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496:(ILLUMA-T), on the International Space Station. The terminal will receive high-resolution science data from experiments and instruments on board the space station and then transfer this data to LCRD, which will then transmit it to a ground station. After the data arrives on Earth, it will be delivered to mission operation centers and mission scientists. The ILLUMA-T payload was sent to the ISS in late 2023 on
551:
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205:, the intermediate type for distances of up to 4 km (2.5 mi) at daylight and of up to 8 km (5.0 mi) at night, using red filters for undetected communications. Optical telephone communications were tested at the end of the war, but not introduced at troop level. In addition, special blinkgeräts were used for communication with airplanes, balloons, and tanks, with varying success.
3681:
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624:. The high sensitivities required of the detector to cover such distances made the internal capacitance of the photodiode used a dominant factor in the high-impedance amplifier which followed it, thus naturally forming a low-pass filter with a cut-off frequency in the 4 kHz range. Lasers can reach very high data rates which are comparable to fiber communications.
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The reliability of FSO units has always been a problem for commercial telecommunications. Consistently, studies find too many dropped packets and signal errors over small ranges (400 to 500 metres (1,300 to 1,600 ft)). This is from both independent studies, such as in the Czech
Republic, as well
345:
received approximately $ 575 million in funding from investors such as
Softbank, Mobius Venture Capital and Oakhill Venture Partners. AT&T and Lucent backed this attempt. The work ultimately failed, and the company was purchased in 2004 for $ 52 million (excluding warrants and options) by Falls
287:
Military based studies consistently produce longer estimates for reliability, projecting the maximum range for terrestrial links is of the order of 2 to 3 km (1.2 to 1.9 mi). All studies agree the stability and quality of the link is highly dependent on atmospheric factors such as rain,
441:
spacecraft. It was able to communicate across a distance of 24 million km (15 million mi), as the craft neared Earth on a fly-by in May, 2005. The previous record had been set with a one-way detection of laser light from Earth by the
Galileo probe, of 6 million km
321:
The main reason terrestrial communications have been limited to non-commercial telecommunications functions is fog. Fog often prevents FSO laser links over 500 metres (1,600 ft) from achieving a year-round availability sufficient for commercial services. Several entities are continually
1338:
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and are safe to the human eye (1M class). Additionally, some free-space optics, such as EC SYSTEM, ensure higher connection reliability in bad weather conditions by constantly monitoring link quality to regulate laser diode transmission power with built-in automatic gain control.
592:
RF-based systems from improved isolation between systems, the size and cost of receivers/transmitters, RF licensing laws and by combining space lighting and communication into the same system. In
January 2009, a task force for visible light communication was formed by the
333:
Other non-government groups are fielding tests to evaluate different technologies that some claim have the ability to address key FSO adoption challenges. As of
October 2014, none have fielded a working system that addresses the most common atmospheric events.
1882:"Visible Light Communication (VLC)/Li-Fi Technology & Free Space Optics (FSO) Market (2013-2018) - By Component (LED, Image Sensor, Opto-couplers), Application (Indoor Networking, Underwater Communication, Location Based Service, ITS) & Geography"
346:
Church, Va.-based YDI, effective June 22, 2004, and used the name
Terabeam for the new entity. On September 4, 2007, Terabeam (then headquartered in San Jose, California) announced it would change its name to Proxim Wireless Corporation, and change its
369:
Wireless
Excellence developed and launched CableFree UNITY solutions that combine FSO with millimeter wave and radio technologies to extend distance, capacity and availability, with a goal of making FSO a more useful and practical
337:
FSO research from 1998 to 2006 in the private sector totaled $ 407.1 million, divided primarily among four start-up companies. All four failed to deliver products that would meet telecommunications quality and distance standards:
353:
AirFiber received $ 96.1 million in funding, and never solved the weather issue. They sold out to MRV communications in 2003, and MRV sold their FSO units until 2012 when the end-of-life was abruptly announced for the
Terescope
615:
operators have achieved significantly farther distances using incoherent sources of light from high-intensity LEDs. One reported 278 km (173 mi) in 2007. However, physical limitations of the equipment used limited
374:
One private company published a paper on
November 20, 2014, claiming they had achieved commercial reliability (99.999% availability) in extreme fog. There is no indication this product is currently commercially available.
1417:"Department of Defense, Fiscal Year (FY) 2014 President's Budget Submission, April 2013, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, Justification Book Volume 1, Research, Development, Test & Evaluation, Defense-Wide"
650:, also demonstrated high speed point-to-point connectivity using any off-the-shelf LED light bulb. In previous work, high bandwidth specialist LEDs have been used to achieve the high data rates. The new system, the
452:
In the early morning hours of Oct. 18, 2013, NASA's Lunar Laser
Communication Demonstration (LLCD) transmitted data from lunar orbit to Earth at a rate of 622 megabits per second (Mbit/s). LLCD was flown aboard the
886:(BER). To overcome these issues, vendors found some solutions, like multi-beam or multi-path architectures, which use more than one sender and more than one receiver. Some state-of-the-art devices also have larger
1339:"TMEX USA, Inc. Announces Entry Into Definitive Merger Agreement With Solargen Energy, Inc., 2,001-to-1 Reverse Stock Split, Amend Its Articles of Incorporation, Change Its Name and Change Its Trading Symbol"
1528:
An end-of-life notice was posted suddenly and briefly on the MRV Terescope product page in 2011. All references to the Terescope have been completely removed from MRV's official page as of October 27, 2014.
464:
instrument successfully uploaded 175 megabytes in 3.5 seconds and downloaded 200–300 MB in 20 s. Their system was also able to re-acquire tracking after the signal was lost due to cloud cover.
232:
in the 1960s revolutionized free-space optics. Military organizations were particularly interested and boosted their development. However, the technology lost market momentum when the installation of
445:
In January 2013, NASA used lasers to beam an image of the Mona Lisa to the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter roughly 390,000 km (240,000 mi) away. To compensate for atmospheric interference,
389:
The massive advantages of laser communication in space have multiple space agencies racing to develop a stable space communication platform, with many significant demonstrations and achievements.
1208:
507:
On April 28, 2023, NASA and its partners achieved 200 gigabit per second (Gbps) throughput on a space-to-ground optical link between a satellite in orbit and Earth. This was achieved by the
1129:
1396:"Department of DefenseFiscal Year (FY) 2012 Budget Estimates: February 2011: Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency: Research, Development, Test & Evaluation, Defense-Wide"
43:
An 8-beam free-space optics laser link, rated for 1 Gbit/s. The receptor is the large lens in the middle, the transmitters the smaller ones. At the top right corner is a
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717:
Especially powerful in combination with auto aiming systems, to power moving cars or a laptop while moving. or to use auto-aiming nodes to create a network with other nodes.
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claimed to have achieved over 500 Mbit/s in 2010. Research published in 2009, used a similar system for traffic control of automated vehicles with LED traffic lights.
181:
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594:
1989:
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Bhowal, A.; Kshetrimayum, R. S. (2019). "Outage Probability Bound of Decode and Forward Two Way Relay employing Optical Spatial Modulation over Gamma-Gamma Channels".
901:. Atmospheric and fog attenuation, which are exponential in nature, limit practical range of FSO devices to several kilometres. However, free-space optics based on
357:
LightPointe Communications received $ 76 million in start-up funds, and eventually reorganized to sell hybrid FSO-RF units to overcome the weather-based challenges.
259:
Free-space point-to-point optical links can be implemented using infrared laser light, although low-data-rate communication over short distances is possible using
2122:
Lee, I.E.; Sim, M.L.; Kung, F.W.L. (February 2009). "Performance enhancement of outdoor visible-light communication system using selective combining receiver".
3643:
3615:
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267:(IrDA) technology is a very simple form of free-space optical communications. On the communications side the FSO technology is considered as a part of the
654:, maximizes the available optical bandwidth for any LED device, thereby reducing the cost and improving the performance of deploying indoor FSO systems.
909:
wavelength, in dense fog conditions. FSO using wavelength 1550 nm system are capable of transmitting several times higher power than systems with
493:
1465:
221:(literal translation: optical speaking device) that the German army used in their World War II anti-aircraft defense units, or in bunkers at the
1881:
1279:
Bhowal, A.; Kshetrimayum, R. S. (2020). "Relay based Hybrid FSO/RF communication employing Hybrid Spatial Modulation and Transmit Source Selection".
1219:
469:
1671:
3730:
2411:
2167:
Jing Xue; Alok Garg; Berkehan Ciftcioglu; Jianyun Hu; Shang Wang; Ioannis Savidis; Manish Jain; Rebecca Berman; Peng Liu; Michael Huang; Hui Wu;
3637:
890:(extra power, reserved for rain, smog, fog). To keep an eye-safe environment, good FSO systems have a limited laser power density and support
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3715:
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Its first practical use came in military communication systems many decades later, first for optical telegraphy. German colonial troops used
3735:
2172:
416:. QOGS uses adaptive optics and lasers as part of a telescope, to create a bi-directional communications system capable of supporting the
1791:
3627:
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2456:
1696:
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2404:
512:
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457:(LADEE) spacecraft, whose primary science mission was to investigate the tenuous and exotic atmosphere that exists around the Moon.
144:
1718:
1416:
1364:"Department of Defense Fiscal Year (FY) 2010 Budget Estimates: May 2009: Research, Development, Test And Evaluation, Defense-Wide"
1363:
2826:
2628:
1647:
1921:
Tanaka, Y.; Haruyama, S.; Nakagawa, M. (2000). "Wireless optical transmissions with white colored LED for wireless home links".
3720:
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2516:
2303:
2100:
268:
31:
1997:
3384:
2935:
1496:
558:
405:
366:, and received $ 9 million in funding before permanently shutting down. No known spin-off or purchase followed this effort.
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The light beam can be very narrow, which makes FSO hard to intercept, improving security. It is comparatively easy to
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The technology is useful where the physical connections are impractical due to high costs or other considerations.
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from 1998 to 2002. The links operated at 155 Mbit/s and reliably carried phone calls and internet service.
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171:
30:
This article is about optical communication over long distances. For short- to medium-range communication, see
197:
when wire communications were often cut, German signals used three types of optical Morse transmitters called
74:. "Free space" means air, outer space, vacuum, or something similar. This contrasts with using solids such as
1923:
11th IEEE International Symposium on Personal Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications. PIMRC 2000. Proceedings
208:
A major technological step was to replace the Morse code by modulating optical waves in speech transmission.
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3106:
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which could be used for space lighting can typically be modulated up to 20 MHz. Data rates of over 100
524:
501:
2285:
Millimeter Through Visible Frequency Waves Through Aerosols-Particle Modeling, Reflectivity and Attenuation
2149:
1469:
3425:
3211:
3026:
2971:
2966:
2779:
2744:
2317:
Moll, Florian (December 2013). "Free-space laser system for secure air-to-ground quantum communications".
1885:
1444:"Zapped of its potential, Rooftop laser startups falter, but debate on high-speed data technology remains"
844:
128:
93:
A photophone receiver and headset, one half of Bell and Tainter's optical telecommunication system of 1880
1538:
435:
A two-way distance record for communication was set by the Mercury laser altimeter instrument aboard the
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2020:
584:. This was based on work from researchers that used a white LED-based space lighting system for indoor
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attempting to overcome these key disadvantages to FSO communications and field a system with a better
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The first gigabit laser-based communication was achieved by the European Space Agency and called the
330:
has sponsored over US$ 130 million in research toward this effort, with the ORCA and ORCLE programs.
260:
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any data traveling across the FSO connection for additional security. FSO provides vastly improved
307:
75:
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1907:
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used a coded alphabetic system of signalling with torches developed by Cleoxenus, Democleitus and
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923:
585:
362:
323:
17:
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1672:
New Quantum Optical Ground Station allows Canberra to play starring role in space communications
2183:
1183:"Atmospheric Propagation Characteristics of Highest Importance to Commercial Free Space Optics"
1021:
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and ground stations. LCRD is NASA's first two-way, end-to-end optical relay. LCRD uses two
401:(EDRS) on November 28, 2014. The system is operational and is being used on a daily basis.
39:
3151:
3006:
2774:
2737:
1675:
883:
420:
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573:, an open source DIY 10 Mbit/s full duplex LED FSO over 1.4 km (0.87 mi).
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1065:
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fog, dust and heat. Relays may be employed to extend the range for FSO communications.
240:
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109:
101:
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1493:"TeraBeam, Lucent Extend Bandwidth Limits, Multichannel News, Vol 21 Issue 18 Pg 160"
1300:
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1948:
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To cross a public road or other barriers which the sender and receiver do not own
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3136:
3121:
3081:
3041:
2900:
2541:
2471:
2210:"Survey on Free Space Optical Communication: A Communication Theory Perspective"
887:
602:
248:
194:
167:
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3581:
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1930:
1257:
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wavelength, have considerably lower optical loss than free-space optics using
726:
636:
272:
163:
143:. Bell considered it his most important invention. The device allowed for the
132:
117:
2326:
1130:"DLR communicates with TerraSAR-X Earth Observation satellite via laser beam"
3566:
3031:
2846:
2396:
2070:
1218:. US Army Information Systems Engineering Command. p. 3. Archived from
748:
437:
156:
113:
44:
2254:"Free Space optics (FSO) with capacity 10 Gigabits Full Duplex - EC System"
1856:
1589:
1962:
1139:. Deutsches Zentrum für Luft und Raumfahrt (DLR) - German Aerospace Center
120:
were developed, using coded signals to communicate with their recipients.
3561:
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3293:
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2364:
1966:
1517:
910:
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902:
773:
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342:
244:
105:
63:
2045:
J. Grubor; S. Randel; K.-D. Langer; J. W. Walewski (December 15, 2008).
588:(LAN) communications. These systems present advantages over traditional
89:
3556:
3541:
2293:
740:
640:
271:
applications. Free-space optics can be used for communications between
175:
2047:"Broadband Information Broadcasting Using LED-Based Interior Lighting"
714:
As an alternative or upgrade add-on to existing wireless technologies
159:
transmission between two buildings, some 213 meters (699 feet) apart.
3586:
3546:
2868:
2660:
2613:
2446:
933:
882:
These factors cause an attenuated receiver signal and lead to higher
667:
632:
528:
489:
347:
2305:
Free Space Optics: Enabling Optical Connectivity in Today's Networks
1049:
2046:
820:
Reduced size, weight, and power consumption compared to RF antennas
3571:
3508:
2816:
2531:
2384:
1689:"NASA Beams Mona Lisa to Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter at the Moon"
1618:
829:
For terrestrial applications, the principal limiting factors are:
647:
627:
Projected data rates and future data rate claims vary. A low-cost
581:
570:
554:
549:
538:
for inter-satellite links. This effectively creates a space-based
461:
454:
327:
306:
229:
180:
152:
148:
88:
38:
2381:
International Space Station to Beam Video Via Laser Back to Earth
1963:"IEEE 802.15 WPAN Task Group 7 (TG7) Visible Light Communication"
1833:"NASA, Partners Achieve Fastest Space-to-Ground Laser Comms Link"
1759:
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
769:-free long-range operation (in contrast with radio communication)
494:
Integrated LCRD Low-Earth Orbit User Modem and Amplifier Terminal
3513:
1020:. Sterling Biographies. New York: Sterling Publishing. pp.
876:
854:
849:
682:
527:
that are intended to provide global broadband coverage, such as
424:
417:
2617:
2400:
2288:(Thesis). Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
722:
As a safety add-on for important fiber connections (redundancy)
646:
In September 2013, pureLiFi, the Edinburgh start-up working on
100:, in various forms, have been used for thousands of years. The
2759:
1808:"NASA's space station laser comm terminal achieves first link"
1542:
864:
Interference from background light sources (including the sun)
833:
621:
589:
447:
an error correction code algorithm similar to that used in CDs
704:
Temporary network installation (for events or other purposes)
662:
Typically, the best scenarios for using this technology are:
284:
as internal studies, such as one conducted by MRV FSO staff.
155:. On June 3, 1880, Bell conducted the world's first wireless
1719:"Historic Demonstration Proves Laser Communication Possible"
1209:"Analysis of Free Space Optics as a Transmission Technology"
2365:
Explanation of Fresnel zones in microwave and optical links
1793:
NASA's First Two-way End-to-End Laser Communications System
1466:"TeraBeam's Light Speed; Telephony, Vol. 238 Issue 13, p16"
1207:
Tom Garlington, Joel Babbitt and George Long (March 2005).
1188:. Optical Wireless Communications IV, SPIE Vol. 4530 p. 84
2302:
Heinz Willebrand & Baksheesh Ghuman (December 2001).
2180:
The 37th International Symposium on Computer Architecture
360:
The Maxima Corporation published its operating theory in
62:
technology that uses light propagating in free space to
1899:
1181:
Eric Korevaar, Isaac I. Kim and Bruce McArthur (2001).
472:(LCRD), which aims to relay data between spacecraft in
1969:
local and metro area network standards committee. 2009
1128:
Schütz, Andreas; Giggenbach, Dirk (10 November 2008).
1050:"On the Production and Reproduction of Sound by Light"
694:
Speedy service delivery of high-bandwidth access to
3595:
3532:
3454:
3418:
3375:
3316:
3250:
2959:
2651:
2557:
2485:
2434:
1086:also published as "Selenium and the Photophone" in
924:
Atomic line filter#Laser tracking and communication
1013:
2021:"A 173-mile 2-way all-electronic optical contact"
595:Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
178:) as did British, French, US or Ottoman signals.
27:Communication using light sent through free space
1016:Alexander Graham Bell: Giving Voice To The World
2173:"An Intra-Chip Free-Space Optical Interconnect"
492:. One of LCRD's first operational users is the
455:Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Explorer
2629:
2412:
1775:"Getting NASA data to the ground with lasers"
1315:"BNamericas - TMEX Launches Mexico-US Switch"
47:for assisting the alignment of the two heads.
8:
480:, Optical Ground Station (OGS)-1 and -2, at
236:networks for civilian uses was at its peak.
214:
199:
3644:Global telecommunications regulation bodies
2214:IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials
2171:; Gary W. Wicks; Duncan Moore (June 2010).
2099:. Siemens. January 18, 2010. Archived from
1566:"Hot New Beam May Zap Bandwidth Bottleneck"
1103:"German, WWII, WW2, Lichtsprechgerät 80/80"
707:Reestablish high-speed connection quickly (
561:implementation of FSO using high-intensity
3680:
2636:
2622:
2614:
2419:
2405:
2397:
2093:"500 Megabits/Second with White LED Light"
291:TMEX USA ran two eight-mile links between
2225:
1990:"City first to sign on to new technology"
2371:video showing Lichtsprechgerät 80 in use
1900:"Visible Light Communication Consortium"
1738:"OPALS: Light Beams Let Data Rates Soar"
470:Laser Communications Relay Demonstration
311:DARPA ORCA official concept art created
2247:
2245:
1773:Schauer, Katherine (October 28, 2021).
985:
735:For inter- and intra-chip communication
2150:"Pure LiFi transmits data using light"
1857:"Changelog of Twibright Labs Products"
1564:Robert F. Service (21 December 2001).
2385:Optical Payload for Lasercomm Science
2360:Free Space Optics on COST297 for HAPs
1736:Landau, Elizabeth (9 December 2014).
1639:Fog Optics staff (20 November 2014).
239:Many simple and inexpensive consumer
7:
3690:
2282:Christos Kontogeorgakis (May 1997).
817:Reference open source implementation
605:. A trial was announced in 2010, in
513:Pathfinder Technology Demonstrator 3
442:(3.7 million mi) in 1992.
2208:Khalighi, M. A.; Uysal, M. (2014).
1925:. Vol. 2. pp. 1325–1329.
1910:from the original on April 6, 2004.
1699:from the original on April 19, 2018
1281:IEEE Transactions on Communications
836:(10 to ~100 dB/km attenuation)
460:Between April and July 2014 NASA's
166:telegraphy transmitters during the
1988:Petrie, Kari (November 19, 2010).
1884:. January 17, 2013. Archived from
1442:Bruce V. Bigelow (June 16, 2006).
1109:from the original on July 24, 2011
511:(TBIRD) system, mounted on NASA's
468:On Dec. 7, 2021 NASA launched the
243:use low-speed communication using
25:
2252:praguebest.cz, PragueBest s.r.o.
2019:Turner, Clint (October 3, 2007).
747:(EMI) behavior compared to using
569:In 2001, Twibright Labs released
18:Free space optical communications
3689:
3679:
3670:
3669:
3658:
3279:Free-space optical communication
2597:
2588:
2587:
2387:demonstration mission to the ISS
1754:
1464:Nancy Gohring (March 27, 2000).
1160:"MRV TereScope 700/G Laser Link"
807:when working with narrow beam(s)
635:can be achieved using efficient
52:Free-space optical communication
2051:Journal of Lightwave Technology
1158:Miloš Wimmer (13 August 2007).
701:Converged voice-data connection
350:stock symbol from TRBM to PRXM.
269:optical wireless communications
32:Optical wireless communications
3731:Wireless communication systems
410:Quantum Optical Ground Station
406:Australian National University
135:, at Bell's newly established
1:
1831:Tavares, Frank (2023-05-11).
1582:10.1126/science.294.5551.2454
1105:. LAUD Electronic Design AS.
763:Can be used to power devices
312:
303:Extending the useful distance
247:(IR) light. This is known as
3726:Telecommunications equipment
3716:Laser communication in space
3665:Telecommunication portal
3446:Telecommunications equipment
2391:Wireless Optical Link Budget
786:electromagnetic interference
745:electromagnetic interference
681:LAN-to-LAN connections in a
385:Laser communication in space
3736:Optical wireless interfaces
3182:Alexander Stepanovich Popov
1996:. p. 1. Archived from
1491:Fred Dawson (May 1, 2000).
1054:American Journal of Science
725:For communications between
597:working group for wireless
578:Visible Light Communication
3752:
2886:Telecommunications history
2575:Modulating retro-reflector
2336:Laser Space Communications
2227:10.1109/COMST.2014.2329501
1806:Schauer, Katherine; NASA.
1293:10.1109/TCOMM.2020.2991054
949:Modulating retro-reflector
872:Pointing stability in wind
729:, including elements of a
666:LAN-to-LAN connections on
509:TeraByte InfraRed Delivery
482:Table Mountain Observatory
399:European Data Relay System
382:
29:
3653:
3494:Public Switched Telephone
3306:telecommunication circuit
3267:Fiber-optic communication
3012:Francis Blake (telephone)
2807:Optical telecommunication
2583:
2549:Optical Transport Network
2428:Optical telecommunication
1931:10.1109/PIMRC.2000.881634
1742:Jet Propulsion Laboratory
1619:"CableFree UNITY Website"
1258:10.1049/iet-opt.2018.5103
1074:10.2475/ajs.s3-20.118.305
999:The Histories of Polybius
860:Terrestrial scintillation
687:metropolitan area network
580:Consortium was formed in
414:Mount Stromlo Observatory
265:Infrared Data Association
3405:Orbital angular-momentum
2842:Satellite communications
2681:Communications satellite
2327:10.1117/2.1201311.005189
2136:10.1049/iet-opt:20070014
2025:Modulated light web site
1216:WP No. AMSEL-IE-TS-05001
1012:Mary Kay Carson (2007).
929:Extremely high frequency
629:white LED (GaN-phosphor)
542:between the satellites.
525:satellite constellations
172:German South-West Africa
3284:Molecular communication
3107:Gardiner Greene Hubbard
2936:Undersea telegraph line
2671:Cable protection system
2393:(with python examples).
2071:10.1109/JLT.2008.928525
1539:"LightPointe main page"
1343:GlobeNewswire News Room
731:satellite constellation
408:(ANU) demonstrated its
3721:Optical communications
3426:Communication protocol
3212:Charles Sumner Tainter
3027:Walter Houser Brattain
2972:Edwin Howard Armstrong
2780:Information revolution
2334:David G. Aviv (2006).
2308:. SAMS. Archived from
1641:"Fog Laser Field Test"
845:Atmospheric absorption
825:Range-limiting factors
566:
404:In December 2023, the
318:
255:Usage and technologies
215:
200:
186:
185:WW I German Blinkgerät
129:Charles Sumner Tainter
98:Optical communications
94:
48:
3400:Polarization-division
3132:Narinder Singh Kapany
3097:Erna Schneider Hoover
3017:Jagadish Chandra Bose
2997:Alexander Graham Bell
2728:online video platform
1046:Alexander Graham Bell
954:N-slit interferometer
599:personal area network
553:
310:
184:
170:starting in 1904, in
125:Alexander Graham Bell
108:. In the modern era,
92:
60:optical communication
42:
3242:Vladimir K. Zworykin
3202:Almon Brown Strowger
3172:Charles Grafton Page
2827:Prepaid mobile phone
2755:Electrical telegraph
2570:Intensity modulation
2383:, March 2014 NASA's
1695:. January 17, 2013.
974:Free-space path loss
755:Technical advantages
607:St. Cloud, Minnesota
540:optical mesh network
504:on 5 December 2023.
474:geosynchronous orbit
297:Nuevo Laredo, Mexico
3192:Johann Philipp Reis
2951:Wireless revolution
2913:The Telephone Cases
2770:Hydraulic telegraph
2452:Hydraulic telegraph
2124:IET Optoelectronics
2063:2008JLwT...26.3883G
1861:ronja.twibright.com
1725:. October 28, 2013.
1499:on October 27, 2014
1472:on October 27, 2014
1423:on October 27, 2014
1246:IET Optoelectronics
1066:1880AmJS...20..305B
969:Rayleigh scattering
875:Pollution, such as
658:Engineering details
601:standards known as
536:laser communication
515:(PTD-3) satellite.
484:in California, and
393:Operational systems
112:and wireless solar
76:optical fiber cable
72:computer networking
3390:Frequency-division
3367:Telephone exchange
3237:Charles Wheatstone
3167:Jun-ichi Nishizawa
3142:Innocenzo Manzetti
3077:Reginald Fessenden
2812:Optical telegraphy
2645:Telecommunications
760:Ease of deployment
586:local area network
567:
324:quality of service
319:
187:
127:and his assistant
95:
68:telecommunications
66:transmit data for
49:
3703:
3702:
3441:Store and forward
3436:Data transmission
3350:Network switching
3301:Transmission line
3147:Guglielmo Marconi
3112:Internet pioneers
2977:Mohamed M. Atalla
2946:Whistled language
2611:
2610:
2462:Optical telegraph
2345:978-1-59693-028-5
2103:on March 11, 2013
2057:(24): 3883–3892.
1092:, September 1880.
1031:978-1-4027-3230-0
1001:. pp. 43–46.
993:Polybius (1889).
709:disaster recovery
449:was implemented.
228:The invention of
16:(Redirected from
3743:
3693:
3692:
3683:
3682:
3673:
3672:
3663:
3662:
3661:
3534:Notable networks
3524:Wireless network
3464:Cellular network
3456:Types of network
3431:Computer network
3318:Network topology
3232:Thomas A. Watson
3087:Oliver Heaviside
3072:Philo Farnsworth
3047:Daniel Davis Jr.
3022:Charles Bourseul
2982:John Logie Baird
2691:Data compression
2686:Computer network
2638:
2631:
2624:
2615:
2601:
2591:
2590:
2517:Optical wireless
2421:
2414:
2407:
2398:
2372:
2349:
2338:. ARTECH HOUSE.
2330:
2313:
2297:
2269:
2268:
2266:
2264:
2249:
2240:
2239:
2229:
2220:(4): 2231–2258.
2205:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2189:on April 3, 2012
2188:
2182:. Archived from
2177:
2164:
2158:
2157:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2110:
2108:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2033:
2031:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2005:
2000:on June 16, 2013
1985:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1974:
1959:
1953:
1952:
1918:
1912:
1911:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1878:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1867:
1853:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1828:
1822:
1821:
1819:
1818:
1803:
1797:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1770:
1764:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1751:
1749:
1733:
1727:
1726:
1715:
1709:
1708:
1706:
1704:
1685:
1679:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1652:
1646:. Archived from
1645:
1636:
1630:
1629:
1627:
1625:
1615:
1609:
1608:
1606:
1604:
1561:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1541:. Archived from
1535:
1529:
1526:
1520:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1504:
1495:. Archived from
1488:
1482:
1481:
1479:
1477:
1468:. Archived from
1461:
1455:
1454:
1452:
1450:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1430:
1428:
1419:. Archived from
1413:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1402:
1392:
1386:
1385:
1383:
1381:
1375:
1369:. Archived from
1368:
1360:
1354:
1353:
1351:
1350:
1335:
1329:
1328:
1326:
1325:
1311:
1305:
1304:
1287:(8): 5018–5027.
1276:
1270:
1269:
1241:
1235:
1234:
1232:
1230:
1225:on June 13, 2007
1224:
1213:
1204:
1198:
1197:
1195:
1193:
1187:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1155:
1149:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1134:
1125:
1119:
1118:
1116:
1114:
1099:
1093:
1085:
1060:(118): 305–324.
1056:. Third Series.
1048:(October 1880).
1042:
1036:
1035:
1019:
1009:
1003:
1002:
990:
676:Gigabit Ethernet
571:RONJA Metropolis
379:Extraterrestrial
317:
314:
279:Useful distances
218:
216:Lichtsprechgerät
210:Carl Zeiss, Jena
203:
137:Volta Laboratory
21:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3699:
3659:
3657:
3649:
3591:
3528:
3450:
3414:
3371:
3320:
3312:
3253:
3246:
3152:Robert Metcalfe
3007:Tim Berners-Lee
2955:
2775:Information Age
2647:
2642:
2612:
2607:
2579:
2553:
2481:
2430:
2425:
2370:
2356:
2346:
2333:
2316:
2301:
2298:Master's Thesis
2281:
2278:
2276:Further reading
2273:
2272:
2262:
2260:
2251:
2250:
2243:
2207:
2206:
2202:
2192:
2190:
2186:
2175:
2169:Eby G. Friedman
2166:
2165:
2161:
2148:
2147:
2143:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2106:
2104:
2091:
2090:
2086:
2044:
2043:
2039:
2029:
2027:
2018:
2017:
2013:
2003:
2001:
1994:St. Cloud Times
1987:
1986:
1982:
1972:
1970:
1961:
1960:
1956:
1941:
1920:
1919:
1915:
1906:(in Japanese).
1898:
1897:
1893:
1880:
1879:
1875:
1865:
1863:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1841:
1839:
1830:
1829:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1805:
1804:
1800:
1790:
1786:
1772:
1771:
1767:
1755:
1747:
1745:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1717:
1716:
1712:
1702:
1700:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1676:ABC News Online
1674:, Emmy Groves,
1670:
1666:
1656:
1654:
1650:
1643:
1638:
1637:
1633:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1616:
1612:
1602:
1600:
1563:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1546:
1537:
1536:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1516:
1512:
1502:
1500:
1490:
1489:
1485:
1475:
1473:
1463:
1462:
1458:
1448:
1446:
1441:
1440:
1436:
1426:
1424:
1415:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1393:
1389:
1379:
1377:
1373:
1366:
1362:
1361:
1357:
1348:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1332:
1323:
1321:
1313:
1312:
1308:
1278:
1277:
1273:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1228:
1226:
1222:
1211:
1206:
1205:
1201:
1191:
1189:
1185:
1180:
1179:
1175:
1165:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1152:
1142:
1140:
1132:
1127:
1126:
1122:
1112:
1110:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1032:
1011:
1010:
1006:
992:
991:
987:
982:
920:
884:bit error ratio
840:Beam dispersion
827:
780:bit error rates
757:
660:
548:
521:
500:, and achieved
478:ground stations
433:
421:Artemis program
395:
387:
381:
315:
305:
281:
257:
241:remote controls
87:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3749:
3747:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3708:
3707:
3701:
3700:
3698:
3697:
3687:
3677:
3667:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3648:
3647:
3640:
3635:
3630:
3625:
3620:
3619:
3618:
3613:
3605:
3599:
3597:
3593:
3592:
3590:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3569:
3564:
3559:
3554:
3549:
3544:
3538:
3536:
3530:
3529:
3527:
3526:
3521:
3516:
3511:
3506:
3501:
3496:
3491:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3460:
3458:
3452:
3451:
3449:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3433:
3428:
3422:
3420:
3416:
3415:
3413:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3385:Space-division
3381:
3379:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3363:
3362:
3357:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3335:
3330:
3324:
3322:
3314:
3313:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3308:
3298:
3297:
3296:
3286:
3281:
3276:
3275:
3274:
3264:
3258:
3256:
3248:
3247:
3245:
3244:
3239:
3234:
3229:
3224:
3222:Camille Tissot
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3199:
3197:Claude Shannon
3194:
3189:
3187:Tivadar Puskás
3184:
3179:
3174:
3169:
3164:
3159:
3157:Antonio Meucci
3154:
3149:
3144:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3127:Charles K. Kao
3124:
3119:
3114:
3109:
3104:
3102:Harold Hopkins
3099:
3094:
3089:
3084:
3079:
3074:
3069:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
3002:Emile Berliner
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2957:
2956:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2941:Videotelephony
2938:
2933:
2932:
2931:
2926:
2916:
2909:
2904:
2898:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2877:
2876:
2871:
2866:
2856:
2855:
2854:
2844:
2839:
2837:Radiotelephone
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2814:
2809:
2804:
2803:
2802:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2741:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2723:Internet video
2715:
2714:
2713:
2708:
2703:
2698:
2688:
2683:
2678:
2673:
2668:
2663:
2657:
2655:
2649:
2648:
2643:
2641:
2640:
2633:
2626:
2618:
2609:
2608:
2606:
2605:
2595:
2584:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2561:
2559:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2551:
2546:
2545:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2514:
2513:
2512:
2511:
2510:
2505:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2431:
2426:
2424:
2423:
2416:
2409:
2401:
2395:
2394:
2388:
2378:
2367:
2362:
2355:
2354:External links
2352:
2351:
2350:
2344:
2331:
2314:
2312:on 2012-06-22.
2299:
2277:
2274:
2271:
2270:
2241:
2200:
2159:
2141:
2114:
2084:
2037:
2011:
1980:
1954:
1939:
1913:
1891:
1888:on 2015-07-09.
1873:
1848:
1823:
1798:
1784:
1765:
1728:
1710:
1680:
1664:
1631:
1610:
1576:(5551): 2454.
1556:
1530:
1521:
1510:
1483:
1456:
1434:
1408:
1387:
1355:
1330:
1319:BNamericas.com
1306:
1271:
1252:(4): 183–190.
1236:
1199:
1173:
1150:
1120:
1094:
1037:
1030:
1004:
984:
983:
981:
978:
977:
976:
971:
966:
961:
959:Optical window
956:
951:
946:
944:Mie scattering
941:
936:
931:
926:
919:
916:
880:
879:
873:
870:
865:
862:
857:
852:
847:
842:
837:
826:
823:
822:
821:
818:
815:
808:
801:
795:
788:
782:
776:
770:
764:
761:
756:
753:
737:
736:
733:
723:
720:
719:
718:
712:
705:
702:
699:
692:
689:
679:
659:
656:
547:
544:
520:
519:Commercial use
517:
432:
431:Demonstrations
429:
394:
391:
380:
377:
372:
371:
367:
358:
355:
351:
304:
301:
280:
277:
256:
253:
251:technologies.
212:developed the
191:trench warfare
141:Washington, DC
102:ancient Greeks
86:
83:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3748:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3713:
3711:
3696:
3688:
3686:
3678:
3676:
3668:
3666:
3656:
3655:
3652:
3645:
3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3629:
3626:
3624:
3621:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3573:
3570:
3568:
3565:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3543:
3540:
3539:
3537:
3535:
3531:
3525:
3522:
3520:
3517:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3482:
3480:
3477:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3462:
3461:
3459:
3457:
3453:
3447:
3444:
3442:
3439:
3437:
3434:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3421:
3417:
3411:
3410:Code-division
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3395:Time-division
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3382:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3368:
3365:
3361:
3358:
3356:
3353:
3352:
3351:
3348:
3344:
3341:
3340:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3325:
3323:
3321:and switching
3319:
3315:
3307:
3304:
3303:
3302:
3299:
3295:
3292:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3277:
3273:
3272:optical fiber
3270:
3269:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3262:Coaxial cable
3260:
3259:
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3177:Radia Perlman
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3067:Lee de Forest
3065:
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3062:Thomas Edison
3060:
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3053:
3052:Donald Davies
3050:
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3037:Claude Chappe
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2882:
2881:Smoke signals
2879:
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2859:Semiconductor
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2527:Visible light
2525:
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2504:
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2500:
2499:
2498:Optical fiber
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2319:SPIE Newsroom
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2015:
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1940:0-7803-6463-5
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1761:public domain
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1653:on 2015-04-26
1649:
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1624:September 28,
1620:
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1545:on 2018-03-14
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1376:on 2014-10-27
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892:laser classes
889:
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703:
700:
697:
696:optical fiber
693:
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680:
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673:
672:Fast Ethernet
669:
665:
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623:
619:
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613:Amateur radio
610:
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603:IEEE 802.15.7
600:
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498:SpaceX CRS-29
495:
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293:Laredo, Texas
289:
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235:
234:optical fiber
231:
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223:Atlantic Wall
220:
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206:
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196:
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183:
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151:on a beam of
150:
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61:
57:
53:
46:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3377:Multiplexing
3278:
3252:Transmission
3217:Nikola Tesla
3207:Henry Sutton
3162:Samuel Morse
3092:Robert Hooke
3057:Amos Dolbear
2992:John Bardeen
2911:
2891:Telautograph
2795:Mobile phone
2750:Edholm's law
2733:social media
2666:Broadcasting
2558:Technologies
2521:
2493:Fiber-optics
2457:Ships' flags
2442:Smoke signal
2335:
2318:
2310:the original
2304:
2284:
2261:. Retrieved
2257:
2217:
2213:
2203:
2191:. Retrieved
2184:the original
2179:
2162:
2153:
2144:
2130:(1): 30–39.
2127:
2123:
2117:
2105:. Retrieved
2101:the original
2097:news release
2096:
2087:
2054:
2050:
2040:
2028:. Retrieved
2024:
2014:
2002:. Retrieved
1998:the original
1993:
1983:
1971:. Retrieved
1957:
1922:
1916:
1903:
1894:
1886:the original
1876:
1864:. Retrieved
1860:
1851:
1840:. Retrieved
1836:
1826:
1815:. Retrieved
1811:
1801:
1792:
1787:
1778:
1768:
1746:. Retrieved
1741:
1731:
1722:
1713:
1701:. Retrieved
1692:
1683:
1678:, 2023-12-06
1667:
1655:. Retrieved
1648:the original
1634:
1622:. Retrieved
1613:
1601:. Retrieved
1573:
1569:
1559:
1547:. Retrieved
1543:the original
1533:
1524:
1513:
1501:. Retrieved
1497:the original
1486:
1474:. Retrieved
1470:the original
1459:
1447:. Retrieved
1437:
1425:. Retrieved
1421:the original
1411:
1399:. Retrieved
1390:
1378:. Retrieved
1371:the original
1358:
1347:. Retrieved
1345:. 2009-01-09
1342:
1333:
1322:. Retrieved
1318:
1309:
1284:
1280:
1274:
1249:
1245:
1239:
1227:. Retrieved
1220:the original
1215:
1202:
1190:. Retrieved
1176:
1164:. Retrieved
1153:
1141:. Retrieved
1136:
1123:
1111:. Retrieved
1097:
1087:
1057:
1053:
1040:
1015:
1007:
998:
988:
964:Radio window
939:Laser safety
903:1550 nm
881:
828:
812:Fresnel zone
800:transparency
784:Immunity to
738:
661:
645:
639:schemes and
626:
611:
575:
568:
522:
506:
467:
459:
451:
444:
436:
434:
403:
396:
388:
373:
361:
336:
332:
320:
290:
286:
282:
258:
238:
227:
213:
207:
198:
188:
161:
145:transmission
131:created the
122:
96:
80:
55:
51:
50:
36:
3577:NPL network
3289:Radio waves
3227:Alfred Vail
3137:Hedy Lamarr
3122:Dawon Kahng
3082:Elisha Gray
3042:Yogen Dalal
2967:Nasir Ahmed
2901:Teleprinter
2765:Heliographs
2542:Consumer IR
2472:Signal lamp
2294:10919/37049
2258:ecsystem.cz
2107:February 2,
1779:Space Daily
1748:18 December
1657:21 December
1549:October 27,
1503:October 27,
1476:October 27,
1449:October 26,
1192:October 27,
1166:October 27,
911:850 nm
907:830 nm
888:fade margin
620:to about 4
576:In 2004, a
502:first light
370:technology.
316: 2008
249:consumer IR
195:World War I
189:During the
168:Herero Wars
118:heliographs
3710:Categories
3623:Antarctica
3582:Toasternet
3504:Television
2987:Paul Baran
2919:Television
2903:(teletype)
2896:Telegraphy
2874:transistor
2852:Phryctoria
2822:Photophone
2800:Smartphone
2790:Mass media
2522:Free-space
2508:Connectors
2477:Photophone
2467:Heliograph
1842:2023-08-26
1817:2023-12-16
1603:27 October
1427:October 4,
1401:October 4,
1380:October 4,
1349:2024-03-16
1324:2024-03-16
1137:DLR Portal
980:References
803:Increased
749:microwaves
727:spacecraft
637:modulation
618:bandwidths
383:See also:
273:spacecraft
201:Blinkgerät
164:heliograph
133:photophone
114:telegraphs
110:semaphores
64:wirelessly
3607:Americas
3596:Locations
3567:Internet2
3328:Bandwidth
3032:Vint Cerf
2929:streaming
2907:Telephone
2847:Semaphore
2738:streaming
1301:219041497
1266:115680008
1082:130048089
868:Shadowing
814:necessary
794:operation
774:bit rates
534:, employ
486:Haleakalā
438:MESSENGER
174:(today's
157:telephone
123:In 1880,
45:monocular
3675:Category
3562:Internet
3552:CYCLADES
3469:Ethernet
3419:Concepts
3343:terminal
3294:wireless
3117:Bob Kahn
2960:Pioneers
2785:Internet
2676:Cable TV
2593:Category
2565:OC Rates
2537:In space
2486:Advanced
2263:14 March
2193:June 30,
2030:June 28,
1973:June 28,
1967:IEEE 802
1949:45422597
1908:Archived
1866:14 March
1812:phys.org
1795:Oct 2023
1697:Archived
1598:11584005
1590:11752548
1518:Terabeam
1229:June 28,
1162:. CESNET
1143:14 March
1113:June 28,
1107:Archived
995:"Book X"
918:See also
805:security
798:Protocol
698:networks
668:campuses
532:Starlink
523:Various
343:Terabeam
245:infrared
106:Polybius
58:) is an
3695:Commons
3685:Outline
3638:Oceania
3557:FidoNet
3542:ARPANET
3355:circuit
2924:digital
2653:History
2376:YouTube
2236:3141460
2079:3019862
2059:Bibcode
2004:July 6,
1703:May 23,
1570:Science
1062:Bibcode
767:License
741:encrypt
641:Siemens
423:to the
412:at its
363:Science
354:series.
176:Namibia
116:called
85:History
3633:Europe
3603:Africa
3587:Usenet
3547:BITNET
3484:Mobile
3360:packet
2869:MOSFET
2864:device
2661:Beacon
2603:Portal
2447:Beacon
2342:
2234:
2077:
1947:
1937:
1744:. NASA
1596:
1588:
1299:
1264:
1089:Nature
1080:
1028:
934:KORUZA
792:duplex
678:speeds
652:Li-1st
633:Mbit/s
529:SpaceX
490:Hawaii
348:NASDAQ
230:lasers
3616:South
3611:North
3572:JANET
3509:Telex
3499:Radio
3338:Nodes
3333:Links
3254:media
2832:Radio
2817:Pager
2745:Drums
2711:video
2706:image
2696:audio
2532:Li-Fi
2503:Cable
2435:Basic
2232:S2CID
2187:(PDF)
2176:(PDF)
2075:S2CID
1945:S2CID
1651:(PDF)
1644:(PDF)
1594:S2CID
1374:(PDF)
1367:(PDF)
1297:S2CID
1262:S2CID
1223:(PDF)
1212:(PDF)
1186:(PDF)
1133:(PDF)
1078:S2CID
1024:–78.
790:Full-
772:High
648:Li-Fi
582:Japan
557:is a
555:RONJA
462:OPALS
328:DARPA
219:80/80
153:light
149:sound
3628:Asia
3514:UUCP
3474:ISDN
2340:ISBN
2265:2018
2195:2011
2154:CNET
2109:2013
2032:2011
2006:2017
1975:2011
1935:ISBN
1904:VLCC
1868:2018
1837:NASA
1750:2014
1723:NASA
1705:2018
1693:NASA
1659:2014
1626:2016
1605:2014
1586:PMID
1551:2014
1505:2014
1478:2014
1451:2014
1429:2014
1403:2014
1382:2014
1231:2011
1194:2014
1168:2014
1145:2018
1115:2011
1026:ISBN
877:smog
855:Snow
850:Rain
778:Low
685:, a
683:city
563:LEDs
559:free
546:LEDs
425:Moon
418:NASA
295:and
261:LEDs
3519:WAN
3489:NGN
3479:LAN
2760:Fax
2701:DCT
2374:on
2323:doi
2290:hdl
2222:doi
2132:doi
2067:doi
1927:doi
1578:doi
1574:294
1289:doi
1254:doi
1070:doi
897:or
834:Fog
810:No
674:or
670:at
622:kHz
590:UHF
193:of
147:of
139:in
70:or
56:FSO
3712::
2321:.
2256:.
2244:^
2230:.
2218:16
2216:.
2212:.
2178:.
2152:.
2126:.
2095:.
2073:.
2065:.
2055:26
2053:.
2049:.
2023:.
1992:.
1965:.
1943:.
1933:.
1902:.
1859:.
1835:.
1810:.
1777:.
1740:.
1721:.
1691:.
1592:.
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1572:.
1568:.
1341:.
1317:.
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1283:.
1260:.
1250:13
1248:.
1214:.
1135:.
1076:.
1068:.
1058:XX
1052:.
1022:76
997:.
899:1M
751:.
609:.
488:,
427:.
326:.
313:c.
275:.
263:.
225:.
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3642:(
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2267:.
2238:.
2224::
2197:.
2156:.
2138:.
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2111:.
2081:.
2069::
2061::
2034:.
2008:.
1977:.
1951:.
1929::
1870:.
1845:.
1820:.
1781:.
1763:.
1752:.
1707:.
1661:.
1628:.
1607:.
1580::
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1405:.
1384:.
1352:.
1327:.
1303:.
1291::
1268:.
1256::
1233:.
1196:.
1170:.
1147:.
1117:.
1084:.
1072::
1064::
1034:.
895:1
711:)
565:.
54:(
34:.
20:)
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