. After 1884, a network of contrôleurs civils overlay the qaids' administration throughout the country, except in the extreme south. There, because of the more hostile
1222:
The Bey was soon compelled to come to terms with the French occupation of the country, signing the first of a series of treaties. These documents provided that the Bey continue as head of state, but with the French given effective control over a great deal of Tunisian governance, in the form of a
1137:
By this text, France deprived the Tunisian State of the right of active legation by entrusting diplomatic and consular agents of France in foreign countries with the protection of Tunisian interests and nationals of the Beylik. As for the Bey, he can no longer conclude any act of an international
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Italy had a strong interest in Tunisia since at least the early 19th century, and had briefly entertained the idea of invading the country in the 1860s. Italian was the lingua franca of Tunisian diplomacy well into the 19th century, and of the various expatriate communities in Tunis that did not
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After the establishment of French protectorate, Italian immigrants in Tunisia would have protested and caused serious difficulties to France. However, little at a time, the problem was solved and the immigrants could later opt for French nationality and benefit from the same vantages as French
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intervention. Another incident, also in 1880, concerned the sale of a 100 000 hectare property by a former Tunisian prime minister. Negotiations involved complicated arrangements to forestall preemption of the sale by the Bey's government or by proprietors of adjacent tracts of land. A French
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Troops are sent as reinforcements from French Algeria. On 26 October, Kairouan was recaptured from the insurgents by the French forces. Ben Ammar's fighters were routed on 22 October; the last resisters were surrounded on 20 November. The last fighting stops at the end of December 1881.
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to invite Paris to act in Tunisia precising that, in case of action, Germany wouldn't have raised objections. While in Italy there was a debate about the reliability of the news about a possible French action in Tunisia, a twenty-thousand-men expeditionary corps was preparing in the
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who accepted the throne despite the conditions under which his predecessor was forced to abdicate. Rejected by a large part of the Tunisian population, he only gained his legitimacy on the death of Moncef on 1 September 1948, which put an end to the hopes of Tunisians to see the
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the leaders of tribes, villages, and town quarters. The central government also appointed them but on the recommendation of the qaids. After the French invasion, most qaids and cheikhs were allowed to retain their post, and therefore few of them resisted the new authorities.
788:, while a growing number of Europeans, almost exclusively Italians and Maltese, settled in Tunisia. In 1870, there were 15,000 of them. The economic situation of Tunisian townsmen may accordingly have been under pressure, but it was flourishing in comparison with that of the
1138:
nature without having first informed the French State and without having its permission. By this treaty, France also undertook to ensure the durability of the monarchical regime and to preserve the Bey's status as sovereign and head of state; article 3 indicated that
1350:, Kenneth J. Perkins writes: "Cambon carefully kept the appearance of Tunisian sovereignty while reshaping the administrative structure to give France complete control of the country and render the beylical government a hollow shell devoid of meaningful powers."
1210:
tribe episodically launched raids into the surrounding countryside. In the spring of 1881, they raided across the border into French Algeria, attacking the Algerian Ouled-Nebed tribe. On 30 March 1881 French troops clashed with the raiders. Using the pretext of
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Many Tunisians took satisfaction in France's defeat by Germany in June 1940, but the nationalist parties derived no more substantive benefit from the fall of France. Despite his commitment to terminate the French protectorate, the pragmatic independence leader
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At 4 pm, escorted by two squadrons of hussars, Bréart presented himself in front of the Bey's palace accompanied by his entire staff and most of the senior military officers. Tunisian soldiers honored them. They are introduced into the living room where
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with 15,000, where traders and artisans were active, despite being severely affected by foreign competition. The traditional Tunisian textile industry couldn't compete with imported goods from industrialized Europe. The financial world was dominated by
1270:. France and Italy, as well as Britain, counted significant expatriate communities in Tunisia and maintained consulates there. Ties were also commercial; France had advanced a major loan to Tunisia in the mid-19th century and had trading interests.
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taxes. French officials hoped that their careful monitoring of tax assessment and collection procedures would result in a more equitable system and stimulate a revival in production and commerce, generating more revenue for the state.
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At the time, Tunisia had just over a million inhabitants. Half of these were sedentary farmers who lived mainly in the northeast, and the other half were nomadic shepherds who roamed the interior. There were several towns, including
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With her own substantial interests in Tunisia, Italy protested but would not risk a confrontation with France. Hence Tunisia officially became a French protectorate on May 12, 1881, when the ruling Sadik Bey (1859–1882) signed the
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means the return in force of the French protectorate in Tunisia. The first victim was Moncef Bey who took advantage of the weakening of the French to publicize the Tunisian cause. Little suspected of having collaborated with the
175:
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To advise the Resident-General, a consultative conference representing French colonists was set up in 1891, and expanded to include appointed Tunisian representatives in 1907. From 1922 until 1954, Tunisian delegates to the
703:, was created in 1934 whose methods quickly showed their effectiveness. Police repression only accentuated the mobilization of the Tunisian people. The occupation of the country in 1942 by Germany and the deposition of
1293:
tribesmen across the border into Algeria caused the deaths of several Algerians, and four French, providing a pretext for the French. By mid-April, French troops had landed in Tunisia and, on 12 May 1881, forced Bey
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policy. However, they relied on a possible British opposition to an enlargement of the French sphere of influence in North Africa (while, if anything, London was hostile about a single country controlling the whole
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managed and staffed those government offices, collectively called the Technical Services, which dealt with finances, public works, education, and agriculture. To help him implement the reforms alluded to in the
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was quickly cleaned up, which made it possible to launch multiple infrastructure construction programs (roads, railways, ports, lighthouses, schools, hospitals, etc.) and the reforms that took place during the
1081:
Encouraged by the inertia of the Tunisian army, which had not moved to defend the town of Le Kef against the French attack, Jules Ferry decided to send a force of 6,000 soldiers under the command of General
1133:
are waiting for them. Fearing being deposed and replaced by his brother Taïeb Bey, the monarch signed the treaty at 7:11 pm. However, he managed to prevent the French troops from entering the capital.
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in 1883, the Bey was only signing the decrees and laws prepared by the Resident General of France in Tunisia. The Tunisian government at the local level remained in place, and was only coordinating between
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940:, who sustained that the Italians wouldn't have opposed it because some weeks before France had consented to a renewal of the Italo-French trade treaty, Italy was still paying debts contracted with
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relevant cases. A beylical court handling criminal cases operated under French supervision in the capital. In 1896, similar courts were instituted in the provinces, also under French supervision.
1645:
A general strike in 1952 led to violent confrontation between the French and Tunisians, including guerrilla attacks by nationalists. Yet another change in French government, the appointment of
1289:
French diplomats scrambled to convince unenthusiastic parliamentarians and bureaucrats, all the while looking for a new incident to precipitate intervention. In March 1881, a foray by Tunisian
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2555:
1215:(right of pursuit) France responded by invading Tunisia, sending an army of about 36,000. Their advance to Tunis was rapidly executed, though tribal opposition in the far south and at
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sent an end of inadmissibility in response to the monarch. On 12 October, it was the absence of Tunisians among the French directors of the administration that provoked his anger.
699:, was created in 1920, but its political activity decreased rapidly in 1922. However, Tunisians educated in French universities revived the nationalist movement. A new party, the
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965:, followed on 11 May by the rest of the forces. The episode gave an ulterior confirm of the Italian political isolation, and rekindled the polemics that had followed the
1047:
Taking the pretext of border incidents between the Algerian tribe of Ouled Nahd and the Tunisian tribe of Kroumirs on 30 and 31 March 1881, the French government led by
1626:
Decolonisation proved a protracted and controversial affair. In Tunisia, nationalists demanded the return of the deposed Bey and institutional reform. In 1945, the two
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that Italy could have occupied Tunis, but Robilant rejected the invitation, and received comfort, along this line, by his Foreign Affairs minister: William L. Langer,
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In 1883, French law and courts were introduced; thereafter, French law applied to all French and foreign residents. The other European powers agreed to give up the
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These circumstances made the Tunisian government unable, despite all levies and demands, to collect the tax revenues they deemed necessary to modernise Tunisia.
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1493:, whose state ideologies he abhorred. He feared that associating with the Axis would bring short-term benefit at the cost of long-term tragedy. Following the
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on 27 June. The local authorities were overwhelmed and the Europeans have to evacuate the city in disaster. The rebellion was put down by marines from the
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was terminated which further paved way for Tunisian independence, as decolonisation gained pace. The next year, the French revoked the clause of the
1576:, he can only be blamed for the decorations awarded on 12 April to German and Italian generals. He was however deposed by a decree of the general of
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1509:, who had no intention of permitting a revival of Tunisian political activity. The arrests of Taieb Slim and Habib Thameur, central figures in the
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792:, peasants who laboured under a whole series of taxes and requisitions. From 1867 to 1868, crop failure, subsequent famine, and epidemics of
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of control over internal matters by committing him to implement administrative, judicial, and financial reform dictated by France.
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in April 1922, he had a reputation for being close to the people. From 10 August, he did not hesitate to enter into conflict with
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The return to France of half of the military force encouraged the country to take up arms. The signal for the revolt was given by
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1395:, usually choosing a person from a major family of the tribe or district to ensure respect and authority. Below the qaids were
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1458:. Highly competitive examinations regulated admission to Sadiki, and its graduates were almost assured government positions.
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Andrew, Christopher. M.; Kanya-Forstner, A. S. (1971). "The French 'Colonial Party'. Its Composition, Aims and Influences".
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In the beginning of 1881 France decided to militarily intervene in Tunisia. The motivations of this action were provided by
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by presenting him with a memorandum grouping together 16 demands inspired by his nationalist friends. On 15 September, the
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as Prime Minister in 1954, brought a return to gentler approaches. International circumstances – the French defeat in the
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1363:, the Resident-General had the power to promulgate executive decrees, reducing the Bey to little more than a figurehead.
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the Government of the French Republic undertakes to lend constant support to H.H the Bey of Tunis against any danger.
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on the same day. The three armies can then join together to eliminate the mountain tribes who resisted until 26 May.
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The Kef military camp was besieged by 5,000 fighters led by the chief of the Ouled Ayar tribe, Ali Ben Ammar. Near
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in what became Libya. Britain supported French influence in Tunisia in exchange for its own protectorate over
1235:(Al Qasr as Sa'id). Later in 1883 his younger brother and successor 'Ali Bey signed the al-Marsa Convention.
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The French authorities left the framework of local government intact, but devised mechanisms to control it.
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resigned from office on 29 May 1881, thus avoiding that the Camera would openly distrust him; since then he
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on 19 June 1942 was a surprise for the Tunisians. Very popular since he convinced his father to defend the
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The Bey reigned over Tunisia, whose southern borders were ill-defined against the Sahara. To the east lay
643:
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However, such an inversion of the foreign policy of the last decade couldn't be led by the same men, and
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warfare, internal autonomy was granted in 1955. The protectorate was finally abolished on 20 March 1956.
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gently warned that if France did not act, they might reconsider their go-ahead for French occupation.
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The last shots were fired on 26 May where 14 French soldiers and an unknown number of Tunisians died.
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in 1943 by the French authorities reinforced the exasperation of the population. After three years of
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Andrew, Christopher. M.; Kanya-Forstner, A. S. (1976). "French Business and the French Colonialist".
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three years before. The events, in effect, demonstrated the irrealisability of the foreign policy of
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switched their aim to independence. Fearing arrest, Bourguiba spent much of the next three years in
1408:
nature of the tribes and the tenuous hold of the central government, military officers, making up a
199:
19:
This article is about the administration of French Tunisia. For the social history of the same, see
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General R. Hure, page 174 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830–1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977
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General R. Hure, page 175 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830–1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977
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General R. Hure, page 173 "L' Armee d' Afrique 1830–1962", Charles-Lavauzelle, Paris-Limoges 1977
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2584:"Debt and Imperialism in Pre-Protectorate Tunisia, 1867-1870. A Political and Economic Analysis"
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Ganiage, Jean (1985). "North Africa". In Olivier, Roland; Fage, J. D.; Sanderson, G. N. (eds.).
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from 1 May 1881. The city had no resistance and on 8 May 8, the military force took the road to
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Territories Within the Area of Responsibility of the Office of Near Eastern and African Affairs
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1801:
1403:
To keep a close watch on developments outside the capital, Tunisia's new rulers organised the
1183:
1017:
993:
974:
970:
953:
921:
913:
683:
389:
2726:
Langer, W. (1925–1926). "The European Powers and the French Occupation of Tunis, 1878–1881".
762:, province of the Ottoman Empire, which had made itself practically independent until Sultan
5732:
5652:
5602:
5557:
5542:
5522:
5512:
5487:
5427:
5329:
5209:
5004:
4938:
4885:
4827:
4689:
4659:
4517:
4257:
4222:
3902:
3648:
3601:
3589:
3577:
3529:
3512:
2944:
2932:
2917:
2737:
2615:
2534:
2463:
1911:
1776:
1561:
1498:
1467:
944:
and primarily it was Italy that was politically isolated despite its tentatives towards the
930:
853:
830:
822:
1437:
5662:
5572:
5462:
5309:
5304:
4972:
4832:
4812:
4708:
4679:
4444:
4337:
4320:
3854:
3832:
3609:
3463:
3334:
3213:
2964:
2959:
2937:
2927:
2910:
1662:
1631:
1482:
1455:
1308:
1299:
1232:
1111:
949:
688:
679:
654:
616:
561:
479:
466:
404:
299:
263:
255:
185:
84:
59:
43:
2684:
2053:, "Storia Diplomatica d'Europa 1815–1968", Editori Laterza, Bari-Roma, 1978, pp. 209–210.
977:, the impossibility of an alliance with France and the necessity of a rapprochement with
924:
before him, never considered to proceed to occupation, being generally hostile towards a
2695:
1168:
squadron who retook the city on 16 July after four hours of street fighting, as well as
1016:. Among the hypotheses weighed by the Italian military staff a possible invasion of the
5253:
5100:
4982:
4967:
4875:
4837:
4695:
4635:
4629:
4232:
4083:
4074:
4036:
3912:
3837:
3805:
3772:
3344:
3109:
2833:
2546:
2467:
1744:
1589:
1451:
1425:
1379:
1056:
958:
861:
838:
767:
666:
521:
4767:
1829:
Committee on Information from Non-Self-Governing Territories. 1950. p. 120 fn 27.
900:
5832:
5246:
5241:
4912:
4822:
4684:
4590:
4557:
4477:
4332:
3925:
3842:
3815:
3614:
3272:
3262:
2627:
1931:
1736:
1665:
that had established the protectorate in 1881 and recognised the independence of the
1165:
945:
891:
845:
785:
513:
452:
1630:
parties joined other dissident groups to petition for autonomy. The following year,
1152:
1116:
682:
and the administrations set up on the model of what existed in France. The Tunisian
4363:
4217:
4209:
3897:
3892:
3887:
3810:
1740:
1654:
1581:
1568:
1490:
1340:
1224:
865:
857:
741:
232:
117:
2131:
732:
1810:
The government, known as the Regency of Tunis, is under the French foreign office
127:
5361:
5324:
5294:
5258:
5189:
5174:
5018:
4547:
4095:
3882:
1618:
1577:
1573:
1525:
1521:
1510:
1048:
937:
817:
700:
437:
2415:
La conquête de la Tunisie. Récit contemporain couronné par l'Académie française
1472:
1051:
decided to send a force of 24,000 soldiers placed under the command of General
829:
The Congress of Berlin, held in 1878, convened to reorganise the states in the
4994:
4960:
4746:
4497:
4487:
4482:
4069:
4008:
2922:
2619:
1902:
Balch, Thomas William (November 1909). "French Colonization in North Africa".
1596:
1095:
925:
704:
5814:
5801:
864:(recently "purchased" from the Ottomans), and French cooperation regarding a
5009:
4752:
3158:
2969:
2538:
1536:
1323:
1290:
1126:
1067:
763:
708:
3930:
2294:, éd. Publication du Comité de l’Afrique française, Paris, 1920–1921, p.373
1000:
disappeared from the political scene. The Italians called these events The
4242:
4079:
4059:
3679:
1585:
1207:
1176:
1169:
780:
2475:
2094:
I rapporti italo-francesi e le linee d'invasione transalpina (1859–1882)
2077:
I rapporti italo-francesi e le linee d'invasione transalpina (1859–1882)
2064:
I rapporti italo-francesi e le linee d'invasione transalpina (1859–1882)
1528:
accused him of collaborating with the Vichy Government and deposed him.
4740:
4492:
4128:
4064:
3920:
3864:
2885:
2749:
2454:
Ling, Dwight L. (August 1960). "The French Invasion of Tunisia, 1881".
1923:
1627:
1553:
1267:
1087:
1063:
962:
917:
793:
696:
599:
294:
724:
4105:
4016:
3825:
3124:
2160:
Essai sur la fièvre typhoïde observée pendant l'expédition de Tunisie
1283:
1263:
1075:
982:
978:
797:
5372:
2741:
2041:, The American Historical Review, Vol. 31, No. 1 (Oct. 1925), p. 60.
2039:
The European Powers and the French Occupation of Tunis, 1878–1881, I
1915:
1383:
Aziz Bouattour, Prime Minister of Tunisia under French protectorate.
1303:
the Treaty of Bardo was passed with only one dissenting vote in the
2854:
2663:
France Overseas. The Great War and the Climax of French Imperialism
1273:
The opportunity to seize control of Tunisia occurred following the
1175:
The whole country imitated the example of the Sfaxiens. In August,
871:
In the meantime, however, an Italian company apparently bought the
4247:
4138:
1639:
1617:
1378:
1322:
1248:
1197:
1091:
816:
776:
723:
284:
242:
2523:"Italian-speaking Communities in Early Nineteenth Century Tunis"
1339:, formally established the French protectorate. It deprived the
1216:
1161:
1062:
On 24 April 1881, French troops entered Tunisia from the north (
5376:
4771:
4578:
4455:
4417:
4173:
3970:
3728:
3683:
2858:
876:
now actively contemplated. Italians would call such strike the
2171:
2146:
2029:
In August and again in October 1876 Austro-Hungarian minister
673:, and more broadly of the French Empire. Tunisian sovereignty
961:. On 3 May a French contingent of two thousand men landed in
2646:
Andrew, Christopher. M.; Kanya-Forstner, A. S. (1974). "The
1622:
Habib Bourguiba giving a speech in the city of Bizerte, 1952
844:
At the Congress arrangements were also understood, e.g., by
2162:, ed. Imprimerie Charaire et fils, Sceaux, 1882, p. 7.
1846:
Handbook of Commercial Treaties, Etc., with Foreign Powers.
1315:
the right to station military troops within its territory.
219: French colonial empire in Africa prior to World War I
2107:
Combattre au Kef en 1881 quand la Tunisie devint française
852:, wherein France would be allowed to incorporate Tunisia.
766:
successfully restored his authority by force in 1835. The
1520:
moved towards greater independence in 1942, but when the
1513:
party's political bureau were a result of this attitude.
2445:
Holt, Lucius Hudson; Chilton, Alexander Wheeler (1918).
920:, to which both France and Italy aspired. Cairoli, like
2708:
An economic History of the Middle East and North Africa
2672:
Rulers of Empire. The French Colonial Service in Africa
2661:
Andrew, Christopher. M.; Kanya-Forstner, A. S. (1981).
2136:, éd. Henri-Charles Lavauzelle, Paris, 1898, p. 42
1943:
1941:
912:
For this reason, the first foreign policy objective of
904:
Benedetto Cairoli, the Prime Minister who suffered the
2221:
2219:
1266:; Tunisia offered good port facilities, especially at
2504:
Tunisia. Crossroads of the Islamic and European World
1348:
Tunisia: Crossroads of the Islamic and European World
5854:
1956 disestablishments in the French colonial empire
800:
combined to kill some 20 percent of the population.
624:
5716:
5691:
5410:
5267:
5131:
5044:
4921:
4856:
4805:
4668:
4607:
4589:
4546:
4506:
4466:
4410:
4356:
4304:
4256:
4208:
4119:
4050:
4007:
3911:
3873:
3791:
3763:
3717:
3560:
3428:
3321:
3178:
3063:
2896:
2556:
Divide and Rule: The Partition of Africa, 1880–1914
1327:
Paul Cambon, the first Resident-General in Tunisia.
595:
506:
489:
476:
462:
443:
428:
414:
395:
380:
366:
345:
330:
316:
305:
293:
277:
248:
238:
228:
30:
2832:
2527:Revue de l'Occident musulman et de la Méditerranée
2428:The Cambridge History of Africa: From 1870 to 1905
2279:Les élections politiques en Tunisie de 1881 à 1956
1476:Sketchmap of Tunisia during the 1942–1943 campaign
5839:1881 establishments in the French colonial empire
2551:Verdeel en heers. De deling van Afrika, 1880–1914
2122:, ed. Cérès Productions, Tunis, 1983, p. 80.
1785:. Division of Research for Near East and Africa,
2319:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2264:
2262:
2260:
2258:
2256:
2254:
2252:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2236:
2234:
1708:National Tobacco and Matches Authority (Tunisia)
2650:in the French Chamber of Deputies, 1892–1932".
2349:
2347:
1043:Bréart, the general who led the first campaign.
2815:France Overseas. A study of Modern Imperialism
2109:, ed. MC-Editions, Carthage, 2014, p. 49.
1966:
1964:
1962:
1960:
1958:
1956:
1735:The name "Regency of Tunis" was retained from
1505:sent to Tunis as new Resident-General Admiral
1441:Franco-Tunisian school in Le Kef in the 1930s.
1074:. Tabarka was invaded on 26 April, as well as
661:, despite Italian disapproval. It was part of
5869:States and territories disestablished in 1956
5388:
4783:
4429:
4185:
3982:
3740:
3695:
3290:Assembly of the Representatives of the People
2870:
2778:The Ideology of French Imperialism, 1871–1881
2582:Conte, Alessandro; Sabatini, Gaetano (2018).
2392:Greater France. A history of French Expansion
2363:
2361:
2359:
1485:had no desire to exchange the control of the
1094:. On May 12, the French soldiers encamped at
8:
2824:History of French Colonial Policy, 1870–1925
2430:. Vol. VI. Cambridge University Press.
2134:L'expédition militaire en Tunisie. 1881–1882
183:
49:
35:
2700:. Vol. II. William Blackwood and Sons.
2697:The Last Punic War: Tunis, Past and Present
2686:The Last Punic War: Tunis, Past and Present
1877:
1703:List of French residents-general in Tunisia
1014:Italo-French relation dangerously fractured
5864:States and territories established in 1881
5395:
5381:
5373:
4790:
4776:
4768:
4621:
4586:
4575:
4463:
4452:
4436:
4422:
4414:
4192:
4178:
4170:
3989:
3975:
3967:
3747:
3733:
3725:
3721:
3702:
3688:
3680:
3434:
3327:
3184:
3069:
2877:
2863:
2855:
2759:Morocco and Tunisia, a Comparative History
2689:. Vol. I. William Blackwood and Sons.
198:
27:
3285:National Council of Regions and Districts
1970:
1947:
3307:Independent High Authority for Elections
2281:, éd. L’Harmattan, Paris, 2011, pp.20–21
1535:
1524:were forced out of Tunisia in 1943, the
1471:
1436:
1151:
1115:
1038:
899:
731:
653:The protectorate was established by the
2780:. Catholic University of America Press.
2096:, Nuova Cultura, Roma, 2013, pp. 45–46.
2066:, Nuova Cultura, Roma, 2013, pp. 41–42.
2017:
1982:
1768:
1747:; the term continued to be used as the
1719:
1698:List of French possessions and colonies
1053:Léonard-Léopold Forgemol de Bostquénard
728:Portrait of the Bey Muhammad III Sadiq.
2447:A History of Europe. From 1862 to 1914
1808:. Dodd Mead and Company. p. 733.
916:'s government was the colonisation of
642:, was established in 1881, during the
1904:The American Political Science Review
1743:was nominally a prince regent of the
779:with nearly 100,000 inhabitants, and
638:) and commonly referred to as simply
488:
475:
471:
442:
427:
423:
413:
394:
379:
375:
365:
344:
329:
325:
315:
16:1881–1956 monarchy in Northern Africa
7:
3664:
2806:The French Colonial Lobby, 1889–1938
2588:Journal of European Economic History
2225:
2210:
2120:Quand le soleil s'est levé à l'ouest
2033:suggested to the Italian ambassador
2005:
1889:
1800:Herbert Treadwell Wade, ed. (1927).
21:History of Tunisia under French rule
4799:International relations (1814–1919)
4152:French colonization of the Americas
3654:
2079:, Nuova Cultura, Roma, 2013, p. 43.
1020:by French troops was not excluded.
747:, and the powerful Prime Minister,
620:
2468:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1960.tb01666.x
1055:on the border between Tunisia and
908:and had to resign from his office.
740:In 1859, Tunisia was ruled by the
14:
5859:1956 disestablishments in Tunisia
2813:Priestly, Herbert Ingram (1938).
2804:Persell, Stewart Michael (1983).
2118:Hachemi Karoui and Ali Mahjoubi,
1995:Italians in Tunisia (and Maghreb)
1783:United States Department of State
1202:First page of the treaty of Bardo
5703:Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic
5473:Democratic Republic of the Congo
3663:
3653:
3644:
3643:
3054:
2410:d'Estournelles de Constant, Paul
1497:between France and Germany, the
1369:Tunisian Consultative Conference
579:
554:
125:
91:
77:
5844:1880s establishments in Tunisia
4646:French domains of the Holy Land
2822:Roberts, Stephen Henry (1929).
2761:. University Press of America.
2172:d'Estournelles de Constant 2002
2147:d'Estournelles de Constant 2002
1863:U.S. Government Printing Office
1849:His Majesty's Stationery Office
1827:United Nations General Assembly
1806:The New International Year Book
1787:Office of Intelligence Research
1584:, on 13 May 1943 and exiled to
1319:Organisation and administration
1239:French protectorate (1881–1956)
1120:Treaty of Bardo on 12 May 1881.
613:Protectorat français de Tunisie
37:Protectorat français de Tunisie
4641:French domains of Saint Helena
3758:in Africa and the Indian Ocean
2487:. Cambridge University Press.
1823:Non-self-governing Territories
1659:French protectorate of Morocco
1179:was taken over by the rebels.
626:al-ḥimāya al-Fransīya fī Tūnis
609:French protectorate of Tunisia
32:French protectorate of Tunisia
1:
5884:French colonisation in Africa
5849:1881 establishments in Africa
5169:Kronstadt–Toulon naval visits
5123:1917 Franco-Russian agreement
5113:Japan–Korea Annexation Treaty
2789:. Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
2711:. Columbia University Press.
1495:Second Armistice at Compiègne
1489:for that of Fascist Italy or
1275:Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)
952:(Ferry confirmed that it was
695:The first nationalist party,
5029:Second Industrial Revolution
4903:League of the Three Emperors
4376:Port Louis-Philippe (Akaroa)
2808:. Stanford University Press.
2521:Triulzi, Alessandro (1971).
2502:Perkins, Kenneth J. (1986).
2483:Perkins, Kenneth J. (2004).
1855:Treaty Information Bulletin.
835:Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78
5059:Treaty of Versailles (1871)
4616: and Antarctic Lands
3372:Water supply and sanitation
2736:(31): 55–79 & 251–256.
2485:A History of Modern Tunisia
2090:Sapienza University of Rome
2020:, p. 155-158; 160–163.
866:nationalist revolt in Egypt
625:
5920:
5889:History of Overseas France
5108:Japan–Korea Treaty of 1905
2729:American Historical Review
2670:Cohen, William B. (1971).
2565:Greenwood Publishing Group
2292:La Tunisie après la guerre
1683:Embassy of France in Tunis
1611:
1465:
1410:Service des Renseignements
1242:
1219:continued until December.
1206:In northwest Tunisia, the
1109:
1030:French conquest of Tunisia
1027:
889:
821:The Congress of Berlin by
810:
18:
5879:Former colonies in Africa
4929:European balance of power
4729:
4624:
4585:
4574:
4533:Saint Pierre and Miquelon
4462:
4451:
4394:French East India Company
4384:
4169:
4157:French West India Company
4147:
3966:
3939:
3724:
3639:
3437:
3330:
3192:President of the Republic
3187:
3076:Administrative divisions
3072:
3052:
2831:Wilson, Henry S. (1994).
2785:Pakenham, Thomas (1991).
2620:10.1017/S0018246X0000741X
1751:name of the protectorate.
1371:were indirectly elected.
1335:, signed in 1883, by Bey
533:
502:
472:
458:
424:
410:
376:
362:
326:
197:
107:
73:
68:
50:
5894:France–Tunisia relations
5458:Central African Republic
5220:Venezuela Naval Blockade
4891:Anglo-Russian Convention
4672: the Indian Ocean
3029:2013–14 political crisis
3004:Independence declaration
2757:Ling, Dwight L. (1979).
2705:Issawi, Charles (1982).
2694:Broadley, A. M. (1882).
2683:Broadley, A. M. (1881).
2676:Hoover Institution Press
2390:Aldrich, Robert (1996).
2332:Perkins 1986, pp. 88–89.
2132:Ministère de la Guerre,
1337:Ali Muddat ibn al-Husayn
837:, which had been won by
621:الحماية الفرنسية في تونس
52:الحماية الفرنسية في تونس
5904:20th century in Tunisia
5899:19th century in Tunisia
5225:Alaska boundary dispute
4898:Anglo-Japanese Alliance
4881:Franco-Russian Alliance
4580:Uninhabited territories
4091:Saint Kitts & Nevis
3340:Central Bank of Tunisia
2787:The Scramble for Africa
2539:10.3406/remmm.1971.1104
2421:. Paris: éditions Sfar.
1878:Holt & Chilton 1918
1503:Marshal Philippe Pétain
1361:Conventions of La Marsa
1333:Conventions of La Marsa
1307:and unanimously in the
1255:Conventions of La Marsa
1156:Battle of Sfax in 1881.
671:Protectorate of Morocco
657:of 12 May 1881 after a
312:under French protection
310:Constitutional monarchy
5874:Former French colonies
5144:Unification of Germany
5091:Taft–Katsura agreement
4510: collectivities
4348:Sanjak of Alexandretta
4201:Former French colonies
3998:Former French colonies
3756:Former French colonies
3711:French overseas empire
3044:25 July 2021 self-coup
3039:2021 Tunisian protests
3034:2018 Tunisian protests
2835:African Decolonization
2776:Murphy, Agnès (1948).
1688:French Colonial Empire
1653:and insurgency of the
1623:
1604:return to the throne.
1545:
1542:Muhammad VII al-Munsif
1518:Muhammad VII al-Munsif
1477:
1442:
1384:
1328:
1258:
1245:French colonial empire
1203:
1157:
1129:and the French consul
1121:
1044:
909:
826:
737:
729:
646:era, and lasted until
644:French colonial empire
635:
612:
184:
36:
5618:São Tomé and Príncipe
5478:Republic of the Congo
5230:First Moroccan Crisis
4944:Spread of nationalism
4908:Eight-Nation Alliance
4457:Inhabited territories
4389:France–Asia relations
3944:Somaliland (Djibouti)
2376:Aldrich 1996, p. 290.
2367:Aldrich 1996, p. 289.
2353:Perkins 1986, p. 180.
2341:Perkins 2004, p. 105.
2088:Antonello Battaglia (
2075:Antonello Battaglia,
2062:Antonello Battaglia,
1671:Muhammad VIII al-Amin
1621:
1614:Tunisian independence
1539:
1475:
1466:Further information:
1440:
1382:
1326:
1296:Muhammad III as-Sadiq
1252:
1201:
1155:
1119:
1042:
903:
820:
735:
727:
648:Tunisian independence
269:Judeo-Tunisian Arabic
249:Common languages
5235:Algeciras Conference
5215:Annexation of Hawaii
5154:Great Eastern Crisis
5149:Unification of Italy
5139:Formation of Romania
4956:French–German enmity
4735:overseas departments
4670:Scattered Islands in
4551: collectivity
4009:French North America
3144:World Heritage Sites
3014:Republic declaration
2987:naturalization issue
2323:Perkins 1986, p. 88.
2268:Perkins 1986, p. 87.
2240:Perkins 1986, p. 86.
2051:René Albrecht-Carrié
1726:as High Commissioner
1714:Notes and references
1647:Pierre Mendès-France
873:Tunis-Goulette-Marsa
5815:36.8333°N 10.1500°E
5811: /
5693:States with limited
5300:Philippine–American
5285:First Sino-Japanese
5118:Racconigi agreement
5064:Treaty of Frankfurt
5024:Great Rapprochement
4978:Scramble for Africa
4704:Juan de Nova Island
4591:North Pacific Ocean
4203:in Asia and Oceania
3024:Tunisian revolution
2992:Protests of 9 April
2977:French protectorate
2839:. Hooder Headline.
2563:(trans.). Praeger (
2394:. Macmillan Press.
1859:Department of State
1651:First Indochina War
1595:He was replaced by
1448:metropolitan France
1405:contrôleurs civils.
1305:Chamber of Deputies
1098:, not far from the
1072:Sakiet Sidi Youssef
684:government's budget
663:French North Africa
5159:Congress of Berlin
5076:Reinsurance Treaty
5054:Congress of Vienna
5034:Industrial warfare
5000:Scramble for China
4609:Overseas territory
4134:France Antarctique
4121:Equinoctial France
4084:Dominican Republic
3411:Traditional crafts
3389:Telecommunications
3350:Banking in Tunisia
3009:Kingdom of Tunisia
2653:Historical Journal
2638:Historical Journal
2611:Historical Journal
2561:Arnold J. Pomerans
2506:. Westview Press.
2174:, p. 221-225.
1880:, p. 220-221.
1789:. 1949. p. 1.
1693:History of Tunisia
1667:Kingdom of Tunisia
1624:
1558:Jean-Pierre Esteva
1546:
1507:Jean-Pierre Esteva
1478:
1443:
1385:
1329:
1259:
1213:droit de poursuite
1204:
1158:
1122:
1045:
1002:Schiaffo di Tunisi
967:Congress of Berlin
910:
879:Schiaffo di Tunisi
827:
813:Congress of Berlin
807:Congress of Berlin
749:Mustapha Khaznadar
738:
730:
692:French colonists.
630:), officially the
575:Kingdom of Tunisia
5794:
5793:
5720:other territories
5493:Equatorial Guinea
5404:History of Africa
5370:
5369:
5339:Albanian Revolts
5196:German Naval Laws
5180:Naval arms races
5164:Berlin Conference
5096:Hague Conventions
4765:
4764:
4761:
4760:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4720:
4717:
4716:
4660:Amsterdam Islands
4651:Kerguelen Islands
4599:Clipperton Island
4570:
4569:
4566:
4565:
4538:Wallis and Futuna
4406:
4405:
4402:
4401:
4306:Mandate for Syria
4296:Kouang-Tchéou-Wan
4258:Indochinese Union
4165:
4164:
3962:
3961:
3875:Equatorial Africa
3677:
3676:
3635:
3634:
3606:National symbols
3424:
3423:
3367:Natural resources
3317:
3316:
3297:Political parties
3253:Foreign relations
3174:
3173:
3164:Tunisian diaspora
2997:Tunisian campaign
2982:National movement
2303:Arfaoui Khémais,
2277:Arfaoui Khémais,
1985:, pp. 174–75
1892:, p. 398-99.
1636:Néo-Destour Party
1548:The accession of
1084:Jules Aimé Bréart
1066:), the center of
1018:Italian Peninsula
994:Benedetto Cairoli
954:Otto von Bismarck
922:Agostino Depretis
914:Benedetto Cairoli
659:military conquest
605:
604:
591:
590:
587:
586:
567:
566:
445:• 1955–1956
430:• 1885–1886
397:• 1954–1956
390:Mohamed Khaznadar
382:• 1881–1882
347:• 1943–1956
332:• 1859–1882
176:
5911:
5826:
5825:
5823:
5822:
5821:
5820:36.8333; 10.1500
5816:
5812:
5809:
5808:
5807:
5804:
5781:
5780:(United Kingdom)
5776:Tristan da Cunha
5772:Ascension Island
5764:
5751:
5742:
5718:Dependencies and
5411:Sovereign states
5397:
5390:
5383:
5374:
5290:Spanish–American
5210:Fashoda Incident
5086:Treaty of Björkö
5071:Treaty of Berlin
5005:Open Door Policy
4939:Eastern question
4886:Entente Cordiale
4792:
4785:
4778:
4769:
4690:Glorioso Islands
4671:
4622:
4615:
4611:
4587:
4576:
4550:
4523:Saint Barthélemy
4518:French Polynesia
4509:
4469:
4464:
4453:
4438:
4431:
4424:
4415:
4223:Coromandel Coast
4194:
4187:
4180:
4171:
4052:French Caribbean
4032:Terre Neuve
3991:
3984:
3977:
3968:
3749:
3742:
3735:
3726:
3722:
3704:
3697:
3690:
3681:
3667:
3666:
3657:
3656:
3647:
3646:
3452:Higher education
3435:
3328:
3226:Fundamental Pact
3185:
3070:
3058:
3019:1987 coup d'état
2960:Regency of Tunis
2950:Medieval history
2945:Byzantine Empire
2918:Ancient Carthage
2879:
2872:
2865:
2856:
2850:
2838:
2827:
2818:
2809:
2800:
2781:
2772:
2753:
2722:
2701:
2690:
2679:
2666:
2657:
2642:
2631:
2595:
2578:
2542:
2517:
2498:
2479:
2450:
2441:
2422:
2420:
2405:
2377:
2374:
2368:
2365:
2354:
2351:
2342:
2339:
2333:
2330:
2324:
2321:
2308:
2301:
2295:
2288:
2282:
2275:
2269:
2266:
2241:
2238:
2229:
2223:
2214:
2208:
2202:
2199:
2193:
2190:
2184:
2181:
2175:
2169:
2163:
2156:
2150:
2144:
2138:
2129:
2123:
2116:
2110:
2105:Camille Mifort,
2103:
2097:
2086:
2080:
2073:
2067:
2060:
2054:
2048:
2042:
2027:
2021:
2015:
2009:
2003:
1997:
1992:
1986:
1980:
1974:
1968:
1951:
1950:, pp. 22–23
1945:
1936:
1935:
1899:
1893:
1887:
1881:
1875:
1869:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1773:
1752:
1733:
1727:
1724:
1562:Vichy government
1532:Deposing the Bey
1499:Vichy Government
1468:Tunisia Campaign
1375:Local government
1356:Resident-General
1262:kilometers from
1131:Théodore Roustan
931:Strait of Sicily
831:Balkan Peninsula
823:Anton von Werner
736:Tunisia in 1843.
675:was more reduced
636:Régence de Tunis
632:Regency of Tunis
628:
622:
583:
582:
571:
570:
558:
557:
551:
550:
535:
534:
526:
518:
448:
433:
416:Resident-General
400:
385:
358:
350:
335:
218:
210:
202:
189:
178:
177:
95:
81:
63:
55:
54:
53:
47:
39:
28:
5919:
5918:
5914:
5913:
5912:
5910:
5909:
5908:
5829:
5828:
5819:
5817:
5813:
5810:
5805:
5802:
5800:
5798:
5797:
5795:
5790:
5789:
5779:
5762:
5749:
5740:
5721:
5719:
5712:
5696:
5694:
5687:
5406:
5401:
5371:
5366:
5305:Boxer Rebellion
5263:
5127:
5081:Treaty of Paris
5046:
5040:
4973:New Imperialism
4934:Ottoman decline
4917:
4864:Triple Alliance
4852:
4813:Austria-Hungary
4801:
4796:
4766:
4757:
4739:Claimed by the
4713:
4709:Tromelin Island
4680:Bassas da India
4664:
4614:French Southern
4603:
4581:
4562:
4542:
4502:
4470: regions
4458:
4447:
4445:Overseas France
4442:
4398:
4380:
4352:
4338:Greater Lebanon
4308:and the Lebanon
4307:
4300:
4252:
4204:
4198:
4161:
4143:
4115:
4046:
4003:
4001:in the Americas
3995:
3958:
3935:
3907:
3869:
3787:
3759:
3753:
3713:
3708:
3678:
3673:
3631:
3615:National anthem
3556:
3552:Public holidays
3464:Tunisian Arabic
3420:
3335:Bourse de Tunis
3313:
3170:
3059:
3050:
2955:Muslim conquest
2911:Capsian culture
2892:
2883:
2853:
2847:
2830:
2821:
2812:
2803:
2797:
2784:
2775:
2769:
2756:
2742:10.2307/1904502
2725:
2719:
2704:
2693:
2682:
2669:
2660:
2656:(19): 981–1000.
2648:groupe colonial
2645:
2634:
2607:
2603:
2601:Further reading
2598:
2581:
2575:
2547:Wesseling, Henk
2545:
2520:
2514:
2501:
2495:
2482:
2453:
2444:
2438:
2425:
2418:
2408:
2402:
2389:
2380:
2375:
2371:
2366:
2357:
2352:
2345:
2340:
2336:
2331:
2327:
2322:
2311:
2302:
2298:
2289:
2285:
2276:
2272:
2267:
2244:
2239:
2232:
2224:
2217:
2209:
2205:
2200:
2196:
2191:
2187:
2182:
2178:
2170:
2166:
2157:
2153:
2145:
2141:
2130:
2126:
2117:
2113:
2104:
2100:
2087:
2083:
2074:
2070:
2061:
2057:
2049:
2045:
2028:
2024:
2016:
2012:
2004:
2000:
1993:
1989:
1981:
1977:
1969:
1954:
1946:
1939:
1916:10.2307/1944685
1901:
1900:
1896:
1888:
1884:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1851:, 1931. p. 232.
1842:For example in,
1838:
1834:
1825:. Vol. 2.
1821:
1820:
1816:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1756:
1755:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1716:
1679:
1663:Treaty of Bardo
1632:Habib Bourguiba
1616:
1610:
1602:Nationalist Bey
1590:Franco-Algerian
1567:The end of the
1534:
1487:French Republic
1483:Habib Bourguiba
1470:
1464:
1456:Hayreddin Pasha
1435:
1426:consular courts
1422:
1420:Judicial system
1377:
1321:
1300:Treaty of Bardo
1247:
1241:
1233:Treaty of Bardo
1196:
1150:
1148:Second Campaign
1114:
1112:Treaty of Bardo
1108:
1037:
1032:
1026:
950:Austria-Hungary
894:
888:
815:
809:
722:
717:
580:
562:Beylik of Tunis
555:
529:
524:
516:
495:
482:
480:Treaty of Bardo
467:Interwar period
449:
446:
434:
431:
405:Tahar Ben Ammar
401:
398:
386:
383:
354:
351:
348:
336:
333:
289:
273:
256:Tunisian Arabic
224:
223:
220:
216:
212:
208:
193:
186:La Marseillaise
179:
126:
103:
102:
101:
96:
88:
87:
85:Unofficial flag
82:
64:
57:
51:
48:
41:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
5917:
5915:
5907:
5906:
5901:
5896:
5891:
5886:
5881:
5876:
5871:
5866:
5861:
5856:
5851:
5846:
5841:
5831:
5830:
5792:
5791:
5788:
5787:
5785:Western Sahara
5782:
5765:
5752:
5743:
5729:Canary Islands
5725:
5724:
5722:
5717:
5714:
5713:
5711:
5710:
5705:
5699:
5697:
5692:
5689:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5680:
5675:
5670:
5665:
5660:
5655:
5650:
5645:
5640:
5635:
5630:
5625:
5620:
5615:
5610:
5605:
5600:
5595:
5590:
5585:
5580:
5575:
5570:
5565:
5560:
5555:
5550:
5545:
5540:
5535:
5530:
5525:
5520:
5515:
5510:
5505:
5500:
5495:
5490:
5485:
5480:
5475:
5470:
5465:
5460:
5455:
5450:
5445:
5440:
5435:
5430:
5425:
5420:
5414:
5412:
5408:
5407:
5402:
5400:
5399:
5392:
5385:
5377:
5368:
5367:
5365:
5364:
5359:
5358:
5357:
5356:
5355:
5350:
5345:
5337:
5332:
5322:
5317:
5315:Russo-Japanese
5312:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5280:Anglo-Egyptian
5277:
5271:
5269:
5265:
5264:
5262:
5261:
5256:
5254:Bosnian Crisis
5251:
5250:
5249:
5239:
5238:
5237:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
5207:
5206:
5205:
5203:Austro-Italian
5200:
5199:
5198:
5193:
5178:
5171:
5166:
5161:
5156:
5151:
5146:
5141:
5135:
5133:
5129:
5128:
5126:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5110:
5105:
5104:
5103:
5101:Martens Clause
5093:
5088:
5083:
5078:
5073:
5068:
5067:
5066:
5056:
5050:
5048:
5042:
5041:
5039:
5038:
5037:
5036:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5015:
5014:
5013:
5012:
5007:
5002:
4997:
4987:
4986:
4985:
4983:Egyptian Lever
4970:
4968:Pax Britannica
4965:
4964:
4963:
4953:
4952:
4951:
4949:Sovereign debt
4946:
4941:
4931:
4925:
4923:
4919:
4918:
4916:
4915:
4910:
4905:
4900:
4895:
4894:
4893:
4888:
4883:
4876:Triple Entente
4873:
4872:
4871:
4860:
4858:
4854:
4853:
4851:
4850:
4845:
4843:United Kingdom
4840:
4835:
4830:
4825:
4820:
4815:
4809:
4807:
4803:
4802:
4797:
4795:
4794:
4787:
4780:
4772:
4763:
4762:
4759:
4758:
4756:
4755:
4749:
4743:
4737:
4733:Also known as
4730:
4727:
4726:
4723:
4722:
4719:
4718:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4711:
4706:
4701:
4700:
4699:
4696:Banc du Geyser
4687:
4682:
4676:
4674:
4666:
4665:
4663:
4662:
4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4636:Crozet Islands
4633:
4625:
4619:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4601:
4595:
4593:
4583:
4582:
4579:
4572:
4571:
4568:
4567:
4564:
4563:
4561:
4560:
4554:
4552:
4544:
4543:
4541:
4540:
4535:
4530:
4525:
4520:
4514:
4512:
4504:
4503:
4501:
4500:
4495:
4490:
4485:
4480:
4474:
4472:
4460:
4459:
4456:
4449:
4448:
4443:
4441:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4418:
4412:
4408:
4407:
4404:
4403:
4400:
4399:
4397:
4396:
4391:
4385:
4382:
4381:
4379:
4378:
4373:
4372:
4371:
4360:
4358:
4354:
4353:
4351:
4350:
4345:
4343:Jabal al-Druze
4340:
4335:
4330:
4329:
4328:
4323:
4316:State of Syria
4312:
4310:
4302:
4301:
4299:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4286:
4281:
4273:
4268:
4262:
4260:
4254:
4253:
4251:
4250:
4245:
4240:
4235:
4230:
4225:
4220:
4214:
4212:
4206:
4205:
4199:
4197:
4196:
4189:
4182:
4174:
4167:
4166:
4163:
4162:
4160:
4159:
4154:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4141:
4136:
4131:
4125:
4123:
4117:
4116:
4114:
4113:
4111:Virgin Islands
4108:
4103:
4098:
4093:
4088:
4087:
4086:
4075:Saint-Domingue
4072:
4070:The Grenadines
4067:
4062:
4056:
4054:
4048:
4047:
4045:
4044:
4039:
4037:French Florida
4034:
4029:
4024:
4019:
4013:
4011:
4005:
4004:
3996:
3994:
3993:
3986:
3979:
3971:
3964:
3963:
3960:
3959:
3957:
3956:
3954:Isle de France
3951:
3946:
3940:
3937:
3936:
3934:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3917:
3915:
3909:
3908:
3906:
3905:
3900:
3895:
3890:
3885:
3879:
3877:
3871:
3870:
3868:
3867:
3862:
3857:
3852:
3847:
3846:
3845:
3835:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3803:
3797:
3795:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3780:
3775:
3769:
3767:
3761:
3760:
3754:
3752:
3751:
3744:
3737:
3729:
3719:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3707:
3706:
3699:
3692:
3684:
3675:
3674:
3672:
3671:
3661:
3651:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3633:
3632:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3604:
3599:
3598:
3597:
3587:
3586:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3566:
3564:
3558:
3557:
3555:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3522:
3521:
3520:
3515:
3510:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3493:
3488:
3483:
3481:Radio stations
3478:
3468:
3467:
3466:
3456:
3455:
3454:
3449:
3438:
3432:
3426:
3425:
3422:
3421:
3419:
3418:
3416:Major projects
3413:
3408:
3407:
3406:
3404:Rail transport
3401:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3359:
3354:
3353:
3352:
3347:
3345:Tunisian dinar
3342:
3331:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3314:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3299:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3287:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3270:
3265:
3255:
3250:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3228:
3218:
3217:
3216:
3211:
3204:Prime Minister
3201:
3200:
3199:
3188:
3182:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3171:
3169:
3168:
3167:
3166:
3161:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3129:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3094:
3093:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3073:
3067:
3061:
3060:
3053:
3051:
3049:
3048:
3047:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3021:
3016:
3011:
3006:
3001:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2974:
2973:
2972:
2967:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2941:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2920:
2915:
2914:
2913:
2902:
2900:
2894:
2893:
2884:
2882:
2881:
2874:
2867:
2859:
2852:
2851:
2845:
2828:
2819:
2810:
2801:
2795:
2782:
2773:
2767:
2754:
2723:
2717:
2702:
2691:
2680:
2667:
2658:
2643:
2641:(17): 837–866.
2632:
2614:(14): 99–128.
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2596:
2579:
2573:
2543:
2518:
2512:
2499:
2493:
2480:
2462:(4): 396–412.
2451:
2442:
2436:
2423:
2406:
2400:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2378:
2369:
2355:
2343:
2334:
2325:
2309:
2296:
2283:
2270:
2242:
2230:
2228:, p. 410.
2215:
2213:, p. 406.
2203:
2194:
2185:
2176:
2164:
2151:
2149:, p. 167.
2139:
2124:
2111:
2098:
2081:
2068:
2055:
2043:
2031:Gyula Andrássy
2022:
2010:
2008:, p. 399.
1998:
1987:
1975:
1971:Wesseling 1996
1952:
1948:Wesseling 1996
1937:
1910:(4): 539–551.
1894:
1882:
1870:
1867:
1866:
1865:, 1933. p. 16.
1852:
1843:
1839:
1832:
1814:
1792:
1767:
1766:
1765:
1761:
1760:
1754:
1753:
1745:Ottoman sultan
1728:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1712:
1711:
1710:
1705:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1678:
1675:
1612:Main article:
1609:
1606:
1533:
1530:
1463:
1460:
1452:Sadiki College
1434:
1431:
1421:
1418:
1376:
1373:
1320:
1317:
1253:First page of
1243:Main article:
1240:
1237:
1195:
1192:
1149:
1146:
1110:Main article:
1107:
1104:
1057:French Algeria
1036:
1035:First Campaign
1033:
1028:Main article:
1025:
1022:
959:Toulon arsenal
897:speak Arabic.
890:Main article:
887:
884:
811:Main article:
808:
805:
768:Bey of Tunisia
721:
718:
716:
713:
667:French Algeria
640:French Tunisia
603:
602:
597:
593:
592:
589:
588:
585:
584:
577:
568:
565:
564:
559:
547:
546:
541:
531:
530:
528:
527:
519:
510:
508:
504:
503:
500:
499:
496:
490:
487:
486:
483:
477:
474:
473:
470:
469:
464:
463:Historical era
460:
459:
456:
455:
450:
444:
441:
440:
435:
429:
426:
425:
422:
421:
418:
412:
411:
408:
407:
402:
396:
393:
392:
387:
381:
378:
377:
374:
373:
370:
368:Prime Minister
364:
363:
360:
359:
352:
346:
343:
342:
337:
331:
328:
327:
324:
323:
320:
314:
313:
307:
303:
302:
297:
291:
290:
288:
287:
281:
279:
275:
274:
272:
271:
266:
261:
258:
252:
250:
246:
245:
240:
236:
235:
230:
226:
225:
222:
221:
215:
213:
207:
204:
203:
195:
194:
192:
191:
180:
124:
122:
112:
105:
104:
97:
90:
89:
83:
76:
75:
74:
71:
70:
66:
65:
34:
31:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5916:
5905:
5902:
5900:
5897:
5895:
5892:
5890:
5887:
5885:
5882:
5880:
5877:
5875:
5872:
5870:
5867:
5865:
5862:
5860:
5857:
5855:
5852:
5850:
5847:
5845:
5842:
5840:
5837:
5836:
5834:
5827:
5824:
5786:
5783:
5777:
5773:
5769:
5766:
5760:
5756:
5753:
5747:
5744:
5738:
5734:
5730:
5727:
5726:
5723:
5715:
5709:
5706:
5704:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5690:
5684:
5681:
5679:
5676:
5674:
5671:
5669:
5666:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5656:
5654:
5651:
5649:
5646:
5644:
5641:
5639:
5636:
5634:
5631:
5629:
5626:
5624:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5614:
5611:
5609:
5606:
5604:
5601:
5599:
5596:
5594:
5591:
5589:
5586:
5584:
5581:
5579:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5569:
5566:
5564:
5561:
5559:
5556:
5554:
5551:
5549:
5546:
5544:
5541:
5539:
5536:
5534:
5533:Guinea-Bissau
5531:
5529:
5526:
5524:
5521:
5519:
5516:
5514:
5511:
5509:
5506:
5504:
5501:
5499:
5496:
5494:
5491:
5489:
5486:
5484:
5481:
5479:
5476:
5474:
5471:
5469:
5466:
5464:
5461:
5459:
5456:
5454:
5451:
5449:
5446:
5444:
5441:
5439:
5436:
5434:
5431:
5429:
5426:
5424:
5421:
5419:
5416:
5415:
5413:
5409:
5405:
5398:
5393:
5391:
5386:
5384:
5379:
5378:
5375:
5363:
5360:
5354:
5351:
5349:
5346:
5344:
5341:
5340:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5327:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5320:Italo-Turkish
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5298:
5296:
5293:
5291:
5288:
5286:
5283:
5281:
5278:
5276:
5275:Russo-Turkish
5273:
5272:
5270:
5266:
5260:
5257:
5255:
5252:
5248:
5247:Treaty of Fes
5245:
5244:
5243:
5242:Agadir Crisis
5240:
5236:
5233:
5232:
5231:
5228:
5226:
5223:
5221:
5218:
5216:
5213:
5211:
5208:
5204:
5201:
5197:
5194:
5192:
5191:
5187:
5186:
5185:
5182:
5181:
5179:
5177:
5176:
5172:
5170:
5167:
5165:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5155:
5152:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5136:
5134:
5130:
5124:
5121:
5119:
5116:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5102:
5099:
5098:
5097:
5094:
5092:
5089:
5087:
5084:
5082:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5072:
5069:
5065:
5062:
5061:
5060:
5057:
5055:
5052:
5051:
5049:
5043:
5035:
5032:
5031:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5011:
5008:
5006:
5003:
5001:
4998:
4996:
4993:
4992:
4991:
4988:
4984:
4981:
4980:
4979:
4976:
4975:
4974:
4971:
4969:
4966:
4962:
4959:
4958:
4957:
4954:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4937:
4936:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4926:
4924:
4920:
4914:
4913:Balkan League
4911:
4909:
4906:
4904:
4901:
4899:
4896:
4892:
4889:
4887:
4884:
4882:
4879:
4878:
4877:
4874:
4870:
4869:Dual Alliance
4867:
4866:
4865:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4855:
4849:
4848:United States
4846:
4844:
4841:
4839:
4836:
4834:
4831:
4829:
4826:
4824:
4821:
4819:
4816:
4814:
4811:
4810:
4808:
4804:
4800:
4793:
4788:
4786:
4781:
4779:
4774:
4773:
4770:
4754:
4750:
4748:
4744:
4742:
4738:
4736:
4732:
4731:
4728:
4710:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4698:
4697:
4693:
4692:
4691:
4688:
4686:
4685:Europa Island
4683:
4681:
4678:
4677:
4675:
4673:
4667:
4661:
4657:
4654:
4652:
4649:
4647:
4644:
4642:
4639:
4637:
4634:
4632:
4631:
4627:
4626:
4623:
4620:
4617:
4610:
4606:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4577:
4573:
4559:
4558:New Caledonia
4556:
4555:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4539:
4536:
4534:
4531:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4521:
4519:
4516:
4515:
4513:
4511:
4505:
4499:
4496:
4494:
4491:
4489:
4486:
4484:
4481:
4479:
4478:French Guiana
4476:
4475:
4473:
4471:
4465:
4461:
4454:
4450:
4446:
4439:
4434:
4432:
4427:
4425:
4420:
4419:
4416:
4413:
4409:
4395:
4392:
4390:
4387:
4386:
4383:
4377:
4374:
4370:
4367:
4366:
4365:
4362:
4361:
4359:
4355:
4349:
4346:
4344:
4341:
4339:
4336:
4334:
4333:Alawite State
4331:
4327:
4324:
4322:
4319:
4318:
4317:
4314:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4303:
4297:
4294:
4290:
4287:
4285:
4282:
4280:
4277:
4276:
4274:
4272:
4269:
4267:
4264:
4263:
4261:
4259:
4255:
4249:
4246:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4224:
4221:
4219:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4211:
4207:
4202:
4195:
4190:
4188:
4183:
4181:
4176:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4149:
4146:
4140:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4130:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4122:
4118:
4112:
4109:
4107:
4104:
4102:
4101:Saint Vincent
4099:
4097:
4094:
4092:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4078:
4077:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4057:
4055:
4053:
4049:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4006:
4002:
3999:
3992:
3987:
3985:
3980:
3978:
3973:
3972:
3969:
3965:
3955:
3952:
3950:
3947:
3945:
3942:
3941:
3938:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3926:Grande Comore
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3916:
3914:
3910:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3880:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3866:
3863:
3861:
3858:
3856:
3853:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3843:Four Communes
3841:
3840:
3839:
3836:
3834:
3831:
3827:
3826:Arguin Island
3824:
3823:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3801:Côte d'Ivoire
3799:
3798:
3796:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3781:
3779:
3776:
3774:
3771:
3770:
3768:
3766:
3762:
3757:
3750:
3745:
3743:
3738:
3736:
3731:
3730:
3727:
3723:
3720:
3716:
3712:
3705:
3700:
3698:
3693:
3691:
3686:
3685:
3682:
3670:
3662:
3660:
3652:
3650:
3642:
3641:
3638:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3611:
3608:
3607:
3605:
3603:
3600:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3570:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3559:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3526:
3523:
3519:
3516:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3505:
3504:
3501:
3497:
3494:
3492:
3489:
3487:
3484:
3482:
3479:
3477:
3474:
3473:
3472:
3469:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3460:
3457:
3453:
3450:
3448:
3447:Baccalaureate
3445:
3444:
3443:
3440:
3439:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3427:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3380:
3377:
3373:
3370:
3368:
3365:
3364:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3343:
3341:
3338:
3337:
3336:
3333:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3320:
3308:
3305:
3304:
3303:
3300:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3288:
3286:
3283:
3282:
3281:
3278:
3274:
3271:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3260:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3227:
3224:
3223:
3222:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3206:
3205:
3202:
3198:
3195:
3194:
3193:
3190:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3156:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3138:
3135:
3134:
3133:
3130:
3126:
3123:
3121:
3118:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3091:
3088:
3086:
3083:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3074:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3057:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3026:
3025:
3022:
3020:
3017:
3015:
3012:
3010:
3007:
3005:
3002:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2979:
2978:
2975:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2925:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2912:
2909:
2908:
2907:
2906:Early history
2904:
2903:
2901:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2875:
2873:
2868:
2866:
2861:
2860:
2857:
2848:
2846:0-340-55929-2
2842:
2837:
2836:
2829:
2825:
2820:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2802:
2798:
2796:0-297-81130-4
2792:
2788:
2783:
2779:
2774:
2770:
2768:0-8191-0873-1
2764:
2760:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2735:
2731:
2730:
2724:
2720:
2718:0-231-03443-1
2714:
2710:
2709:
2703:
2699:
2698:
2692:
2688:
2687:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2655:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2640:
2639:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2613:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2600:
2593:
2589:
2585:
2580:
2576:
2574:0-275-95138-3
2570:
2566:
2562:
2558:
2557:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2519:
2515:
2513:0-7099-4050-5
2509:
2505:
2500:
2496:
2494:0-521-81124-4
2490:
2486:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2456:The Historian
2452:
2448:
2443:
2439:
2437:0-521-22803-4
2433:
2429:
2424:
2417:
2416:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2401:0-333-56740-4
2397:
2393:
2388:
2387:
2382:
2381:
2373:
2370:
2364:
2362:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2344:
2338:
2335:
2329:
2326:
2320:
2318:
2316:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2300:
2297:
2293:
2287:
2284:
2280:
2274:
2271:
2265:
2263:
2261:
2259:
2257:
2255:
2253:
2251:
2249:
2247:
2243:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2227:
2222:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2204:
2198:
2195:
2189:
2186:
2180:
2177:
2173:
2168:
2165:
2161:
2158:Luc Galliot,
2155:
2152:
2148:
2143:
2140:
2137:
2135:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2115:
2112:
2108:
2102:
2099:
2095:
2091:
2085:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2069:
2065:
2059:
2056:
2052:
2047:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2026:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2011:
2007:
2002:
1999:
1996:
1991:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1965:
1963:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1871:
1864:
1860:
1856:
1853:
1850:
1847:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1796:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1779:
1772:
1769:
1763:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1750:
1746:
1742:
1738:
1737:Ottoman Tunis
1732:
1729:
1723:
1720:
1713:
1709:
1706:
1704:
1701:
1699:
1696:
1694:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1684:
1681:
1680:
1676:
1674:
1673:on 20 March.
1672:
1668:
1664:
1660:
1656:
1652:
1648:
1643:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1629:
1620:
1615:
1607:
1605:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1570:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1538:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1508:
1504:
1500:
1496:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1474:
1469:
1461:
1459:
1457:
1454:, founded by
1453:
1449:
1439:
1432:
1430:
1427:
1419:
1417:
1413:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1381:
1374:
1372:
1370:
1364:
1362:
1357:
1351:
1349:
1344:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1325:
1318:
1316:
1312:
1310:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1280:
1276:
1271:
1269:
1265:
1256:
1251:
1246:
1238:
1236:
1234:
1228:
1226:
1220:
1218:
1214:
1209:
1200:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1167:
1166:Mediterranean
1163:
1154:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1118:
1113:
1105:
1103:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1077:
1073:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1041:
1034:
1031:
1023:
1021:
1019:
1015:
1009:
1007:
1006:Slap of Tunis
1003:
999:
995:
990:
988:
987:obtorto collo
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
955:
951:
947:
946:German Empire
943:
939:
934:
932:
927:
923:
919:
915:
907:
906:slap of Tunis
902:
898:
893:
892:Slap of Tunis
886:Slap of Tunis
885:
883:
881:
880:
874:
869:
867:
863:
859:
856:was promised
855:
851:
847:
842:
840:
836:
832:
824:
819:
814:
806:
804:
801:
799:
795:
791:
787:
786:Tunisian Jews
782:
778:
772:
769:
765:
761:
756:
752:
750:
746:
743:
734:
726:
719:
714:
712:
710:
706:
702:
698:
693:
690:
685:
681:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
651:
649:
645:
641:
637:
633:
629:
627:
618:
614:
610:
601:
598:
596:Today part of
594:
578:
576:
573:
572:
569:
563:
560:
553:
552:
549:
548:
545:
542:
540:
537:
536:
532:
523:
520:
515:
512:
511:
509:
505:
501:
498:20 March 1956
497:
494:
484:
481:
468:
465:
461:
457:
454:
453:Roger Seydoux
451:
439:
436:
419:
417:
409:
406:
403:
391:
388:
371:
369:
361:
357:
356:Muhammad VIII
353:
341:
338:
321:
319:
311:
308:
304:
301:
298:
296:
292:
286:
283:
282:
280:
276:
270:
267:
265:
262:
259:
257:
254:
253:
251:
247:
244:
241:
237:
234:
231:
227:
214:
211: Tunisia
206:
205:
201:
196:
188:
187:
181:
123:
120:
119:
114:
113:
110:
106:
100:
94:
86:
80:
72:
67:
61:
45:
38:
29:
26:
22:
5796:
5768:Saint Helena
5739:
5643:South Africa
5633:Sierra Leone
5438:Burkina Faso
5188:
5184:Anglo-German
5173:
5045:Treaties and
4806:Great powers
4694:
4628:
4528:Saint Martin
4364:New Hebrides
4218:Chandernagor
4210:French India
4042:French Texas
3898:Ubangi-Shari
3893:Middle Congo
3860:James Island
3782:
3765:North Africa
3620:Coat of arms
3535:Christianity
3503:Human rights
3258:Armed Forces
3221:Constitution
3154:Demographics
3115:Central West
3090:Subdivisions
3080:Governorates
2976:
2834:
2823:
2814:
2805:
2786:
2777:
2758:
2733:
2727:
2707:
2696:
2685:
2671:
2662:
2651:
2647:
2636:
2609:
2591:
2587:
2554:
2550:
2530:
2526:
2503:
2484:
2459:
2455:
2449:. MacMillan.
2446:
2427:
2414:
2391:
2383:Bibliography
2372:
2337:
2328:
2304:
2299:
2291:
2290:Rodd Balek,
2286:
2278:
2273:
2206:
2197:
2188:
2179:
2167:
2159:
2154:
2142:
2133:
2127:
2119:
2114:
2106:
2101:
2093:
2084:
2076:
2071:
2063:
2058:
2046:
2038:
2025:
2018:Triulzi 1971
2013:
2001:
1990:
1983:Ganiage 1985
1978:
1973:, p. 22
1907:
1903:
1897:
1885:
1873:
1854:
1845:
1835:
1822:
1817:
1809:
1805:
1795:
1777:
1771:
1748:
1741:Bey of Tunis
1739:, where the
1731:
1722:
1655:Algerian War
1644:
1625:
1608:Independence
1601:
1594:
1582:Henri Giraud
1569:World War II
1566:
1550:Muhammad VII
1547:
1540:Portrait of
1515:
1491:Nazi Germany
1479:
1462:World War II
1444:
1423:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1402:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1386:
1365:
1352:
1347:
1345:
1341:Bey of Tunis
1330:
1313:
1298:to sign the
1288:
1272:
1260:
1229:
1225:protectorate
1221:
1212:
1205:
1188:
1181:
1174:
1172:on 30 July.
1159:
1143:
1139:
1136:
1123:
1106:Bardo Treaty
1100:Bardo Palace
1080:
1061:
1046:
1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
991:
986:
935:
911:
905:
895:
877:
870:
858:Tripolitania
843:
828:
802:
789:
773:
760:Tripolitania
757:
753:
745:Muhammad III
739:
694:
655:Bardo Treaty
652:
639:
631:
623:
608:
606:
544:Succeeded by
543:
538:
493:Independence
340:Muhammad III
233:Protectorate
118:Salam al-Bey
116:
108:
99:Coat of arms
25:
5818: /
5695:recognition
5648:South Sudan
5538:Ivory Coast
5362:World War I
5325:Balkan Wars
5310:Second Boer
5295:Banana Wars
5259:July Crisis
5190:Dreadnought
5175:Weltpolitik
5019:Pan-Slavism
4751:Claimed by
4745:Claimed by
4630:Adélie Land
4548:Sui generis
4279:Cochinchina
4096:Saint Lucia
3850:Upper Volta
3793:West Africa
3659:WikiProject
3357:Agriculture
2533:: 153–184.
1578:Free France
1574:Axis powers
1526:Free French
1511:Neo-Destour
1086:to land at
1049:Jules Ferry
1012:colonists.
1004:(literally
938:Jules Ferry
771:by France.
701:Neo Destour
539:Preceded by
525:(1891–1956)
517:(1881–1891)
485:12 May 1881
438:Paul Cambon
5833:Categories
5806:10°09′00″E
5803:36°50′00″N
5750:(Portugal)
5708:Somaliland
5628:Seychelles
5593:Mozambique
5578:Mauritania
5563:Madagascar
5518:The Gambia
5453:Cape Verde
5047:agreements
4995:Great Game
4961:Revanchism
4747:Madagascar
4656:Saint Paul
4488:Martinique
4483:Guadeloupe
4238:Pondichéry
3949:Madagascar
3821:Mauritania
3583:Literature
3496:Censorship
3491:Newspapers
3476:Television
3280:Parliament
3137:Ecoregions
3120:South East
3105:North West
3100:North East
2933:Second War
2923:Punic Wars
2307:, pp.45–51
1857:Issue 39.
1764:References
1597:Lamine Bey
1194:Occupation
1096:La Manouba
985:, even if
926:militarist
833:after the
720:Background
705:Moncef Bey
306:Government
295:Demonym(s)
5583:Mauritius
5010:Meiji era
4857:Alliances
4753:Mauritius
4612: (
4022:Louisiana
3903:Cameroons
3459:Languages
3442:Education
3394:Transport
3302:Elections
3268:Air Force
3159:Tunisians
3065:Geography
2970:Husaynids
2938:Third War
2928:First War
2628:159549039
2549:(1996) .
2226:Ling 1960
2211:Ling 1960
2006:Ling 1960
1932:144883559
1890:Ling 1960
1433:Education
1127:Sadok Bey
1068:Kroumirie
981:and with
764:Mahmud II
709:guerrilla
680:Tunisians
650:in 1956.
634:(French:
611:(French:
278:Religion
69:1881–1956
5774: /
5770: /
5763:(France)
5757: /
5735: /
5731: /
5683:Zimbabwe
5658:Tanzania
5508:Ethiopia
5503:Eswatini
5483:Djibouti
5448:Cameroon
5433:Botswana
4508:Overseas
4468:Overseas
4326:Damascus
4275:Vietnam
4266:Cambodia
4243:Karaikal
4060:Dominica
3855:Togoland
3649:Category
3602:Tunisian
3595:Football
3525:Religion
3518:Polygamy
3486:Internet
3384:Industry
3180:Politics
3132:Wildlife
3096:Regions
2890:articles
2476:24436566
2412:(2002).
2035:Robilant
1677:See also
1634:and the
1586:Laghouat
1516:The Bey
1397:cheikhs,
1291:Khroumir
1208:Khroumir
1184:Hammamet
1177:Kairouan
1024:Conquest
998:de facto
975:Depretis
790:fellahin
781:Kairouan
669:and the
507:Currency
300:Tunisian
5759:Réunion
5755:Mayotte
5746:Madeira
5741:(Spain)
5737:Melilla
5668:Tunisia
5638:Somalia
5623:Senegal
5608:Nigeria
5598:Namibia
5588:Morocco
5553:Liberia
5548:Lesotho
5498:Eritrea
5468:Comoros
5443:Burundi
5418:Algeria
4990:In Asia
4823:Germany
4741:Comoros
4498:Réunion
4493:Mayotte
4411:Present
4369:Vanuatu
4357:Oceania
4129:Berbice
4065:Grenada
3921:Anjouan
3913:Comoros
3865:Albreda
3838:Senegal
3806:Dahomey
3783:Tunisia
3778:Morocco
3773:Algeria
3669:Commons
3562:Culture
3540:Judaism
3430:Society
3379:Tourism
3323:Economy
3214:Cabinet
3149:Museums
2965:Muradid
2898:History
2886:Tunisia
2750:1904502
2594:: 9–32.
2559:].
2305:op. cit
1924:1944685
1802:"Tunis"
1749:de jure
1628:Destour
1592:South.
1588:in the
1554:Destour
1279:Italian
1268:Bizerte
1088:Bizerte
1064:Tabarka
973:and of
971:Cairoli
963:Bizerte
918:Tunisia
850:Britain
846:Germany
794:cholera
715:Context
697:Destour
600:Tunisia
491:•
478:•
432:(first)
384:(first)
334:(first)
239:Capital
109:Anthem:
5778:
5761:
5748:
5678:Zambia
5673:Uganda
5613:Rwanda
5568:Malawi
5528:Guinea
5423:Angola
5348:Second
5335:Second
5132:Events
4922:Trends
4838:Russia
4818:France
4321:Aleppo
4289:Tonkin
4248:Yanaon
4228:Madras
4106:Tobago
4027:Canada
4017:Acadia
3931:Mohéli
3816:Guinea
3718:Former
3573:Cinema
3547:Health
3362:Energy
3125:Djerid
3085:Cities
2888:
2843:
2793:
2765:
2748:
2715:
2626:
2571:
2510:
2491:
2474:
2434:
2398:
1930:
1922:
1669:under
1309:Senate
1284:Berlin
1264:Sicily
1076:Le Kef
983:Vienna
979:Berlin
942:France
862:Cyprus
839:Russia
798:typhus
689:Beylik
617:Arabic
447:(last)
420:
399:(last)
372:
349:(last)
322:
264:Arabic
260:French
229:Status
217:
209:
111:
60:Arabic
56:
44:French
40:
5733:Ceuta
5653:Sudan
5603:Niger
5558:Libya
5543:Kenya
5523:Ghana
5513:Gabon
5488:Egypt
5428:Benin
5353:Third
5343:First
5330:First
4833:Japan
4828:Italy
4284:Annam
4139:Inini
4080:Haïti
3888:Gabon
3833:Niger
3811:Sudan
3625:Motto
3590:Sport
3578:Music
3569:Arts
3530:Islam
3513:Women
3471:Media
3399:Roads
3110:Sahel
2746:JSTOR
2624:S2CID
2553:[
2472:JSTOR
2419:(PDF)
1928:S2CID
1920:JSTOR
1759:Notes
1640:Cairo
1393:qaids
1389:Qaids
1170:Gabès
1092:Tunis
854:Italy
777:Tunis
665:with
522:Franc
285:Islam
243:Tunis
5663:Togo
5573:Mali
5463:Chad
5268:Wars
4658:and
4271:Laos
4233:Mahé
3883:Chad
3610:Flag
3508:LGBT
3273:Navy
3263:Army
3246:2022
3241:2014
3236:1959
3231:1861
3209:List
3197:List
2841:ISBN
2791:ISBN
2763:ISBN
2713:ISBN
2569:ISBN
2508:ISBN
2489:ISBN
2432:ISBN
2396:ISBN
1522:Axis
1331:The
1217:Sfax
1162:Sfax
1070:and
948:and
848:and
796:and
607:The
514:Rial
2738:doi
2616:doi
2567:).
2535:doi
2464:doi
2092:),
1912:doi
1501:of
1346:In
1008:).
933:).
742:Bey
318:Bey
5835::
4082:,
2744:.
2734:31
2732:.
2674:.
2622:.
2592:47
2590:.
2586:.
2529:.
2525:.
2470:.
2460:22
2458:.
2358:^
2346:^
2312:^
2245:^
2233:^
2218:^
1955:^
1940:^
1926:.
1918:.
1906:.
1861:.
1804:.
1781:.
1580:,
1311:.
1227:.
1102:.
1059:.
989:.
882:.
868:.
841:.
619::
615:;
5396:e
5389:t
5382:v
4791:e
4784:t
4777:v
4618:)
4437:e
4430:t
4423:v
4193:e
4186:t
4179:v
3990:e
3983:t
3976:v
3748:e
3741:t
3734:v
3703:e
3696:t
3689:v
2878:e
2871:t
2864:v
2849:.
2826:.
2817:.
2799:.
2771:.
2752:.
2740::
2721:.
2678:.
2665:.
2630:.
2618::
2577:.
2541:.
2537::
2531:9
2516:.
2497:.
2478:.
2466::
2440:.
2404:.
1934:.
1914::
1908:3
1544:.
1257:.
825:.
190:"
182:"
121:"
115:"
62:)
58:(
46:)
42:(
23:.
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
