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534:. They courted while he was studying for his Part II exams and married after he had graduated in December 1940. Sanger, although brought up and influenced by his religious upbringing, later began to lose sight of his Quaker related ways. He began to see the world through a more scientific lens, and with the growth of his research and scientific development he slowly drifted farther from the faith he grew up with. He has nothing but respect for the religious and states he took two things from it, truth and respect for all life. Under the
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441:, and his wife, Cicely Sanger (née Crewdson). He was one of three children. His brother, Theodore, was only a year older, while his sister May (Mary) was five years younger. His father had worked as an Anglican medical missionary in China but returned to England because of ill health. He was 40 in 1916 when he married Cicely, who was four years younger. Sanger's father converted to
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681:, moved to different positions on the paper, creating a distinct pattern that Sanger called "fingerprints". The peptide from the N-terminus could be recognised by the yellow colour imparted by the FDNB label and the identity of the labelled amino acid at the end of the peptide determined by complete acid hydrolysis and discovering which dinitrophenyl-amino acid was there.
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693:(two interchain, one intrachain on A), Sanger and coworkers determined their assignments in 1955. Sanger's principal conclusion was that the two polypeptide chains of the protein insulin had precise amino acid sequences and, by extension, that every protein had a unique sequence. It was this achievement that earned him his first
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724:
Prior to his move, Sanger began exploring the possibility of sequencing RNA molecules and began developing methods for separating ribonucleotide fragments generated with specific nucleases. This work he did while trying to refine the sequencing techniques he had developed during his work on insulin.
1141:
newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying: "My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs â one is obviously looking for truth, but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I
664:
research by
Bernard Charles Saunders at the Chemistry Department at Cambridge University. Sanger's reagent proved effective at labelling the N-terminal amino group at one end of the polypeptide chain. He then partially hydrolysed the insulin into short peptides, either with hydrochloric acid or
501:
he took courses in physics, chemistry, biochemistry and mathematics but struggled with physics and mathematics. Many of the other students had studied more mathematics at school. In his second year he replaced physics with physiology. He took three years to obtain his Part I. For his
1081:, the American pioneer of birth control) in 1940. She died in 2012. They had three children â Robin, born in 1943, Peter born in 1946 and Sally Joan born in 1960. He said that his wife had "contributed more to his work than anyone else by providing a peaceful and happy home."
790:, he published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the "Plus and Minus" technique. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by
472:
a year early, for which he was awarded seven credits, Sanger was able to spend most of his last year of school experimenting in the laboratory alongside his chemistry master, Geoffrey Ordish, who had originally studied at
Cambridge University and been a researcher in the
481:
in southern
Germany on an exchange program. The school placed a heavy emphasis on athletics, which caused Sanger to be much further ahead in the course material compared to the other students. He was shocked to learn that each day was started with readings from Hitler's
2402:
Anderson, S.; Bankier, A.T.; Barrell, B.G.; De Bruijn, M.H.; Coulson, A.R.; Drouin, J.; Eperon, I.C.; Nierlich, D.P.; Roe, B.A.; Sanger, F.; Schreier, P.H.; Smith, A.J.; Staden, R.; Young, I.G. (1981), "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome",
3632:
Awards
Council member and Nobel Prize laureate Dr. Charles H. Townes presenting the American Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award to British biochemist Dr. Frederick Sanger, recipient of two Nobel Prizes in Chemistry, at the 2000 Summit in Hampton
802:. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement on what had gone before, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, his group were able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the single-stranded
521:
Both his parents died from cancer during his first two years at
Cambridge. His father was 60 and his mother was 58. As an undergraduate Sanger's beliefs were strongly influenced by his Quaker upbringing. He was a pacifist and a member of the
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546:, before being granted unconditional exemption from military service by a tribunal. In the meantime he undertook training in social relief work at the Quaker centre, Spicelands, Devon and served briefly as a hospital orderly.
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By repeating this type of procedure Sanger was able to determine the sequences of the many peptides generated using different methods for the initial partial hydrolysis. These could then be assembled into the longer
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of the two polypeptide chains of bovine insulin, A and B, in 1952 and 1951, respectively. Prior to this it was widely assumed that proteins were somewhat amorphous. In determining these sequences, Sanger proved that
828:. The new method was used by Sanger and colleagues to sequence human mitochondrial DNA (16,569 base pairs) and bacteriophage λ (48,502 base pairs). The dideoxy method was eventually used to sequence the entire
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8004:
398:, which vastly expanded the number of feasible experiments in molecular biology and remains in widespread use today. The breakthrough earned him the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, which he shared with
477:. Working with Ordish made a refreshing change from sitting and studying books and awakened Sanger's desire to pursue a scientific career. In 1935, prior to heading off to college, Sanger was sent to
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Anderson, S.; De Bruijn, M.H.; Coulson, A.R.; Eperon, I.C.; Sanger, F.; Young, I.G. (1982), "Complete sequence of bovine mitochondrial DNA. Conserved features of the mammalian mitochondrial genome",
1124:, the founding director, but warned, "It had better be good." It was opened by Sanger in person on 4 October 1993, with a staff of fewer than 50 people, and went on to take a leading role in the
445:
soon after his two sons were born and brought up the children as
Quakers. Sanger's mother was the daughter of an affluent cotton manufacturer and had a Quaker background, but was not a Quaker.
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2152:
Sanger, F.; Donelson, J.E.; Coulson, A.R.; Kössel, H.; Fischer, D. (1973), "Use of DNA Polymerase I Primed by a
Synthetic Oligonucleotide to Determine a Nucleotide Sequence in Phage f1 DNA",
1149:, as he did not wish to be addressed as "Sir". He is quoted as saying, "A knighthood makes you different, doesn't it, and I don't want to be different." In 1986 he accepted admission to the
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820:". This was a major breakthrough and allowed long stretches of DNA to be rapidly and accurately sequenced. It earned him his second Nobel prize in Chemistry in 1980, which he shared with
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Sanger, F.; Air, G.M.; Barrell, B.G.; Brown, N.L.; Coulson, A.R.; Fiddes, C.A.; Hutchinson, C.A.; Slocombe, P.M.; Smith, M. (1977), "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage ÏX174 DNA",
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in 1962, he moved from his laboratories in the
Biochemistry Department of the university to the top floor of the new building. He became head of the Protein Chemistry division.
954:
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and was one of the very few proteins that were available in a pure form. Up to this time Sanger had been funding himself. In
Chibnall's group he was initially supported by the
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Jeppesen, P.G.; Barrell, B.G.; Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R. (1972), "Nucleotide sequences of two fragments from the coat-protein cistron of bacteriophage R17 ribonucleic acid",
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and a more practical problem concerning the nitrogen of potatoes. His thesis had the title, "The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body". He was examined by
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system and had a more liberal regime which Sanger much preferred. At the school he liked his teachers and particularly enjoyed scientific subjects. Able to complete his
8009:
606:, a protein chemist who had recently taken up the chair in the Department of Biochemistry. Chibnall had already done some work on the amino acid composition of bovine
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Sanger, F.; Thompson, E.O.P. (1953a), "The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates",
1495:
Sanger, F.; Tuppy, H. (1951a), "The amino-acid sequence in the phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 1. The identification of lower peptides from partial hydrolysates",
1033:
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Holley, R. W.; Apgar, J.; Everett, G. A.; Madison, J. T.; Marquisee, M.; Merrill, S. H.; Penswick, J. R.; Zamir, A. (1965). "Structure of a
Ribonucleic Acid".
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37:
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Sanger, F.; Thompson, E.O.P. (1953b), "The amino-acid sequence in the glycyl chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
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Sanger, F.; Tuppy, H. (1951b), "The amino-acid sequence in the phenylalanyl chain of insulin. 2. The investigation of peptides from enzymic hydrolysates",
840:
During the course of his career Sanger supervised more than ten PhD students, two of whom went on to also win Nobel Prizes. His first graduate student was
334:
45:
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Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R.; Barrell, B.G.; Smith, A.J.; Roe, B.A. (1980), "Cloning in single-stranded bacteriophage as an aid to rapid DNA sequencing",
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on 19 November 2013. As noted in his obituary, he had described himself as "just a chap who messed about in a lab", and "academically not brilliant".
6137:
3909:"Frederick Sanger: Unassuming British biochemist whose pivotal and far-reaching discoveries made him one of a handful of double Nobel prizewinners".
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The key challenge in the work was finding a pure piece of RNA to sequence. In the course of the work he discovered in 1964, with Kjeld Marcker, the
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557:. His project was to investigate whether edible protein could be obtained from grass. After little more than a month Pirie left the department and
452:
in Warwickshire. The family was reasonably wealthy and employed a governess to teach the children. In 1927, at the age of nine, he was sent to the
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and numerous other proteins, demonstrating in the process that each had a unique, definite structure; this was a foundational discovery for the
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Sanger, F. (1959), "Chemistry of Insulin: determination of the structure of insulin opens the way to greater understanding of life processes",
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885:... anytime you get technical development thatâs two to threefold or more efficient, accurate, cheaper, a whole range of experiments opens up.
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2017:
Adams, J.M.; Jeppesen, P.G.; Sanger, F.; Barrell, B.G. (1969), "Nucleotide sequence from the coat protein cistron of R17 bacteriophage RNA",
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to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter,
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to deduce the complete structure of insulin. Finally, because the A and B chains are physiologically inactive without the three linking
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460:. His brother Theo was a year ahead of him at the same school. In 1932, at the age of 14, he was sent to the recently established
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In 1977 Sanger and colleagues introduced the "dideoxy" chain-termination method for sequencing DNA molecules, also known as the "
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studied for a PhD in Sanger's laboratory between 1971 and 1974. She shared the 2009 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with
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Sanger then turned to sequencing DNA, which would require an entirely different approach. He looked at different ways of using
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Part II he studied biochemistry and obtained a 1st Class Honours. Biochemistry was a relatively new department founded by
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Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R. (1975), "A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase",
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Sanger, F.; Brownlee, G.G.; Barrell, B.G. (1965), "A two-dimensional fractionation procedure for radioactive nucleotides",
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Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society â 2016
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As of 2015, Sanger is one of the only two people to have been awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry twice (the other being
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2821:"A Life of Research on the Sequences of Proteins and Nucleic Acids: Fred Sanger in conversation with George Brownlee"
3605:
2837:. Subscription required. A 200 min interview divided into 44 segments. Notes give the content of each segment.
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noted that Sanger, "the most self-effacing person you could hope to meet", was spending his time gardening at his
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A Nobel Fellow on every floor: a history of the Medical Research Council Laboratory of Molecular Biology
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Brownlee, G.G.; Sanger, F. (1967), "Nucleotide sequences from the low molecular weight ribosomal RNA of
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He is one of only three people to have won multiple Nobel Prizes in the same category (the others being
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3995:"Preparing earth constitution | Global Strategies & Solutions | The Encyclopedia of World Problems"
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which initiates protein synthesis in bacteria. He was beaten in the race to be the first to sequence a
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and suggested that Sanger look at the amino groups in the protein. Insulin could be purchased from the
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Milstein, C.; Sanger, F. (1961), "An amino acid sequence in the active centre of phosphoglucomutase",
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Sanger said he found no evidence for a God so he became an agnostic. In an interview published in the
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1120:, only a few miles from Sanger's home. He agreed to having the Centre named after him when asked by
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Sanger, F.; Nicklen, S.; Coulson, A.R. (1977), "DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors",
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Brownlee, G.G.; Sanger, F.; Barrell, B.G. (1968), "The sequence of 5S ribosomal ribonucleic acid",
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3943:"Letters from Thane Read asking Helen Keller to sign the World Constitution for world peace. 1961"
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809:. This was the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. To their surprise they discovered that the
669:. The mixture of peptides was fractionated in two dimensions on a sheet of filter paper, first by
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1943:
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Brownlee, G.G.; Sanger, F.; Barrell, B.G. (1967), "Nucleotide sequence of 5S-ribosomal RNA from
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3652:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences. 2016. Archived from
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Ryle, A.P.; Sanger, F.; Smith, L.F.; Kitai, R. (1955), "The disulphide bonds of insulin",
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To get to this point, Sanger refined a partition chromatography method first developed by
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4073:"A new insight into Sanger's development of sequencing: from proteins to DNA, 1943â1977"
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Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R. (1978), "The use of thin acrylamide gels for DNA sequencing",
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2823:. Biochemical Society, Edina â Film & Sound Online. 9 October 1992. Archived from
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He was one of the signatories of the agreement to convene a convention for drafting a
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Brown, H.; Sanger, F.; Kitai, R. (1955), "The structure of pig and sheep insulins",
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to determine the composition of amino acids in wool. Sanger used a chemical reagent
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5384:
5368:
5316:
5265:
5209:
5137:
5109:
5093:
5029:
4914:
4906:
4858:
4854:
4846:
4614:
4539:
4355:
4291:
4117:
2440:
2365:
2320:
2054:
1947:
1370:
1121:
1014:
934:
829:
787:
561:
became his adviser. Sanger changed his research project to study the metabolism of
554:
410:
225:
198:
7717:
3865:
3264:
1789:
4002:
3145:
2750:
889:
This rule should not be confused with Terence Sanger's rule, which is related to
7693:
7266:
7017:
6771:
6541:
6485:
6269:
6129:
5900:
5664:
5516:
5500:
5480:
5476:
5253:
5225:
5221:
5185:
5153:
5105:
5073:
4606:
4594:
4574:
4460:
4421:
4363:
3390:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980: Paul Berg, Walter Gilbert, Frederick Sanger"
1002:
910:
465:
180:
55:
7956:
1651:
Sanger, F.; Thompson, E.O.P.; Kitai, R. (1955), "The amide groups of insulin",
1128:. The Institute had about 900 people in 2020 and is one of the world's largest
448:
When Sanger was around five years old the family moved to the small village of
7547:
7519:
6979:
6937:
6838:
6790:
6778:
6685:
6644:
6445:
6397:
6181:
5749:
5416:
5352:
5332:
5257:
5065:
4970:
4918:
4842:
4723:
4719:
4547:
4205:
4091:
4048:
Chapters 4-6 contain the 1992 interview that the author conducted with Sanger.
3999:
The Encyclopedia of World Problems | Union of International Associations (UIA)
3685:. University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences. 2016
2566:
873:
853:
754:
in 1965. By 1967 Sanger's group had determined the nucleotide sequence of the
630:
483:
376:
365:
5868:
5632:
7725:
7413:
6927:
6831:
5917:
5755:
5037:
4663:
3821:
3785:. This interview, which took place on 16 September 1997, was republished in
2279:(ISI) database, by October 2010 this paper had been cited over 64,000 times.
2252:
1182:
1137:
825:
806:
678:
586:
487:
442:
403:
95:
4109:
3580:"The ABRF Award for Outstanding Contributions to Biomolecular Technologies"
3471:
3272:
3163:
3011:
2678:
2661:
2598:
2582:
2174:
2097:
2062:
Barrell, B.G.; Sanger, F. (1969), "The sequence of phenylalanine tRNA from
1869:
1836:
1797:
1760:
1721:
1682:
1643:
1604:
1565:
1526:
1487:
1448:
1409:
1362:
1325:
1286:
1247:
4221:
4201:
2537:
2506:
2469:
2432:
2394:
2222:
2193:
2144:
2046:
2009:
1980:
1939:
1898:
1378:
Porter, R.R.; Sanger, F. (1948), "The free amino groups of haemoglobins",
602:
in London, but Sanger stayed in Cambridge and in 1943 joined the group of
7621:
7389:
7285:
7057:
6826:
6802:
6737:
6698:
3438:"Frederick Sanger (1918â2013) Double Nobel-prizewinning genomics pioneer"
2357:
2312:
2271:
869:
615:
611:
430:
76:
677:
in the other. The different peptide fragments of insulin, detected with
7129:
6814:
6711:
4202:
Frederick Sanger interviewed by Alan Macfarlane, 24 August 2007 (video)
2126:
1129:
1117:
745:
666:
638:
607:
380:
134:
7968:
2590:
2038:
1818:
1742:
1703:
1664:
1625:
1586:
1547:
1508:
1469:
1430:
1391:
1307:
1268:
1229:
530:
that he met his future wife, Joan Howe, who was studying economics at
7273:
7189:
7117:
6964:
6766:
2984:"Bakerian Lecture: Amino-Acid Analysis and the Structure of Proteins"
2424:
2304:
1931:
1354:
909:, and one of only five two-time Nobel laureates: The other four were
562:
498:
253:
3462:
3437:
2718:
2693:
1108:
and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre (now the
844:
who joined the research group in 1947. Porter later shared the 1972
4146:
Interviews with Nobel Prizeâwinning scientists: Dr Frederick Sanger
3369:
3367:
7261:
7237:
7225:
7213:
7177:
7165:
7141:
7105:
7093:
7081:
7069:
6912:
6861:
3789:
Candid science II: conversations with famous biomedical scientists
3627:
1088:
580:
111:
3582:. Association of Biomolecular Resource facilities. Archived from
2780:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958: Frederick Sanger â biography"
8120:
Recipients of the Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
7826:
1216:
Neuberger, A.; Sanger, F. (1942), "The nitrogen of the potato",
733:
6582:
6133:
5872:
5636:
4236:
3775:
Hargittai, IstvĂĄn (April 1999). "Interview: Frederick Sanger".
3683:
American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry
3650:
American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry
3410:
2662:"Frederick Sanger CBE CH OM. 13 August 1918 â 19 November 2013"
3606:"Golden Plate Awardees of the American Academy of Achievement"
1255:
Neuberger, A.; Sanger, F. (1944), "The metabolism of lysine",
550:
356:
115:
3336:"Nobel lecture: Determination of nucleotide sequences in DNA"
1333:
Sanger, F. (1947), "Oxidation of insulin by performic acid",
1097:
Sanger retired in 1983, aged 65, to his home, "Far Leys", in
4218:â Wellcome Library finding aid for the digitised collection.
3566:
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI, genome.gov)
3510:
Sequence studies on bacteriophage ĂX174 DNA by transcription
3211:
The path to DNA sequencing: The life and work of Fred Sanger
3095:
The path to DNA sequencing: The life and work of Fred Sanger
2853:
The path to DNA sequencing: The life and work of Fred Sanger
2569:(2001). "Albert Neuberger. 15 April 1908 â 14 August 1996".
4166:
3308:
1077:
Sanger married Margaret Joan Howe (not to be confused with
713:
From 1951 Sanger was a member of the external staff of the
353:
2919:
The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body
2514:
Sanger, F. (1988), "Sequences, sequences, and sequences",
1142:
would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof."
744:, who published the sequence of the 77 ribonucleotides of
260:
The metabolism of the amino acid lysine in the animal body
3787:
Hargittai, IstvĂĄn (2002). "Chapter 5: Frederick Sanger".
1417:
Sanger, F. (1949a), "Fractionation of oxidized insulin",
350:
3076:. Sanger's Nobel lecture was also published in Science:
2849:"Sanger's early life: From the cradle to the laboratory"
1456:
Sanger, F. (1949b), "The terminal peptides of insulin",
394:
in Cambridge, he developed and subsequently refined the
364:; 13 August 1918 â 19 November 2013) was a British
2991:
Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences
1294:
Sanger, F. (1945), "The free amino groups of insulin",
456:, a residential preparatory school run by Quakers near
8130:
Foreign fellows of the Indian National Science Academy
8040:
Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences
8005:
Members of the European Molecular Biology Organization
4127:
Selected Papers of Frederick Sanger: with commentaries
3925:"Frederick Sanger's achievements cannot be overstated"
3817:"The double Nobel laureate who began the book of life"
2485:(1982), "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage λ DNA",
1197:. As a result, for the first time in human history, a
7933:
7861:
World Committee for a World Constitutional Convention
3513:(PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. Archived from
3421:
3359:
3297:
3293:
3181:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958: Frederick Sanger"
2922:(PhD thesis). University of Cambridge. Archived from
2876:
Frederick Sanger Two-Time Nobel Laureate in Chemistry
673:
in one dimension and then, perpendicular to that, by
629:
Sanger's first triumph was to determine the complete
347:
175:
Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences
3373:
3115:
2666:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
2571:
Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society
786:
to copy single stranded DNA. In 1975, together with
705:
for developing ideas of how DNA codes for proteins.
660:, fluorodinitrobenzene, FDNB or DNFB), sourced from
375:
He won the 1958 Chemistry Prize for determining the
7874:
7853:
7638:
7620:
7594:
7576:
7518:
7495:
7474:
7453:
7422:
7398:
7367:
7358:
7315:
7048:
7025:
7016:
6963:
6926:
6877:
6852:
6755:
6746:
6668:
6038:
6007:
5982:
5963:
5939:
5908:
5765:
5734:
5715:
5691:
5672:
5291:
4992:
4733:
4494:
4274:
2232:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
2154:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA
344:
282:
270:
252:
231:
221:
161:
153:
122:
103:
84:
62:
23:
8095:People educated at The Downs School, Herefordshire
3791:. London: Imperial College Press. pp. 73â83.
3709:
813:of some of the genes overlapped with one another.
4101:20.500.11820/e4febe48-772a-4f47-a1c5-a5ca89505367
3888:"Frederick Sanger: Nobel Prize winner dies at 95"
3749:. Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute. Archived from
3704:
3702:
3700:
2961:"Frederick Sanger, Ph.D. Biography and Interview"
697:in 1958. This discovery was crucial to the later
437:, England, the second son of Frederick Sanger, a
8135:World Constitutional Convention call signatories
8050:Members of the Order of the Companions of Honour
4184:2001 Video Documentary by The Vega Science Trust
3537:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2009"
3486:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972"
4034:Fred Sanger, double Nobel laureate: a biography
3046:
3042:
2948:
2944:
1040:Association of Biomolecular Resource Facilities
966:Member of the Order of the Companions of Honour
883:
429:Frederick Sanger was born on 13 August 1918 in
1034:Albert Lasker Award for Basic Medical Research
8020:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
6594:
6145:
5884:
5648:
4248:
4036:. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
3741:
3739:
3737:
3319:
3231:
3130:"The first sequence. Fred Sanger and insulin"
624:Beit Memorial Fellowship for Medical Research
8:
8125:Fellows of the Australian Academy of Science
3770:
3768:
3384:
3382:
3329:
3327:
3200:
3198:
3175:
3173:
3038:
3034:
2745:
2743:
1112:), named after him. The institute is on the
960:Commander of the Order of the British Empire
585:Amino acid sequence of bovine insulin, with
417:in chemistry), and one of five persons with
4149:, British Broadcasting Corporation, c. 1985
8060:Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards
7364:
7022:
6752:
6601:
6587:
6579:
6152:
6138:
6130:
5891:
5877:
5869:
5655:
5641:
5633:
4255:
4241:
4233:
4225:
4194:
3676:"Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award"
2815:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2807:
2805:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2797:
2774:
2772:
2770:
2768:
852:for his work on the chemical structure of
526:. It was through his involvement with the
54:
20:
8080:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
6640:World Constitution Coordinating Committee
4099:
3461:
3153:
3010:
2717:
2677:
2527:
2261:
2251:
2183:
2173:
2134:
2087:
1826:
1750:
1711:
1672:
1633:
1594:
1555:
1516:
1477:
1438:
1399:
1315:
1276:
1237:
1153:, which can have only 24 living members.
955:Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1954
506:with enthusiastic lecturers who included
8015:Academics of the University of Cambridge
6627:Constitution for the Federation of Earth
3810:
3808:
1203:Constitution for the Federation of Earth
544:National Service (Armed Forces) Act 1939
7940:
4056:, Cambridge: Medical Research Council,
3913:. London. 21 November 2013. p. 63.
3061:Nobel lecture: The chemistry of insulin
2652:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2642:
2640:
2638:
2636:
2557:
2477:Sanger, F.; Coulson, A.R.; Hong, G.F.;
1009:Gairdner Foundation International Award
600:National Institute for Medical Research
187:Gairdner Foundation International Award
8000:Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge
3207:"The path to sequencing nucleic acids"
3077:
3025:Section on insulin starts on page 153.
2634:
2632:
2630:
2628:
2626:
2624:
2622:
2620:
2618:
2616:
3783:(2). New York: Springer-Verlag: 6â11.
846:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
641:have a defined chemical composition.
538:he was provisionally registered as a
7:
8010:Fellows of King's College, Cambridge
3825:. London. p. 40. Archived from
3722:from the original on 12 January 2022
2277:Institute for Scientific Information
528:Cambridge Scientists' Anti-War Group
8070:People educated at Bryanston School
4216:Frederick Sanger archive collection
3975:. American Foundation for the Blind
3949:. American Foundation for the Blind
3848:Bhattachjee, Yudhijit, ed. (2007).
3298:Brownlee, Sanger & Barrell 1968
3294:Brownlee, Sanger & Barrell 1967
2900:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1980"
2734:"The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1958"
2529:10.1146/annurev.bi.57.070188.000245
622:and then from 1944 until 1951 by a
573:and awarded his doctorate in 1943.
396:first-ever DNA sequencing technique
8075:People educated at Malvern College
3374:Sanger, Nicklen & Coulson 1977
764:, a small RNA of 120 nucleotides.
385:central dogma of molecular biology
14:
4192:National Portrait Gallery, London
4080:Journal of the History of Biology
3815:Ahuja, Anjana (12 January 2000).
2694:"Seven days: 22â28 November 2013"
1844:Marcker, K.; Sanger, F. (1964), "
646:Richard Laurence Millington Synge
7967:
7955:
7943:
7918:
7917:
7296:
7284:
7272:
7260:
7248:
7236:
7224:
7212:
7200:
7188:
7176:
7164:
7152:
7140:
7128:
7116:
7104:
7092:
7080:
7068:
7056:
7033:
6997:
6985:
6973:
6948:
6936:
6911:
6899:
6887:
6860:
6837:
6825:
6813:
6801:
6789:
6777:
6765:
6730:
6717:
6704:
6691:
6678:
4485:
4125:Sanger, F.; Dowding, M. (1996),
340:
8090:British conscientious objectors
6610:World Constitutional Convention
4129:, Singapore: World Scientific,
3850:"Newsmakers: A Life in Science"
3614:American Academy of Achievement
2969:American Academy of Achievement
1058:Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute
1047:American Academy of Achievement
719:Laboratory of Molecular Biology
392:Laboratory of Molecular Biology
244:Laboratory of Molecular Biology
8105:Recipients of the Copley Medal
4071:GarcĂa-Sancho, Miguel (2010).
3091:"Sequencing proteins: Insulin"
1201:convened to draft and adopt a
1126:sequencing of the human genome
16:British biochemist (1918â2013)
1:
8115:People from Cotswold District
8045:Members of the Order of Merit
7607:(Righteous Among the Nations)
4188:Portraits of Frederick Sanger
3890:. BBC.co.uk. 20 November 2013
3866:10.1126/science.317.5840.879e
3265:10.1126/science.147.3664.1462
2516:Annual Review of Biochemistry
1973:10.1016/S0022-2836(67)80109-8
1891:10.1016/S0022-2836(65)80104-8
1862:10.1016/S0022-2836(64)80164-9
1790:10.1126/science.129.3359.1340
979:Australian Academy of Science
8055:Nobel laureates in Chemistry
8035:Fellows of the Royal Society
7866:Provisional World Parliament
2499:10.1016/0022-2836(82)90546-0
2487:Journal of Molecular Biology
2462:10.1016/0022-2836(82)90137-1
2450:Journal of Molecular Biology
2387:10.1016/0022-2836(80)90196-5
2375:Journal of Molecular Biology
2350:10.1016/0014-5793(78)80145-8
2215:10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2
2203:Journal of Molecular Biology
2089:10.1016/0014-5793(69)80157-2
2002:10.1016/0022-2836(68)90168-X
1990:Journal of Molecular Biology
1961:Journal of Molecular Biology
1879:Journal of Molecular Biology
1850:Journal of Molecular Biology
1177:Sanger died in his sleep at
1114:Wellcome Trust Genome Campus
977:Corresponding Member of the
972:Member of the Order of Merit
549:Sanger began studying for a
495:St John's College, Cambridge
108:St John's College, Cambridge
7750:MaurĂcio Campos de Medeiros
7063:Ahmed Ebrahim Haroon Jaffer
6784:Francisco Orlich Bolmarcich
3047:Sanger & Thompson 1953b
3043:Sanger & Thompson 1953a
2949:Neuberger & Sanger 1944
2945:Neuberger & Sanger 1942
1145:He declined the offer of a
736:molecule by a group led by
654:1-fluoro-2,4-dinitrobenzene
8151:
7219:Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi
6438:Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar
4177:About the 1980 Nobel Prize
4172:About the 1958 Nobel Prize
3837:– via warwick.ac.uk.
3777:The Chemical Intelligencer
3146:10.1093/genetics/162.2.527
2878:. Springer International.
1848:-formyl-methionyl-S-RNA",
1199:World Constituent Assembly
1064:) is named in his honour.
1045:Golden Plate Award of the
1024:Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
771:
536:Military Training Act 1939
205:Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
79:, Gloucestershire, England
7900:
7123:Ezequiel Padilla Peñaloza
6620:
6168:
6057:
5796:
4483:
4092:10.1007/s10739-009-9184-1
3507:Blackburn, E. H. (1974).
3320:Sanger & Coulson 1975
3232:Marcker & Sanger 1964
1160:was given a grant by the
1020:G.W. Wheland Award â 1978
798:gel and visualised using
717:and when they opened the
650:Archer John Porter Martin
464:in Dorset. This used the
390:At the newly constructed
308:
214:
53:
7837:(teacher & pacifist)
7713:(scholar & pacifist)
7279:Pascoal Ranieri Mazzilli
6262:Cyril Norman Hinshelwood
5409:Venkatraman Ramakrishnan
4688:Wendell Meredith Stanley
4268:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
3039:Sanger & Tuppy 1951b
3035:Sanger & Tuppy 1951a
2982:Chibnall, A. C. (1942).
2874:Jeffers, Joe S. (2017).
991:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
985:William Bate Hardy Prize
751:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
715:Medical Research Council
695:Nobel prize in Chemistry
665:using an enzyme such as
620:Medical Research Council
425:Early life and education
370:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
193:William Bate Hardy Prize
169:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
8110:English Nobel laureates
8065:British Nobel laureates
7506:(Chemistry & Peace)
6518:Frederick Charles Frank
6230:John Edensor Littlewood
3628:"Summit Overview Photo"
3213:. What is Biotechnology
3128:Stretton, A.O. (2002).
3097:. What is Biotechnology
2855:. What is Biotechnology
2704:(7477): 442â443. 2013.
2253:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463
598:Neuberger moved to the
571:Albert Charles Chibnall
493:In 1936 Sanger went to
239:University of Cambridge
7745:(writer & scholar)
7654:David Alfaro Siqueiros
7604:André and Magda Trocmé
7586:Martin Luther King Jr.
7578:Human rights activists
7538:Edris Rice-Wray Carson
7423:Physiology or Medicine
7291:Patrick Wolrige-Gordon
7087:B. Satya Narayan Reddy
6867:Jaramogi Oginga Odinga
6063:Nobel Prize recipients
6009:Physiology or Medicine
5956:(Poland/United States)
5802:Nobel Prize recipients
5767:Physiology or Medicine
5573:Emmanuelle Charpentier
5561:M. Stanley Whittingham
4532:Hans von Euler-Chelpin
4212:. Duration 57 minutes.
3711:"Frederick Sanger, OM"
3012:10.1098/rspb.1942.0021
2679:10.1098/rsbm.2015.0013
2583:10.1098/rsbm.2001.0021
2175:10.1073/pnas.70.4.1209
1179:Addenbrooke's Hospital
1094:
941:, 1956 and 1972), and
887:
590:
553:in October 1940 under
542:, and again under the
540:conscientious objector
7440:Hermann Joseph Muller
7435:Dickinson W. Richards
7243:Komla Agbeli Gbedemah
6820:LĂ©opold SĂ©dar Senghor
6390:Robert Burns Woodward
5973:Adolfo PĂ©rez Esquivel
4943:Christian B. Anfinsen
4583:Frédéric Joliot-Curie
3559:"Schlessinger, David"
1209:Selected publications
1092:
836:Postgraduate students
730:formylmethionine tRNA
584:
433:, a small village in
7646:Arthur Ernest Bishop
7430:Albert Szent-Györgyi
6796:José Figueres Ferrer
6430:Rodney Robert Porter
5605:Karl Barry Sharpless
5102:Dudley R. Herschbach
4927:Luis Federico Leloir
4204:, also available on
4167:The Sanger Institute
4052:Finch, John (2008),
3973:Helen Keller Archive
3947:Helen Keller Archive
3718:. 20 November 2013.
3411:Anderson et al. 1981
1156:In 2007 the British
1093:The Sanger Institute
943:Karl Barry Sharpless
903:Karl Barry Sharpless
879:
656:(now, also known as
479:Schule Schloss Salem
475:Cavendish Laboratory
439:general practitioner
415:Karl Barry Sharpless
8100:Royal Medal winners
8025:English biochemists
7817:(cultural theorist)
7466:Salvatore Quasimodo
7330:Dana McLean Greeley
7040:Cornelis Berkhouwer
6844:Otilio Ulate Blanco
6748:Head of governments
6342:Nevill Francis Mott
5781:Edward Lawrie Tatum
5775:George Wells Beadle
5597:Carolyn R. Bertozzi
5509:Jean-Pierre Sauvage
5246:Jens Christian Skou
5214:F. Sherwood Rowland
5126:Charles J. Pedersen
5090:Herbert A. Hauptman
4783:Vincent du Vigneaud
4400:Richard WillstÀtter
4284:Jacobus van 't Hoff
4030:Brownlee, George G.
3931:. 21 November 2013.
3829:on 11 December 2008
3610:www.achievement.org
3454:2014Natur.505...27W
3334:Sanger, F. (1980).
3257:1965Sci...147.1462H
3251:(3664): 1462â1465.
3058:Sanger, F. (1958),
3003:1942RSPSB.131..136C
2965:www.achievement.org
2751:"Nobel Prize Facts"
2710:2013Natur.503..442.
2658:Brownlee, George G.
2417:1981Natur.290..457A
2342:1978FEBSL..87..107S
2297:1977Natur.265..687S
2275:. According to the
2244:1977PNAS...74.5463S
2166:1973PNAS...70.1209S
2115:Biochemical Journal
2080:1969FEBSL...3..275B
2031:1969Natur.223.1009A
2025:(5210): 1009â1014,
1924:1967Natur.215..735B
1807:Biochemical Journal
1782:1959Sci...129.1340G
1776:(3359): 1340â1344,
1731:Biochemical Journal
1692:Biochemical Journal
1653:Biochemical Journal
1614:Biochemical Journal
1575:Biochemical Journal
1536:Biochemical Journal
1497:Biochemical Journal
1458:Biochemical Journal
1419:Biochemical Journal
1380:Biochemical Journal
1347:1947Natur.160..295S
1296:Biochemical Journal
1257:Biochemical Journal
1218:Biochemical Journal
1158:Biochemical Society
1101:outside Cambridge.
1073:Marriage and family
1028:Columbia University
997:CordayâMorgan Medal
858:Elizabeth Blackburn
699:sequence hypothesis
577:Research and career
295:Elizabeth Blackburn
131:amino acid sequence
7882:World constitution
7710:Hugh J. Schonfield
7670:Edward J. Sparling
7195:IrĂšne de Lipkowski
7183:Inder Kumar Gujral
6832:Muhammad Ayub Khan
6558:John Maynard Smith
6310:Tadeusz Reichstein
6029:George Davis Snell
5557:John B. Goodenough
5485:William E. Moerner
5365:Richard R. Schrock
5337:Roderick MacKinnon
5309:K. Barry Sharpless
5134:Johann Deisenhofer
4963:Geoffrey Wilkinson
4959:Ernst Otto Fischer
4883:Robert S. Mulliken
4819:Jaroslav HeyrovskĂœ
4767:Hermann Staudinger
4587:IrĂšne Joliot-Curie
4224:on Nobelprize.org
4155:. Duration 1 hour.
3747:"Frederick Sanger"
3422:Sanger et al. 1982
3360:Sanger et al. 1977
3309:Sanger et al. 1973
2127:10.1042/bj1280993h
1195:world constitution
1132:research centres.
1095:
949:, 2001 and 2022).
897:Awards and honours
872:and the action of
742:Cornell University
594:Sequencing insulin
591:
524:Peace Pledge Union
470:School Certificate
157:Margaret Joan Howe
8085:English pacifists
8030:British agnostics
7931:
7930:
7846:
7838:
7830:
7818:
7810:
7802:
7794:
7786:
7778:
7770:
7762:
7754:
7746:
7738:
7730:
7722:
7714:
7706:
7698:
7690:
7682:
7674:
7666:
7658:
7650:
7608:
7558:Priyadaranjan Ray
7514:
7513:
7507:
7445:Macfarlane Burnet
7410:
7317:Religious leaders
7311:
7310:
7303:William Beveridge
7111:Diwan Chaman Lall
7012:
7011:
6576:
6575:
6414:Peter D. Mitchell
6326:Alexander R. Todd
6238:Macfarlane Burnet
6161:Copley Medallists
6127:
6126:
6040:Economic Sciences
5998:Val Logsdon Fitch
5866:
5865:
5630:
5629:
5613:Moungi G. Bawendi
5533:Richard Henderson
5377:Roger D. Kornberg
5345:Aaron Ciechanover
5178:Rudolph A. Marcus
5082:Robert Merrifield
5018:Peter D. Mitchell
4791:Cyril Hinshelwood
4552:Friedrich Bergius
4476:Richard Zsigmondy
4392:Theodore Richards
4340:Ernest Rutherford
4151:. Interviewed by
4136:978-981-02-2430-1
4063:978-1-84046-940-0
4043:978-1-107-08334-9
3798:978-1-86094-288-4
2914:Sanger, Frederick
2885:978-3-319-54707-7
2411:(5806): 457â465,
2291:(5596): 687â695,
2238:(12): 5463â5467,
2039:10.1038/2231009a0
1918:(5102): 735â736,
1819:10.1042/bj0790456
1743:10.1042/bj0600556
1704:10.1042/bj0600541
1665:10.1042/bj0590509
1626:10.1042/bj0530366
1587:10.1042/bj0530353
1548:10.1042/bj0490481
1509:10.1042/bj0490463
1470:10.1042/bj0450563
1431:10.1042/bj0440126
1392:10.1042/bj0420287
1341:(4061): 295â296,
1308:10.1042/bj0390507
1269:10.1042/bj0380119
1230:10.1042/bj0360662
587:disulfide bridges
567:Charles Harington
555:N.W. "Bill" Pirie
450:Tanworth-in-Arden
368:who received the
312:
311:
283:Doctoral students
216:Scientific career
140:Sanger sequencing
8142:
7972:
7971:
7960:
7959:
7948:
7947:
7946:
7939:
7921:
7920:
7892:World federalism
7887:World government
7844:
7836:
7824:
7816:
7808:
7800:
7792:
7790:Shigeri Yamataka
7784:
7776:
7774:Rameshwari Nehru
7768:
7760:
7752:
7744:
7736:
7728:
7720:
7712:
7704:
7697:(science editor)
7696:
7688:
7686:Gregorio Bermann
7680:
7672:
7664:
7662:E. M. L. Odjidja
7657:(Social realist)
7656:
7648:
7606:
7528:Charles C. Price
7505:
7461:Bertrand Russell
7408:
7406:Frederick Sanger
7365:
7345:Martin Niemöller
7301:
7300:
7289:
7288:
7277:
7276:
7265:
7264:
7253:
7252:
7241:
7240:
7229:
7228:
7217:
7216:
7205:
7204:
7193:
7192:
7181:
7180:
7169:
7168:
7157:
7156:
7145:
7144:
7133:
7132:
7121:
7120:
7109:
7108:
7099:Chiyo Sakakibara
7097:
7096:
7085:
7084:
7073:
7072:
7061:
7060:
7038:
7037:
7036:
7023:
7002:
7001:
6990:
6989:
6978:
6977:
6953:
6952:
6941:
6940:
6916:
6915:
6904:
6903:
6892:
6891:
6865:
6864:
6842:
6841:
6830:
6829:
6818:
6817:
6806:
6805:
6794:
6793:
6782:
6781:
6770:
6769:
6753:
6736:
6734:
6733:
6723:
6721:
6720:
6710:
6708:
6707:
6697:
6695:
6694:
6684:
6682:
6681:
6630:
6603:
6596:
6589:
6580:
6569:
6561:
6553:
6545:
6537:
6529:
6521:
6513:
6505:
6497:
6489:
6481:
6473:
6465:
6457:
6449:
6441:
6433:
6425:
6417:
6409:
6401:
6393:
6385:
6382:Frederick Sanger
6377:
6369:
6361:
6353:
6345:
6337:
6329:
6321:
6313:
6305:
6297:
6289:
6281:
6273:
6265:
6257:
6249:
6241:
6233:
6225:
6217:
6214:Patrick Blackett
6209:
6201:
6193:
6185:
6177:
6154:
6147:
6140:
6131:
6065:
6017:Baruj Benacerraf
5930:Frederick Sanger
5893:
5886:
5879:
5870:
5804:
5787:Joshua Lederberg
5682:Frederick Sanger
5657:
5650:
5643:
5634:
5623:
5621:Alexei I. Ekimov
5607:
5601:Morten P. Meldal
5591:
5579:
5567:
5551:
5535:
5525:Jacques Dubochet
5519:
5503:
5487:
5471:
5455:
5449:Robert Lefkowitz
5443:
5435:
5419:
5413:Thomas A. Steitz
5403:
5387:
5379:
5371:
5361:Robert H. Grubbs
5355:
5339:
5327:
5311:
5284:
5282:Hideki Shirakawa
5268:
5260:
5248:
5232:
5216:
5200:
5192:
5180:
5172:
5170:Richard R. Ernst
5164:
5156:
5144:
5128:
5112:
5096:
5084:
5076:
5068:
5060:
5048:
5046:Frederick Sanger
5032:
5026:Herbert C. Brown
5020:
5012:
5004:
5002:William Lipscomb
4985:
4973:
4965:
4953:
4937:
4935:Gerhard Herzberg
4929:
4921:
4909:
4901:
4885:
4877:
4869:
4861:
4849:
4837:
4829:
4821:
4813:
4811:Frederick Sanger
4805:
4797:
4795:Nikolay Semyonov
4785:
4777:
4769:
4761:
4749:
4747:Glenn T. Seaborg
4726:
4714:
4706:
4698:
4690:
4674:
4672:Artturi Virtanen
4666:
4658:
4656:George de Hevesy
4650:
4649:
4643:
4642:
4636:
4635:
4629:
4617:
4609:
4597:
4589:
4577:
4569:
4568:
4562:
4554:
4542:
4534:
4522:
4514:
4512:Heinrich Wieland
4506:
4504:Theodor Svedberg
4489:
4488:
4478:
4470:
4469:
4463:
4455:
4447:
4439:
4431:
4430:
4424:
4416:
4415:
4409:
4408:
4402:
4394:
4386:
4378:
4366:
4358:
4350:
4342:
4334:
4326:
4318:
4316:Adolf von Baeyer
4310:
4302:
4300:Svante Arrhenius
4294:
4286:
4257:
4250:
4243:
4234:
4229:
4222:Frederick Sanger
4198:
4150:
4139:
4121:
4103:
4077:
4066:
4047:
4015:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4001:. Archived from
3991:
3985:
3984:
3982:
3980:
3965:
3959:
3958:
3956:
3954:
3939:
3933:
3932:
3929:The Conversation
3921:
3915:
3914:
3906:
3900:
3899:
3897:
3895:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3834:
3812:
3803:
3802:
3784:
3772:
3763:
3762:
3760:
3758:
3743:
3732:
3731:
3729:
3727:
3713:
3706:
3695:
3694:
3692:
3690:
3680:
3672:
3666:
3665:
3663:
3661:
3642:
3636:
3635:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3602:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3591:
3586:on 6 August 2020
3576:
3570:
3569:
3563:
3555:
3549:
3548:
3546:
3544:
3539:. Nobelprize.org
3533:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3504:
3498:
3497:
3495:
3493:
3488:. Nobelprize.org
3482:
3476:
3475:
3465:
3430:
3424:
3419:
3413:
3408:
3402:
3401:
3399:
3397:
3392:. Nobelprize.org
3386:
3377:
3371:
3362:
3357:
3351:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3341:. Nobelprize.org
3340:
3331:
3322:
3317:
3311:
3306:
3300:
3291:
3285:
3284:
3240:
3234:
3229:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3218:
3202:
3193:
3192:
3190:
3188:
3183:. Nobelprize.org
3177:
3168:
3167:
3157:
3125:
3119:
3116:Ryle et al. 1955
3113:
3107:
3106:
3104:
3102:
3086:
3080:
3075:
3074:
3072:
3067:, Nobelprize.org
3066:
3055:
3049:
3032:
3026:
3024:
3014:
2997:(863): 136â160.
2988:
2979:
2973:
2972:
2957:
2951:
2942:
2936:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2926:on 17 April 2021
2910:
2904:
2903:
2896:
2890:
2889:
2871:
2865:
2864:
2862:
2860:
2844:
2838:
2836:
2834:
2832:
2827:on 13 March 2014
2817:
2792:
2791:
2789:
2787:
2782:. Nobelprize.org
2776:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2758:
2753:. Nobelprize.org
2747:
2738:
2737:
2730:
2724:
2723:
2721:
2690:
2684:
2683:
2681:
2654:
2611:
2610:
2562:
2540:
2531:
2509:
2472:
2443:
2425:10.1038/290457a0
2397:
2368:
2323:
2305:10.1038/265687a0
2274:
2265:
2255:
2225:
2196:
2187:
2177:
2160:(4): 1209â1213,
2147:
2138:
2108:
2091:
2057:
2012:
1983:
1957:Escherichia coli
1950:
1932:10.1038/215735a0
1908:Escherichia coli
1901:
1872:
1839:
1830:
1800:
1763:
1754:
1724:
1715:
1685:
1676:
1646:
1637:
1607:
1598:
1568:
1559:
1529:
1520:
1490:
1481:
1451:
1442:
1412:
1403:
1373:
1355:10.1038/160295b0
1328:
1319:
1289:
1280:
1250:
1241:
1224:(7â9): 662â671,
1110:Sanger Institute
1099:Swaffham Bulbeck
905:in 2001 and 2022
868:for her work on
862:Carol W. Greider
780:DNA polymerase I
761:Escherichia coli
756:5S ribosomal RNA
658:Sanger's reagent
604:Charles Chibnall
559:Albert Neuberger
486:, followed by a
462:Bryanston School
419:two Nobel Prizes
363:
362:
359:
358:
355:
352:
349:
346:
337:
315:Frederick Sanger
277:Albert Neuberger
272:Doctoral advisor
266:
129:Determining the
91:
88:19 November 2013
72:
70:
58:
48:
25:Frederick Sanger
21:
8150:
8149:
8145:
8144:
8143:
8141:
8140:
8139:
7980:
7979:
7978:
7966:
7954:
7944:
7942:
7934:
7932:
7927:
7896:
7870:
7849:
7842:Toyohiko Kagawa
7806:Stanley Slotkin
7777:(social worker)
7634:
7616:
7590:
7572:
7568:Wilder Penfield
7553:Pitirim Sorokin
7510:
7491:
7470:
7449:
7418:
7394:
7360:Nobel laureates
7354:
7307:
7295:
7283:
7271:
7259:
7247:
7235:
7231:KenzĆ Matsumura
7223:
7211:
7199:
7187:
7175:
7163:
7151:
7147:Hisato Ichimada
7139:
7127:
7115:
7103:
7091:
7079:
7067:
7055:
7044:
7034:
7032:
7008:
6996:
6984:
6972:
6959:
6947:
6935:
6922:
6910:
6898:
6886:
6879:Prime Ministers
6873:
6859:
6853:Vice-presidents
6848:
6836:
6824:
6812:
6800:
6788:
6776:
6764:
6742:
6731:
6729:
6718:
6716:
6705:
6703:
6692:
6690:
6679:
6677:
6664:
6624:
6616:
6607:
6577:
6572:
6564:
6556:
6550:James Lighthill
6548:
6540:
6532:
6524:
6516:
6510:James D. Watson
6508:
6500:
6492:
6484:
6476:
6468:
6460:
6452:
6444:
6436:
6428:
6420:
6412:
6404:
6396:
6388:
6380:
6374:Dorothy Hodgkin
6372:
6364:
6356:
6348:
6340:
6332:
6324:
6316:
6308:
6300:
6292:
6284:
6276:
6268:
6260:
6252:
6246:Harold Jeffreys
6244:
6236:
6228:
6220:
6212:
6204:
6198:E. T. Whittaker
6196:
6188:
6180:
6172:
6164:
6158:
6128:
6123:
6061:
6053:
6050:(United States)
6034:
6031:(United States)
6019:(United States)
6003:
6000:(United States)
5994:(United States)
5978:
5959:
5935:
5932:(Great Britain)
5926:(United States)
5920:(United States)
5904:
5897:
5867:
5862:
5800:
5792:
5789:(United States)
5783:(United States)
5777:(United States)
5761:
5744:Pavel Cherenkov
5730:
5711:
5706:Boris Pasternak
5687:
5684:(Great Britain)
5668:
5661:
5631:
5626:
5610:
5594:
5585:David MacMillan
5582:
5577:Jennifer Doudna
5570:
5554:
5538:
5522:
5513:Fraser Stoddart
5506:
5497:Paul L. Modrich
5490:
5474:
5458:
5446:
5438:
5433:Ei-ichi Negishi
5425:Richard F. Heck
5422:
5406:
5393:Osamu Shimomura
5390:
5382:
5374:
5358:
5342:
5330:
5314:
5301:William Knowles
5298:
5287:
5278:Alan MacDiarmid
5271:
5263:
5251:
5235:
5230:Richard Smalley
5219:
5206:Paul J. Crutzen
5203:
5195:
5183:
5175:
5167:
5159:
5147:
5131:
5122:Jean-Marie Lehn
5115:
5099:
5087:
5079:
5071:
5063:
5051:
5035:
5023:
5015:
5007:
4999:
4988:
4983:Vladimir Prelog
4976:
4968:
4956:
4940:
4932:
4924:
4912:
4904:
4888:
4880:
4875:Robert Woodward
4872:
4867:Dorothy Hodgkin
4864:
4852:
4840:
4832:
4824:
4816:
4808:
4800:
4788:
4780:
4772:
4764:
4752:
4740:
4729:
4717:
4712:William Giauque
4709:
4701:
4696:Robert Robinson
4693:
4680:James B. Sumner
4677:
4669:
4661:
4653:
4647:
4646:
4640:
4639:
4633:
4632:
4627:Leopold RuĆŸiÄka
4623:Adolf Butenandt
4620:
4612:
4600:
4592:
4580:
4572:
4566:
4565:
4560:Irving Langmuir
4557:
4545:
4537:
4525:
4517:
4509:
4501:
4490:
4486:
4481:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4458:
4450:
4445:Frederick Soddy
4442:
4434:
4428:
4427:
4419:
4413:
4412:
4406:
4405:
4397:
4389:
4381:
4372:Victor Grignard
4369:
4361:
4353:
4348:Wilhelm Ostwald
4345:
4337:
4329:
4321:
4313:
4305:
4297:
4289:
4281:
4270:
4261:
4163:
4158:
4143:
4137:
4124:
4075:
4070:
4064:
4051:
4044:
4028:
4024:
4019:
4018:
4008:
4006:
4005:on 19 July 2023
3993:
3992:
3988:
3978:
3976:
3967:
3966:
3962:
3952:
3950:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3923:
3922:
3918:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3893:
3891:
3886:
3885:
3881:
3847:
3846:
3842:
3832:
3830:
3814:
3813:
3806:
3799:
3786:
3774:
3773:
3766:
3756:
3754:
3753:on 7 April 2011
3745:
3744:
3735:
3725:
3723:
3708:
3707:
3698:
3688:
3686:
3678:
3674:
3673:
3669:
3659:
3657:
3646:"2016 Awardees"
3644:
3643:
3639:
3626:
3625:
3621:
3604:
3603:
3599:
3589:
3587:
3578:
3577:
3573:
3561:
3557:
3556:
3552:
3542:
3540:
3535:
3534:
3530:
3520:
3518:
3517:on 5 March 2016
3506:
3505:
3501:
3491:
3489:
3484:
3483:
3479:
3463:10.1038/505027a
3432:
3431:
3427:
3420:
3416:
3409:
3405:
3395:
3393:
3388:
3387:
3380:
3372:
3365:
3358:
3354:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3333:
3332:
3325:
3318:
3314:
3307:
3303:
3292:
3288:
3242:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3226:
3216:
3214:
3204:
3203:
3196:
3186:
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3179:
3178:
3171:
3127:
3126:
3122:
3114:
3110:
3100:
3098:
3088:
3087:
3083:
3070:
3068:
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3057:
3056:
3052:
3033:
3029:
2986:
2981:
2980:
2976:
2959:
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2954:
2943:
2939:
2929:
2927:
2912:
2911:
2907:
2898:
2897:
2893:
2886:
2873:
2872:
2868:
2858:
2856:
2846:
2845:
2841:
2830:
2828:
2819:
2818:
2795:
2785:
2783:
2778:
2777:
2766:
2756:
2754:
2749:
2748:
2741:
2732:
2731:
2727:
2719:10.1038/503442a
2692:
2691:
2687:
2656:
2655:
2614:
2564:
2563:
2559:
2554:
2549:
2544:
2513:
2476:
2447:
2401:
2372:
2327:
2282:
2229:
2200:
2151:
2121:(5): 993â1006,
2112:
2061:
2016:
1987:
1954:
1905:
1876:
1843:
1804:
1767:
1728:
1689:
1650:
1611:
1572:
1533:
1494:
1455:
1416:
1377:
1332:
1293:
1254:
1215:
1211:
1191:
1087:
1079:Margaret Sanger
1075:
1070:
899:
882:
866:Jack W. Szostak
838:
800:autoradiography
792:electrophoresis
776:
770:
711:
691:disulfide bonds
671:electrophoresis
596:
579:
532:Newnham College
504:Gowland Hopkins
435:Gloucestershire
427:
413:in physics and
343:
339:
317:
304:
290:George Brownlee
264:
248:
210:
149:
104:Alma mater
99:
93:
89:
80:
74:
68:
66:
49:
28:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
8148:
8146:
8138:
8137:
8132:
8127:
8122:
8117:
8112:
8107:
8102:
8097:
8092:
8087:
8082:
8077:
8072:
8067:
8062:
8057:
8052:
8047:
8042:
8037:
8032:
8027:
8022:
8017:
8012:
8007:
8002:
7997:
7992:
7982:
7981:
7977:
7976:
7964:
7952:
7929:
7928:
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7925:
7915:
7901:
7898:
7897:
7895:
7894:
7889:
7884:
7878:
7876:
7872:
7871:
7869:
7868:
7863:
7857:
7855:
7851:
7850:
7848:
7847:
7839:
7831:
7819:
7811:
7803:
7795:
7787:
7779:
7771:
7763:
7758:Oscar Niemeyer
7755:
7747:
7742:Mark Van Doren
7739:
7731:
7723:
7721:(union leader)
7715:
7707:
7699:
7691:
7683:
7675:
7667:
7659:
7651:
7642:
7640:
7636:
7635:
7633:
7632:
7630:Hugh B. Hester
7626:
7624:
7618:
7617:
7615:
7614:
7612:Brock Chisholm
7609:
7600:
7598:
7592:
7591:
7589:
7588:
7582:
7580:
7574:
7573:
7571:
7570:
7565:
7560:
7555:
7550:
7545:
7543:Harlow Shapley
7540:
7535:
7530:
7524:
7522:
7516:
7515:
7512:
7511:
7509:
7508:
7499:
7497:
7493:
7492:
7490:
7489:
7487:Joseph Rotblat
7484:
7478:
7476:
7472:
7471:
7469:
7468:
7463:
7457:
7455:
7451:
7450:
7448:
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7442:
7437:
7432:
7426:
7424:
7420:
7419:
7417:
7416:
7411:
7402:
7400:
7396:
7395:
7393:
7392:
7387:
7382:
7377:
7375:Alfred Kastler
7371:
7369:
7362:
7356:
7355:
7353:
7352:
7347:
7342:
7337:
7335:George MacLeod
7332:
7327:
7321:
7319:
7313:
7312:
7309:
7308:
7306:
7305:
7293:
7281:
7269:
7257:
7245:
7233:
7221:
7209:
7197:
7185:
7173:
7161:
7149:
7137:
7125:
7113:
7101:
7089:
7077:
7065:
7052:
7050:
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7045:
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7029:
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7020:
7014:
7013:
7010:
7009:
7007:
7006:
6994:
6982:
6969:
6967:
6961:
6960:
6958:
6957:
6945:
6932:
6930:
6924:
6923:
6921:
6920:
6918:Tetsu Katayama
6908:
6896:
6894:Clement Attlee
6883:
6881:
6875:
6874:
6872:
6871:
6869:
6856:
6854:
6850:
6849:
6847:
6846:
6834:
6822:
6810:
6808:Julius Nyerere
6798:
6786:
6774:
6761:
6759:
6750:
6744:
6743:
6741:
6740:
6727:
6714:
6701:
6688:
6674:
6672:
6666:
6665:
6663:
6662:
6657:
6655:Margaret Isely
6652:
6647:
6642:
6636:
6635:
6632:
6631:
6621:
6618:
6617:
6608:
6606:
6605:
6598:
6591:
6583:
6574:
6573:
6571:
6570:
6566:Alan Battersby
6562:
6554:
6546:
6538:
6530:
6522:
6514:
6506:
6498:
6494:Sydney Brenner
6490:
6482:
6478:CĂ©sar Milstein
6474:
6470:Michael Atiyah
6466:
6458:
6454:Rudolf Peierls
6450:
6442:
6434:
6426:
6422:John Cornforth
6418:
6410:
6402:
6394:
6386:
6378:
6370:
6362:
6358:W. V. D. Hodge
6354:
6346:
6338:
6330:
6322:
6314:
6306:
6298:
6294:Lawrence Bragg
6290:
6282:
6278:Sydney Chapman
6274:
6266:
6258:
6250:
6242:
6234:
6226:
6218:
6210:
6202:
6194:
6190:Albert Kluyver
6186:
6178:
6169:
6166:
6165:
6159:
6157:
6156:
6149:
6142:
6134:
6125:
6124:
6122:
6121:
6116:
6111:
6106:
6101:
6096:
6091:
6086:
6081:
6076:
6071:
6066:
6058:
6055:
6054:
6052:
6051:
6048:Lawrence Klein
6044:
6042:
6036:
6035:
6033:
6032:
6026:
6020:
6013:
6011:
6005:
6004:
6002:
6001:
5995:
5988:
5986:
5980:
5979:
5977:
5976:
5969:
5967:
5961:
5960:
5958:
5957:
5954:CzesĆaw MiĆosz
5950:
5948:
5937:
5936:
5934:
5933:
5927:
5924:Walter Gilbert
5921:
5914:
5912:
5906:
5905:
5898:
5896:
5895:
5888:
5881:
5873:
5864:
5863:
5861:
5860:
5855:
5850:
5845:
5840:
5835:
5830:
5825:
5820:
5815:
5810:
5805:
5797:
5794:
5793:
5791:
5790:
5784:
5778:
5771:
5769:
5763:
5762:
5760:
5759:
5758:(Soviet Union)
5753:
5752:(Soviet Union)
5747:
5746:(Soviet Union)
5740:
5738:
5732:
5731:
5729:
5728:
5725:Dominique Pire
5721:
5719:
5713:
5712:
5710:
5709:
5708:(Soviet Union)
5702:
5700:
5689:
5688:
5686:
5685:
5678:
5676:
5670:
5669:
5662:
5660:
5659:
5652:
5645:
5637:
5628:
5627:
5625:
5624:
5608:
5592:
5580:
5568:
5552:
5545:Gregory Winter
5541:Frances Arnold
5536:
5520:
5504:
5488:
5472:
5465:Michael Levitt
5461:Martin Karplus
5456:
5444:
5436:
5420:
5404:
5401:Roger Y. Tsien
5397:Martin Chalfie
5388:
5380:
5372:
5356:
5340:
5328:
5312:
5295:
5293:
5289:
5288:
5286:
5285:
5274:Alan J. Heeger
5269:
5261:
5249:
5242:John E. Walker
5233:
5217:
5201:
5193:
5181:
5173:
5165:
5157:
5145:
5142:Hartmut Michel
5129:
5118:Donald J. Cram
5113:
5097:
5085:
5077:
5069:
5061:
5058:Roald Hoffmann
5049:
5042:Walter Gilbert
5033:
5021:
5013:
5010:Ilya Prigogine
5005:
4996:
4994:
4990:
4989:
4987:
4986:
4979:John Cornforth
4974:
4966:
4954:
4947:Stanford Moore
4938:
4930:
4922:
4910:
4902:
4895:Ronald Norrish
4886:
4878:
4870:
4862:
4850:
4838:
4830:
4822:
4814:
4806:
4803:Alexander Todd
4798:
4786:
4778:
4770:
4762:
4750:
4743:Edwin McMillan
4737:
4735:
4731:
4730:
4728:
4727:
4715:
4707:
4699:
4691:
4675:
4667:
4659:
4651:
4644:
4637:
4630:
4618:
4610:
4603:Norman Haworth
4598:
4590:
4578:
4570:
4563:
4555:
4543:
4535:
4523:
4515:
4507:
4498:
4496:
4492:
4491:
4484:
4482:
4480:
4479:
4471:
4464:
4456:
4448:
4440:
4437:Walther Nernst
4432:
4425:
4417:
4410:
4403:
4395:
4387:
4379:
4367:
4359:
4351:
4343:
4335:
4332:Eduard Buchner
4327:
4319:
4311:
4308:William Ramsay
4303:
4295:
4287:
4278:
4276:
4272:
4271:
4262:
4260:
4259:
4252:
4245:
4237:
4231:
4230:
4219:
4213:
4199:
4185:
4179:
4174:
4169:
4162:
4161:External links
4159:
4157:
4156:
4141:
4135:
4122:
4086:(2): 265â323.
4068:
4062:
4049:
4042:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4017:
4016:
3986:
3960:
3934:
3916:
3901:
3879:
3840:
3804:
3797:
3764:
3733:
3696:
3667:
3637:
3619:
3597:
3571:
3550:
3528:
3499:
3477:
3425:
3414:
3403:
3378:
3363:
3352:
3323:
3312:
3301:
3286:
3235:
3224:
3194:
3169:
3140:(2): 527â532.
3120:
3108:
3081:
3050:
3027:
2974:
2952:
2937:
2905:
2891:
2884:
2866:
2839:
2793:
2764:
2739:
2725:
2685:
2612:
2556:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2542:
2511:
2493:(4): 729â773,
2483:Petersen, G.B.
2474:
2456:(4): 683â717,
2445:
2399:
2381:(2): 161â178,
2370:
2336:(1): 107â110,
2325:
2280:
2227:
2209:(3): 441â448,
2198:
2149:
2110:
2074:(4): 275â278,
2059:
2014:
1996:(3): 379â412,
1985:
1967:(3): 337â353,
1952:
1903:
1885:(2): 373â398,
1874:
1856:(6): 835â840,
1841:
1813:(3): 456â469,
1802:
1765:
1737:(4): 556â565,
1726:
1698:(4): 541â556,
1687:
1659:(3): 509â518,
1648:
1620:(3): 366â374,
1609:
1581:(3): 353â366,
1570:
1542:(4): 481â490,
1531:
1503:(4): 463â481,
1492:
1464:(5): 563â574,
1453:
1425:(1): 126â128,
1414:
1386:(2): 287â294,
1375:
1330:
1302:(5): 507â515,
1291:
1263:(1): 119â125,
1252:
1212:
1210:
1207:
1190:
1187:
1172:Cambridgeshire
1162:Wellcome Trust
1151:Order of Merit
1106:Wellcome Trust
1086:
1083:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1060:(formerly the
1054:
1053:
1050:
1043:
1037:
1031:
1021:
1018:
1012:
1006:
1000:
994:
988:
982:
975:
969:
963:
957:
898:
895:
881:
878:
850:Gerald Edelman
837:
834:
822:Walter Gilbert
811:coding regions
796:polyacrylamide
774:DNA sequencing
772:Main article:
769:
768:Sequencing DNA
766:
710:
709:Sequencing RNA
707:
675:chromatography
595:
592:
578:
575:
516:Ernest Baldwin
512:Joseph Needham
426:
423:
400:Walter Gilbert
310:
309:
306:
305:
303:
302:
297:
292:
286:
284:
280:
279:
274:
268:
267:
256:
250:
249:
247:
246:
241:
235:
233:
229:
228:
223:
219:
218:
212:
211:
209:
208:
202:
196:
190:
184:
178:
172:
165:
163:
159:
158:
155:
151:
150:
148:
147:
142:
137:
126:
124:
123:Known for
120:
119:
105:
101:
100:
94:
92:(aged 95)
86:
82:
81:
75:
73:13 August 1918
64:
60:
59:
51:
50:
27:
24:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8147:
8136:
8133:
8131:
8128:
8126:
8123:
8121:
8118:
8116:
8113:
8111:
8108:
8106:
8103:
8101:
8098:
8096:
8093:
8091:
8088:
8086:
8083:
8081:
8078:
8076:
8073:
8071:
8068:
8066:
8063:
8061:
8058:
8056:
8053:
8051:
8048:
8046:
8043:
8041:
8038:
8036:
8033:
8031:
8028:
8026:
8023:
8021:
8018:
8016:
8013:
8011:
8008:
8006:
8003:
8001:
7998:
7996:
7993:
7991:
7988:
7987:
7985:
7975:
7970:
7965:
7963:
7958:
7953:
7951:
7941:
7937:
7924:
7916:
7914:
7912:
7909:
7906:
7903:
7902:
7899:
7893:
7890:
7888:
7885:
7883:
7880:
7879:
7877:
7873:
7867:
7864:
7862:
7859:
7858:
7856:
7852:
7843:
7840:
7835:
7832:
7828:
7823:
7822:Tamaki Uemura
7820:
7815:
7812:
7809:(businessman)
7807:
7804:
7801:(theosophist)
7799:
7796:
7791:
7788:
7783:
7782:Satish Gujral
7780:
7775:
7772:
7767:
7764:
7759:
7756:
7751:
7748:
7743:
7740:
7735:
7732:
7727:
7724:
7719:
7716:
7711:
7708:
7703:
7702:Henri Laugier
7700:
7695:
7692:
7687:
7684:
7679:
7676:
7671:
7668:
7663:
7660:
7655:
7652:
7647:
7644:
7643:
7641:
7639:Varied Fields
7637:
7631:
7628:
7627:
7625:
7623:
7619:
7613:
7610:
7605:
7602:
7601:
7599:
7597:
7596:Humanitarians
7593:
7587:
7584:
7583:
7581:
7579:
7575:
7569:
7566:
7564:
7561:
7559:
7556:
7554:
7551:
7549:
7546:
7544:
7541:
7539:
7536:
7534:
7533:Edward Condon
7531:
7529:
7526:
7525:
7523:
7521:
7517:
7504:
7503:Linus Pauling
7501:
7500:
7498:
7494:
7488:
7485:
7483:
7482:John Boyd Orr
7480:
7479:
7477:
7473:
7467:
7464:
7462:
7459:
7458:
7456:
7452:
7446:
7443:
7441:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7427:
7425:
7421:
7415:
7412:
7407:
7404:
7403:
7401:
7397:
7391:
7388:
7386:
7385:Hideki Yukawa
7383:
7381:
7378:
7376:
7373:
7372:
7370:
7366:
7363:
7361:
7357:
7351:
7350:Michael Scott
7348:
7346:
7343:
7341:
7338:
7336:
7333:
7331:
7328:
7326:
7323:
7322:
7320:
7318:
7314:
7304:
7299:
7294:
7292:
7287:
7282:
7280:
7275:
7270:
7268:
7263:
7258:
7256:
7251:
7246:
7244:
7239:
7234:
7232:
7227:
7222:
7220:
7215:
7210:
7208:
7203:
7198:
7196:
7191:
7186:
7184:
7179:
7174:
7172:
7171:IchirĆ Kiyose
7167:
7162:
7160:
7159:Henry Usborne
7155:
7150:
7148:
7143:
7138:
7136:
7131:
7126:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7112:
7107:
7102:
7100:
7095:
7090:
7088:
7083:
7078:
7076:
7071:
7066:
7064:
7059:
7054:
7053:
7051:
7047:
7041:
7031:
7030:
7028:
7026:International
7024:
7021:
7019:
7015:
7005:
7000:
6995:
6993:
6992:Setsuo Yamada
6988:
6983:
6981:
6976:
6971:
6970:
6968:
6966:
6962:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6944:
6943:Culbert Olson
6939:
6934:
6933:
6931:
6929:
6925:
6919:
6914:
6909:
6907:
6906:Milton Margai
6902:
6897:
6895:
6890:
6885:
6884:
6882:
6880:
6876:
6870:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6857:
6855:
6851:
6845:
6840:
6835:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6809:
6804:
6799:
6797:
6792:
6787:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6773:
6768:
6763:
6762:
6760:
6758:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6745:
6739:
6728:
6726:
6715:
6713:
6702:
6700:
6689:
6687:
6676:
6675:
6673:
6671:
6667:
6661:
6660:Georgia Lloyd
6658:
6656:
6653:
6651:
6648:
6646:
6643:
6641:
6638:
6637:
6634:
6633:
6629:
6628:
6623:
6622:
6619:
6614:
6611:
6604:
6599:
6597:
6592:
6590:
6585:
6584:
6581:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6551:
6547:
6543:
6539:
6535:
6534:Alan Cottrell
6531:
6527:
6523:
6519:
6515:
6511:
6507:
6503:
6502:George Porter
6499:
6495:
6491:
6487:
6483:
6479:
6475:
6471:
6467:
6463:
6459:
6455:
6451:
6447:
6443:
6439:
6435:
6431:
6427:
6423:
6419:
6415:
6411:
6407:
6403:
6399:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6375:
6371:
6367:
6366:Francis Crick
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6350:Andrew Huxley
6347:
6343:
6339:
6335:
6331:
6327:
6323:
6319:
6318:Peter Medawar
6315:
6311:
6307:
6303:
6299:
6295:
6291:
6287:
6283:
6279:
6275:
6271:
6267:
6263:
6259:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6243:
6239:
6235:
6231:
6227:
6223:
6222:Howard Florey
6219:
6215:
6211:
6207:
6206:Ronald Fisher
6203:
6199:
6195:
6191:
6187:
6183:
6179:
6175:
6171:
6170:
6167:
6162:
6155:
6150:
6148:
6143:
6141:
6136:
6135:
6132:
6120:
6117:
6115:
6112:
6110:
6107:
6105:
6102:
6100:
6097:
6095:
6092:
6090:
6087:
6085:
6082:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6072:
6070:
6067:
6064:
6060:
6059:
6056:
6049:
6046:
6045:
6043:
6041:
6037:
6030:
6027:
6024:
6021:
6018:
6015:
6014:
6012:
6010:
6006:
5999:
5996:
5993:
5990:
5989:
5987:
5985:
5981:
5974:
5971:
5970:
5968:
5966:
5962:
5955:
5952:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5942:
5938:
5931:
5928:
5925:
5922:
5919:
5916:
5915:
5913:
5911:
5907:
5902:
5894:
5889:
5887:
5882:
5880:
5875:
5874:
5871:
5859:
5856:
5854:
5851:
5849:
5846:
5844:
5841:
5839:
5836:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5826:
5824:
5821:
5819:
5816:
5814:
5811:
5809:
5806:
5803:
5799:
5798:
5795:
5788:
5785:
5782:
5779:
5776:
5773:
5772:
5770:
5768:
5764:
5757:
5754:
5751:
5748:
5745:
5742:
5741:
5739:
5737:
5733:
5726:
5723:
5722:
5720:
5718:
5714:
5707:
5704:
5703:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5690:
5683:
5680:
5679:
5677:
5675:
5671:
5666:
5658:
5653:
5651:
5646:
5644:
5639:
5638:
5635:
5622:
5618:
5617:Louis E. Brus
5614:
5609:
5606:
5602:
5598:
5593:
5590:
5589:Benjamin List
5586:
5581:
5578:
5574:
5569:
5566:
5565:Akira Yoshino
5562:
5558:
5553:
5550:
5546:
5542:
5537:
5534:
5530:
5529:Joachim Frank
5526:
5521:
5518:
5514:
5510:
5505:
5502:
5498:
5494:
5493:Tomas Lindahl
5489:
5486:
5482:
5478:
5473:
5470:
5469:Arieh Warshel
5466:
5462:
5457:
5454:
5453:Brian Kobilka
5450:
5445:
5442:
5441:Dan Shechtman
5437:
5434:
5430:
5426:
5421:
5418:
5417:Ada E. Yonath
5414:
5410:
5405:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5389:
5386:
5381:
5378:
5373:
5370:
5366:
5362:
5357:
5354:
5350:
5349:Avram Hershko
5346:
5341:
5338:
5334:
5329:
5326:
5325:Kurt WĂŒthrich
5322:
5321:Koichi Tanaka
5318:
5313:
5310:
5306:
5302:
5297:
5296:
5294:
5290:
5283:
5279:
5275:
5270:
5267:
5262:
5259:
5255:
5250:
5247:
5243:
5239:
5238:Paul D. Boyer
5234:
5231:
5227:
5223:
5218:
5215:
5211:
5207:
5202:
5199:
5194:
5191:
5190:Michael Smith
5187:
5182:
5179:
5174:
5171:
5166:
5163:
5158:
5155:
5151:
5150:Sidney Altman
5146:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5130:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5114:
5111:
5107:
5103:
5098:
5095:
5091:
5086:
5083:
5078:
5075:
5070:
5067:
5062:
5059:
5055:
5054:Kenichi Fukui
5050:
5047:
5043:
5039:
5034:
5031:
5027:
5022:
5019:
5014:
5011:
5006:
5003:
4998:
4997:
4995:
4991:
4984:
4980:
4975:
4972:
4967:
4964:
4960:
4955:
4952:
4951:William Stein
4948:
4944:
4939:
4936:
4931:
4928:
4923:
4920:
4916:
4911:
4908:
4903:
4900:
4899:George Porter
4896:
4892:
4891:Manfred Eigen
4887:
4884:
4879:
4876:
4871:
4868:
4863:
4860:
4856:
4851:
4848:
4844:
4839:
4836:
4835:Melvin Calvin
4831:
4828:
4827:Willard Libby
4823:
4820:
4815:
4812:
4807:
4804:
4799:
4796:
4792:
4787:
4784:
4779:
4776:
4775:Linus Pauling
4771:
4768:
4763:
4760:
4759:Richard Synge
4756:
4755:Archer Martin
4751:
4748:
4744:
4739:
4738:
4736:
4732:
4725:
4721:
4716:
4713:
4708:
4705:
4704:Arne Tiselius
4700:
4697:
4692:
4689:
4685:
4684:John Northrop
4681:
4676:
4673:
4668:
4665:
4660:
4657:
4652:
4645:
4638:
4631:
4628:
4624:
4619:
4616:
4611:
4608:
4604:
4599:
4596:
4591:
4588:
4584:
4579:
4576:
4571:
4564:
4561:
4556:
4553:
4549:
4544:
4541:
4536:
4533:
4529:
4528:Arthur Harden
4524:
4521:
4520:Adolf Windaus
4516:
4513:
4508:
4505:
4500:
4499:
4497:
4493:
4477:
4472:
4465:
4462:
4457:
4454:
4453:Francis Aston
4449:
4446:
4441:
4438:
4433:
4426:
4423:
4418:
4411:
4404:
4401:
4396:
4393:
4388:
4385:
4384:Alfred Werner
4380:
4377:
4376:Paul Sabatier
4373:
4368:
4365:
4360:
4357:
4352:
4349:
4344:
4341:
4336:
4333:
4328:
4325:
4324:Henri Moissan
4320:
4317:
4312:
4309:
4304:
4301:
4296:
4293:
4288:
4285:
4280:
4279:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4258:
4253:
4251:
4246:
4244:
4239:
4238:
4235:
4228:
4223:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4193:
4189:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4178:
4175:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4164:
4160:
4154:
4153:Lewis Wolpert
4148:
4147:
4142:
4138:
4132:
4128:
4123:
4119:
4115:
4111:
4107:
4102:
4097:
4093:
4089:
4085:
4081:
4074:
4069:
4065:
4059:
4055:
4050:
4045:
4039:
4035:
4031:
4027:
4026:
4021:
4004:
4000:
3996:
3990:
3987:
3974:
3970:
3964:
3961:
3948:
3944:
3938:
3935:
3930:
3926:
3920:
3917:
3912:
3905:
3902:
3889:
3883:
3880:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3860:(5840): 879.
3859:
3855:
3851:
3844:
3841:
3828:
3824:
3823:
3818:
3811:
3809:
3805:
3800:
3794:
3790:
3782:
3778:
3771:
3769:
3765:
3752:
3748:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3734:
3721:
3717:
3716:The Telegraph
3712:
3705:
3703:
3701:
3697:
3684:
3677:
3671:
3668:
3656:on 6 May 2017
3655:
3651:
3647:
3641:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3623:
3620:
3615:
3611:
3607:
3601:
3598:
3585:
3581:
3575:
3572:
3568:. March 2018.
3567:
3560:
3554:
3551:
3538:
3532:
3529:
3516:
3512:
3511:
3503:
3500:
3487:
3481:
3478:
3473:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3447:
3443:
3439:
3435:
3429:
3426:
3423:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3407:
3404:
3391:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3375:
3370:
3368:
3364:
3361:
3356:
3353:
3337:
3330:
3328:
3324:
3321:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3305:
3302:
3299:
3295:
3290:
3287:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3262:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3239:
3236:
3233:
3228:
3225:
3212:
3208:
3205:Marks, Lara.
3201:
3199:
3195:
3182:
3176:
3174:
3170:
3165:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3131:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3112:
3109:
3096:
3092:
3089:Marks, Lara.
3085:
3082:
3079:
3063:
3062:
3054:
3051:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3028:
3022:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2985:
2978:
2975:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2956:
2953:
2950:
2946:
2941:
2938:
2925:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2909:
2906:
2901:
2895:
2892:
2887:
2881:
2877:
2870:
2867:
2854:
2850:
2847:Marks, Lara.
2843:
2840:
2826:
2822:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2806:
2804:
2802:
2800:
2798:
2794:
2781:
2775:
2773:
2771:
2769:
2765:
2752:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2729:
2726:
2720:
2715:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2686:
2680:
2675:
2671:
2667:
2663:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2649:
2647:
2645:
2643:
2641:
2639:
2637:
2635:
2633:
2631:
2629:
2627:
2625:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2617:
2613:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2572:
2568:
2565:Allen, A.K.;
2561:
2558:
2551:
2546:
2539:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2455:
2451:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2376:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2281:
2278:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2199:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2167:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2150:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2111:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2081:
2077:
2073:
2069:
2065:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1875:
1871:
1867:
1863:
1859:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1829:
1824:
1820:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1688:
1684:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1658:
1654:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1597:
1592:
1588:
1584:
1580:
1576:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1475:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1336:
1331:
1327:
1323:
1318:
1313:
1309:
1305:
1301:
1297:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1258:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1213:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1189:Global policy
1188:
1186:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1169:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1143:
1140:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1104:In 1992, the
1102:
1100:
1091:
1084:
1082:
1080:
1072:
1068:Personal life
1067:
1065:
1063:
1062:Sanger Centre
1059:
1051:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1029:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1001:
998:
995:
992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
976:
973:
970:
967:
964:
961:
958:
956:
952:
951:
950:
948:
944:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
923:Linus Pauling
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
896:
894:
892:
886:
880:Sanger's rule
877:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
842:Rodney Porter
835:
833:
831:
827:
823:
819:
818:Sanger method
814:
812:
808:
805:
804:bacteriophage
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
781:
775:
767:
765:
763:
762:
757:
753:
752:
747:
743:
739:
738:Robert Holley
735:
731:
726:
722:
720:
716:
708:
706:
704:
703:Francis Crick
700:
696:
692:
688:
682:
680:
676:
672:
668:
663:
662:poisonous gas
659:
655:
651:
647:
642:
640:
635:
632:
627:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
593:
589:shown in red.
588:
583:
576:
574:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
529:
525:
519:
517:
513:
509:
508:Malcolm Dixon
505:
500:
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324:
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316:
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300:Rodney Porter
298:
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145:Sanger Centre
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35:
31:
22:
19:
7798:Sophia Wadia
7734:Lloyd Morain
7678:Erich Kahler
7405:
7380:C. F. Powell
7340:John Collins
7255:Lewis Silkin
7135:Gerhard Jahn
7075:Akira Kazami
7004:Shinzo Hamai
6725:Sierra Leone
6650:Philip Isely
6625:
6526:Frank Fenner
6406:Derek Barton
6381:
6334:Norman Pirie
6302:Bernard Katz
6286:Alan Hodgkin
6174:David Keilin
6093:
6023:Jean Dausset
5992:James Cronin
5929:
5832:
5681:
5549:George Smith
5429:Akira Suzuki
5385:Gerhard Ertl
5369:Yves Chauvin
5317:John B. Fenn
5305:Ryoji Noyori
5292:2001âpresent
5266:Ahmed Zewail
5226:Harold Kroto
5210:Mario Molina
5138:Robert Huber
5110:John Polanyi
5094:Jerome Karle
5045:
5030:Georg Wittig
4915:Derek Barton
4907:Lars Onsager
4859:Giulio Natta
4855:Karl Ziegler
4847:John Kendrew
4810:
4615:Richard Kuhn
4540:Hans Fischer
4356:Otto Wallach
4292:Emil Fischer
4145:
4126:
4083:
4079:
4053:
4033:
4022:Bibliography
4007:. Retrieved
4003:the original
3998:
3989:
3977:. Retrieved
3972:
3963:
3951:. Retrieved
3946:
3937:
3928:
3919:
3910:
3904:
3892:. Retrieved
3882:
3857:
3853:
3843:
3831:. Retrieved
3827:the original
3820:
3788:
3780:
3776:
3755:. Retrieved
3751:the original
3724:. Retrieved
3715:
3687:. Retrieved
3682:
3670:
3658:. Retrieved
3654:the original
3649:
3640:
3631:
3622:
3609:
3600:
3588:. Retrieved
3584:the original
3574:
3565:
3553:
3541:. Retrieved
3531:
3519:. Retrieved
3515:the original
3509:
3502:
3490:. Retrieved
3480:
3448:(7481): 27.
3445:
3441:
3434:Walker, John
3428:
3417:
3406:
3394:. Retrieved
3355:
3345:15 September
3343:. Retrieved
3315:
3304:
3289:
3248:
3244:
3238:
3227:
3215:. Retrieved
3210:
3185:. Retrieved
3137:
3133:
3123:
3111:
3099:. Retrieved
3094:
3084:
3069:, retrieved
3060:
3053:
3030:
2994:
2990:
2977:
2964:
2955:
2940:
2928:. Retrieved
2924:the original
2918:
2913:
2908:
2894:
2875:
2869:
2857:. Retrieved
2852:
2842:
2829:. Retrieved
2825:the original
2784:. Retrieved
2755:. Retrieved
2728:
2701:
2697:
2688:
2669:
2665:
2574:
2570:
2560:
2519:
2515:
2490:
2486:
2453:
2449:
2408:
2404:
2378:
2374:
2333:
2330:FEBS Letters
2329:
2288:
2284:
2235:
2231:
2206:
2202:
2157:
2153:
2118:
2114:
2071:
2068:FEBS Letters
2067:
2063:
2022:
2018:
1993:
1989:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1882:
1878:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1810:
1806:
1773:
1769:
1734:
1730:
1695:
1691:
1656:
1652:
1617:
1613:
1578:
1574:
1539:
1535:
1500:
1496:
1461:
1457:
1422:
1418:
1383:
1379:
1338:
1334:
1299:
1295:
1260:
1256:
1221:
1217:
1192:
1176:
1165:
1155:
1144:
1136:
1134:
1122:John Sulston
1103:
1096:
1076:
1061:
1055:
1042:Award â 1994
1015:Copley Medal
993:â 1958, 1980
962:(CBE) â 1963
935:John Bardeen
906:
900:
888:
884:
839:
830:human genome
815:
788:Alan Coulson
783:
777:
759:
749:
727:
723:
712:
683:
643:
628:
597:
548:
520:
492:
454:Downs School
447:
428:
411:John Bardeen
408:
389:
379:sequence of
374:
314:
313:
258:
232:Institutions
226:Biochemistry
215:
199:Copley Medal
171:(1958, 1980)
90:(2013-11-19)
18:
7995:2013 deaths
7990:1918 births
7814:Stuart Hall
7769:(economist)
7766:Ćuchi HyĆei
7761:(architect)
7694:Gerard Piel
7563:René Dumont
7325:Abbé Pierre
7267:N. G. Ranga
7207:John Foster
7018:Politicians
6955:Hiroo Ćhara
6772:Edgar Faure
6615:signatories
6542:Hugh Huxley
6486:Abdus Salam
6270:Paul Fildes
6163:(1951â2000)
5975:(Argentina)
5901:Nobel Prize
5665:Nobel Prize
5517:Ben Feringa
5501:Aziz Sancar
5481:Stefan Hell
5477:Eric Betzig
5254:Walter Kohn
5222:Robert Curl
5198:George Olah
5186:Kary Mullis
5162:Elias Corey
5154:Thomas Cech
5106:Yuan T. Lee
5074:Henry Taube
4607:Paul Karrer
4595:Peter Debye
4575:Harold Urey
4461:Fritz Pregl
4422:Fritz Haber
4364:Marie Curie
4182:Fred Sanger
3894:20 November
3726:20 November
3543:1 September
3492:1 September
3217:1 September
3101:1 September
3078:Sanger 1959
2859:1 September
2757:1 September
2672:: 437â466.
2577:: 369â382.
1003:Royal Medal
974:(OM) â 1986
968:(CH) â 1981
929:, 1954 and
917:, 1903 and
911:Marie Curie
181:Royal Medal
7984:Categories
7845:(pacifist)
7834:Tano JĆdai
7829:executive)
7793:(feminist)
7737:(humanist)
7689:(humanist)
7673:(educator)
7649:(inventor)
7548:Jean Orcel
7520:Scientists
7454:Literature
6980:E.C. Quaye
6757:Presidents
6686:Costa Rica
6645:Thane Read
6462:Robin Hill
6446:Aaron Klug
6398:Max Perutz
6254:Hans Krebs
6182:Paul Dirac
5941:Literature
5750:Ilya Frank
5693:Literature
5353:Irwin Rose
5333:Peter Agre
5258:John Pople
5066:Aaron Klug
4971:Paul Flory
4919:Odd Hassel
4843:Max Perutz
4724:Kurt Alder
4720:Otto Diels
4548:Carl Bosch
3833:18 October
3757:12 October
3071:18 October
2930:5 December
2567:Muir, H.M.
2547:References
2479:Hill, D.F.
1147:knighthood
1085:Later life
891:Oja's rule
874:telomerase
854:antibodies
748:tRNA from
631:amino acid
484:Mein Kampf
377:amino acid
366:biochemist
69:1918-08-13
7950:Biography
7753:(teacher)
7726:Kay Boyle
7718:Kaoru Ćta
7705:(scholar)
7681:(scholar)
7665:(teacher)
7414:Otto Hahn
7399:Chemistry
6928:Governors
6670:Countries
5918:Paul Berg
5910:Chemistry
5903:laureates
5756:Igor Tamm
5727:(Belgium)
5674:Chemistry
5667:laureates
5038:Paul Berg
4993:1976â2000
4734:1951â1975
4664:Otto Hahn
4495:1926â1950
4275:1901â1925
4264:Laureates
3911:The Times
3874:220092058
3822:The Times
3590:11 August
3396:8 October
3187:8 October
2786:10 August
2552:Citations
1183:Cambridge
947:Chemistry
933:, 1962),
927:Chemistry
921:, 1911),
919:Chemistry
870:telomeres
826:Paul Berg
687:sequences
679:ninhydrin
488:Sieg Heil
443:Quakerism
404:Paul Berg
98:, England
96:Cambridge
7923:Category
7904:Source:
7785:(artist)
7729:(writer)
7622:Veterans
7496:Multiple
7390:Max Born
7049:National
6738:Tanzania
6699:Pakistan
6025:(France)
4110:20665230
4032:(2014).
3720:Archived
3472:24380948
3436:(2014).
3281:40989800
3273:14263761
3164:12399368
3134:Genetics
3021:85124201
2916:(1944).
2831:29 April
2660:(2015).
2607:72943723
2599:15124648
2522:: 1â28,
2106:34155866
2098:11947028
1870:14187409
1837:13771000
1798:13658959
1761:13249948
1722:13249947
1683:14363129
1644:13032079
1605:13032078
1566:14886311
1527:14886310
1488:15396627
1449:16748471
1410:16748281
1363:20344639
1326:16747948
1287:16747737
1248:16747571
953:Elected
639:proteins
634:sequence
612:pharmacy
490:salute.
431:Rendcomb
77:Rendcomb
7974:Viruses
7962:Biology
7936:Portals
7854:Related
7409:(twice)
7368:Physics
6712:Senegal
5984:Physics
5736:Physics
4266:of the
4210:YouTube
4190:at the
4118:1134280
4009:15 July
3854:Science
3689:14 June
3660:14 June
3450:Bibcode
3253:Bibcode
3245:Science
3155:1462286
2999:Bibcode
2706:Bibcode
2538:2460023
2507:6221115
2470:7120390
2441:4355527
2433:7219534
2413:Bibcode
2395:6260957
2366:1620755
2338:Bibcode
2321:4206886
2293:Bibcode
2240:Bibcode
2223:1100841
2194:4577794
2162:Bibcode
2145:4566195
2136:1173988
2076:Bibcode
2064:E. coli
2055:4152602
2047:5811898
2027:Bibcode
2010:4938553
1981:4291728
1948:4270186
1940:4862513
1920:Bibcode
1899:5325727
1828:1205670
1778:Bibcode
1770:Science
1752:1216152
1713:1216151
1674:1216278
1635:1198158
1596:1198157
1557:1197536
1518:1197535
1479:1275055
1440:1274818
1401:1258669
1371:4127677
1343:Bibcode
1317:1258275
1278:1258037
1239:1266851
1167:Science
1130:genomic
1118:Hinxton
945:(twice
939:Physics
937:(twice
915:Physics
784:E. coli
746:alanine
667:trypsin
608:insulin
458:Malvern
381:insulin
372:twice.
135:insulin
6965:Mayors
6735:
6722:
6709:
6696:
6683:
6568:(2000)
6560:(1999)
6552:(1998)
6544:(1997)
6536:(1996)
6528:(1995)
6520:(1994)
6512:(1993)
6504:(1992)
6496:(1991)
6488:(1990)
6480:(1989)
6472:(1988)
6464:(1987)
6456:(1986)
6448:(1985)
6440:(1984)
6432:(1983)
6424:(1982)
6416:(1981)
6408:(1980)
6400:(1979)
6392:(1978)
6384:(1977)
6376:(1976)
6368:(1975)
6360:(1974)
6352:(1973)
6344:(1972)
6336:(1971)
6328:(1970)
6320:(1969)
6312:(1968)
6304:(1967)
6296:(1966)
6288:(1965)
6280:(1964)
6272:(1963)
6264:(1962)
6256:(1961)
6248:(1960)
6240:(1959)
6232:(1958)
6224:(1957)
6216:(1956)
6208:(1955)
6200:(1954)
6192:(1953)
6184:(1952)
6176:(1951)
5611:2023:
5595:2022:
5583:2021:
5571:2020:
5555:2019:
5539:2018:
5523:2017:
5507:2016:
5491:2015:
5475:2014:
5459:2013:
5447:2012:
5439:2011:
5423:2010:
5407:2009:
5391:2008:
5383:2007:
5375:2006:
5359:2005:
5343:2004:
5331:2003:
5315:2002:
5299:2001:
5272:2000:
5264:1999:
5252:1998:
5236:1997:
5220:1996:
5204:1995:
5196:1994:
5184:1993:
5176:1992:
5168:1991:
5160:1990:
5148:1989:
5132:1988:
5116:1987:
5100:1986:
5088:1985:
5080:1984:
5072:1983:
5064:1982:
5052:1981:
5036:1980:
5024:1979:
5016:1978:
5008:1977:
5000:1976:
4977:1975:
4969:1974:
4957:1973:
4941:1972:
4933:1971:
4925:1970:
4913:1969:
4905:1968:
4889:1967:
4881:1966:
4873:1965:
4865:1964:
4853:1963:
4841:1962:
4833:1961:
4825:1960:
4817:1959:
4809:1958:
4801:1957:
4789:1956:
4781:1955:
4773:1954:
4765:1953:
4753:1952:
4741:1951:
4718:1950:
4710:1949:
4702:1948:
4694:1947:
4678:1946:
4670:1945:
4662:1944:
4654:1943:
4621:1939:
4613:1938:
4601:1937:
4593:1936:
4581:1935:
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4558:1932:
4546:1931:
4538:1930:
4526:1929:
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4502:1926:
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4443:1921:
4435:1920:
4420:1918:
4398:1915:
4390:1914:
4382:1913:
4370:1912:
4362:1911:
4354:1910:
4346:1909:
4338:1908:
4330:1907:
4322:1906:
4314:1905:
4306:1904:
4298:1903:
4290:1902:
4282:1901:
4133:
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4108:
4060:
4040:
3979:3 July
3953:1 July
3872:
3795:
3633:Court.
3521:4 July
3470:
3442:Nature
3279:
3271:
3162:
3152:
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2882:
2698:Nature
2605:
2597:
2591:770373
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2405:Nature
2393:
2364:
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2285:Nature
2272:271968
2270:
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2260:
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2185:433459
2182:
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2019:Nature
2008:
1979:
1946:
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1912:Nature
1897:
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1361:
1335:Nature
1324:
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1285:
1275:
1246:
1236:
1174:home.
1049:â 2000
1036:â 1979
1030:â 1979
1017:â 1977
1011:â 1971
1005:â 1969
999:â 1951
987:â 1976
981:â 1982
614:chain
563:lysine
499:Tripos
466:Dalton
265:(1943)
263:
254:Thesis
222:Fields
207:(1979)
201:(1977)
195:(1976)
189:(1971)
183:(1969)
177:(1967)
162:Awards
154:Spouse
7875:Other
7475:Peace
6094:1980
5965:Peace
5899:1980
5833:1958
5717:Peace
5663:1958
4206:Video
4114:S2CID
4076:(PDF)
3870:S2CID
3679:(PDF)
3562:(PDF)
3339:(PDF)
3277:S2CID
3065:(PDF)
3017:S2CID
2987:(PDF)
2603:S2CID
2587:JSTOR
2437:S2CID
2362:S2CID
2317:S2CID
2102:S2CID
2051:S2CID
1944:S2CID
1367:S2CID
1138:Times
1116:near
931:Peace
848:with
807:ÏX174
794:on a
782:from
758:from
740:from
616:Boots
333:
329:
325:
321:
44:
40:
36:
32:
7827:YWCA
6613:call
6119:1985
6114:1984
6109:1983
6104:1982
6099:1981
6089:1979
6084:1978
6079:1977
6074:1976
6069:1975
5945:1980
5858:1963
5853:1962
5848:1961
5843:1960
5838:1959
5828:1957
5823:1956
5818:1955
5813:1954
5808:1953
5697:1958
4648:1942
4641:1941
4634:1940
4567:1933
4468:1924
4429:1919
4414:1917
4407:1916
4131:ISBN
4106:PMID
4058:ISBN
4038:ISBN
4011:2023
3981:2023
3955:2023
3896:2013
3835:2010
3793:ISBN
3759:2010
3728:2013
3691:2017
3662:2017
3592:2020
3545:2015
3523:2015
3494:2015
3468:PMID
3398:2010
3347:2019
3269:PMID
3219:2015
3189:2010
3160:PMID
3103:2015
3073:2010
2932:2013
2880:ISBN
2861:2015
2833:2013
2788:2020
2759:2015
2595:PMID
2534:PMID
2503:PMID
2466:PMID
2429:PMID
2391:PMID
2354:PMID
2309:PMID
2268:PMID
2219:PMID
2190:PMID
2141:PMID
2094:PMID
2043:PMID
2006:PMID
1977:PMID
1936:PMID
1895:PMID
1866:PMID
1833:PMID
1794:PMID
1757:PMID
1718:PMID
1679:PMID
1640:PMID
1601:PMID
1562:PMID
1523:PMID
1484:PMID
1445:PMID
1406:PMID
1359:PMID
1322:PMID
1283:PMID
1244:PMID
1056:The
864:and
824:and
734:tRNA
648:and
569:and
514:and
402:and
85:Died
63:Born
4208:on
4096:hdl
4088:doi
3862:doi
3858:317
3458:doi
3446:505
3261:doi
3249:147
3150:PMC
3142:doi
3138:162
3007:doi
2995:131
2714:doi
2702:503
2674:doi
2579:doi
2524:doi
2495:doi
2491:162
2458:doi
2454:156
2421:doi
2409:290
2383:doi
2379:143
2346:doi
2301:doi
2289:265
2258:PMC
2248:doi
2211:doi
2180:PMC
2170:doi
2131:PMC
2123:doi
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2084:doi
2066:",
2035:doi
2023:223
1998:doi
1969:doi
1959:",
1928:doi
1916:215
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1887:doi
1858:doi
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1815:doi
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1747:PMC
1739:doi
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1700:doi
1669:PMC
1661:doi
1630:PMC
1622:doi
1591:PMC
1583:doi
1552:PMC
1544:doi
1513:PMC
1505:doi
1474:PMC
1466:doi
1435:PMC
1427:doi
1396:PMC
1388:doi
1351:doi
1339:160
1312:PMC
1304:doi
1273:PMC
1265:doi
1234:PMC
1226:doi
1181:in
1026:of
701:of
551:PhD
335:FAA
331:FRS
327:CBE
133:of
116:PhD
46:FAA
42:FRS
38:CBE
7986::
7910:,
7907:,
5619:/
5615:/
5603:/
5599:/
5587:/
5575:/
5563:/
5559:/
5547:/
5543:/
5531:/
5527:/
5515:/
5511:/
5499:/
5495:/
5483:/
5479:/
5467:/
5463:/
5451:/
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