Freedom of Information Act (United States)

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adjudication, (C) could reasonably be expected to constitute an unwarranted invasion of personal privacy, (D) could reasonably be expected to disclose the identity of a confidential source, including a State, local, or foreign agency or authority or any private institution which furnished information on a confidential basis, and, in the case of a record or information compiled by a criminal law enforcement authority in the course of a criminal investigation or by an agency conducting a lawful national security intelligence investigation, information furnished by a confidential source, (E) would disclose techniques and procedures for law enforcement investigations or prosecutions, or would disclose guidelines for law enforcement investigations or prosecutions if such disclosure could reasonably be expected to risk circumvention of the law, or (F) could reasonably be expected to endanger the life or physical safety of any individual;

1838:. These agencies are required by several mandates to comply with public solicitation of information. Along with making public and accessible all bureaucratic and technical procedures for applying for documents from that agency, agencies are also subject to penalties for hindering the process of a petition for information. According to the act, if "agency personnel acted arbitrarily or capriciously with respect to the withholding, the Special Counsel shall promptly initiate a proceeding to determine whether disciplinary action is warranted against the officer or employee who was primarily responsible for the withholding." In this way, there is recourse for one seeking information to go to a federal court if suspicion of illegal tampering or delayed sending of records exists. However, nine exemptions address issues of sensitivity and personal rights. They are (as listed in 2671: 47: 1804:, § 552(a)(2). In addition, § 552(a)(3) requires every agency, "upon any request for records which ... reasonably describes such records" to make such records "promptly available to any person." By § 552(a)(4)(B) if an agency improperly withholds any documents, the district court has jurisdiction to order their production. Unlike the review of other agency action that must be upheld if supported by substantial evidence and not arbitrary or capricious, FOIA expressly places the burden "on the agency to sustain its action," and directs the district courts to "determine the matter de novo." 2706:, which found that FOIA requests could be categorized into "simple" and "difficult" requests, and that although Open America's request was "difficult", the FBI had been using "due diligence" in responding to it. The court held that because there was no pressing urgency to Open America's request, its lawsuit did not move it to the head of the queue, and it would have to wait its turn. This legal reasoning and holding has been adopted by all other American circuits, though courts continue to complain that FOIA request delays are too long. In the 1983 case 960: 2498: 2064:

to sue the government for violations of the statute including permitting others to see records unless specifically permitted by the Act." In conjunction with the FOIA, the Privacy Act is used to further the rights of an individual gaining access to information held by the government. The Justice Department's Office of Information and Privacy and federal district courts are the two channels of appeal available to seekers of information.

2640:, stating that the National Security Council was not truly an agency but a group of aides to the President and thus not subject to FOIA regulations. Under the Presidential Records Act, "FOIA requests for NSC not be filed until five years after the president ha left office ... or twelve years if the records classified." The Clinton administration won, and the National Security Archive was not granted a 2160: 4732:– Preserved collection of sites that deal with Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests and documents. This includes government sites that receive and distribute FOIA documents (aka "FOIA reading rooms") as well as non-profit organizations and government watchdogs that request large numbers of FOIA documents on specific topics like national security and civil rights. 2577:

remain anonymous in the court setting. "To the extent that the Government's proof may compromise legitimate interests, the Government still can attempt to meet its burden with in camera affidavits." The court thus remanded the case to the Circuit Courts and rejected the FBI's claim of confidentiality as being a valid reason to withhold information.

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and the CIA. Second, congressional funding for agency staff to handle FOIA requests is usually far less than the necessary amount to hire sufficient employees. As a result, parties who request information under FOIA often end up filing lawsuits in federal court seeking judicial orders forcing the agencies to comply with their FOIA requests.

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entities either directly or through a "representative". This means that for any FOIA request that by its nature appears as if it might have been made by or on behalf of a non-U.S. governmental entity, a covered agency may inquire into the particular circumstances of the requester in order to properly implement this new FOIA provision.

4445: 2580:"While most individual sources may expect confidentiality, the Government offers no explanation, other than administrative ease, why that expectation always should be presumed." Thus, when Theoharis and company were in the middle of fighting in court to obtain J. Edgar Hoover files, they may well have benefited from 2134:. Congress amended FOIA to address the fees charged by different categories of requesters and the scope of access to law enforcement and national security records. The amendments are not referenced in the congressional reports on the Act, so the floor statements provide an indication of Congressional intent. 2724:

this metric, it concluded that federal agencies are struggling to implement public disclosure rules. Using 2012 and 2013 data, the most recent years available, ten of the 15 did not earn satisfactory overall grades, scoring less than 70 out of a possible 100 points. Eight of the ten earned Ds, including the

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analyzed 15 federal agencies which receive the most FOIA requests in-depth. The organization used a scale considering three factors: the clarity of agency rules regarding FOIA requests, quality or 'friendliness' of an agency's FOIA webpage, and the timely, complete manner of processing requests. With

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The Freedom of Information Act nevertheless imposes on the courts the responsibility to ensure that agencies comply with their obligation to "make ... records promptly available to any person" who requests them unless a refusal to do so is justified by one of the Act's specific, exclusive exemptions.

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The act contains a provision legally requiring agencies to respond to FOIA requests within 20 days, but for two main reasons, many agencies rarely meet this requirement. First, the task of screening requests for sensitive or classified information is often arduous and lengthy at agencies like the FBI

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Those amendments to the FOIA regulate government control of documents that concern a citizen. They give one "(1) the right to see records about self, subject to the Privacy Act's exemptions, (2) the right to amend that record if it is inaccurate, irrelevant, untimely, or incomplete, and (3) the right

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and Congressional committees evaluation of the nation's classification system in the late 1950s. They determined that the misuse of government classification of documents was causing insiders to leak documents that were marked "confidential". The committee also determined that the lowest rung of the

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In defense, the FBI put forth a claim that the redacted sections of the documents requested were withheld in accordance with FOIA regulations protecting the identity of informants who gave information regarding case details. However, O'Connor ruled that those who supplied information had no need to

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issued executive directives (and amendments to the directives) that allowed the release of previously classified national security documents more than 25 years old and of historical interest, as part of the FOIA. This release of information allowed many previously publicly unknown details about the

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specifically exempted from disclosure by statute (other than section 552b of this title), provided that such statute (A) requires that the matters be withheld from the public in such a manner as to leave no discretion on the issue, or (B) establishes particular criteria for withholding or refers to

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In effect, this new language precluded any covered U.S. intelligence agency from disclosing records in response to FOIA requests made by foreign governments or international governmental organizations. By its terms, it prohibits disclosure in response to requests made by such non-U.S. governmental

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The Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996 (E-FOIA) stated that all agencies are required by statute to make certain types of records, created by the agency on or after November 1, 1996, available electronically. Agencies must also provide electronic reading rooms for citizens to

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records or information compiled for law enforcement purposes, but only to the extent that the production of such law enforcement records or information (A) could reasonably be expected to interfere with enforcement proceedings, (B) would deprive a person of a right to a fair trial or an impartial

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upon request. The act defines agency records subject to disclosure, outlines mandatory disclosure procedures, and includes nine exemptions that define categories of information not subject to disclosure. The act was intended to make U.S. government agencies' functions more transparent so that the

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Scalia remained highly critical of the 1974 amendments, writing years later that "It is the Taj Mahal of the Doctrine of Unanticipated Consequences, the Sistine Chapel of Cost-Benefit Analysis Ignored." Scalia particularly disliked the availability of judicial review, decrying that if "an agency

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It has often been observed that the central purpose of the FOIA is to "open … up the workings of government to public scrutiny." One of the premises of that objective is the belief that "an informed electorate is vital to the proper operation of a democracy." A more specific goal implicit in the

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A review of recent state laws by the Center for Election Innovation & Research found at least 13 states that have sought to protect election staff from the abuse of FOIA requests in several ways, such as creating publicly accessible databases that do not require staff assistance and giving

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uncovered several federal agencies where staff regularly used fictitious identities and secret or unlisted email accounts to conduct government business. The use of these email accounts stymied FOIA requests. In some cases, the government demanded exorbitant (greater than $ 1 million) fees for

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after it has been requested. That is, a request for information that meets the criteria for availability under FOIA can still be denied if the government determines that the information should have been classified, and unavailable. It also sets a timeline for automatic declassification of old

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Starting in 2012, the Federal government job title Government Information Specialist was established for professionals focused on FOIA or privacy matters. Agencies sometimes track or process FOIA requests on websites or systems shared across organizations, such as FOIAonline and eFOIA.

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in the Department of State, and "such other elements of any other department or agency as may be designated by the President, or designated jointly by the Director of Central Intelligence and the head of the department or agency concerned, as an element of the intelligence community".

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it recognizes electronic media specifically and defines "News Media" as "any person or entity that gathers information of potential interest to a segment of the public, uses its editorial skills to turn the raw materials into a distinct work, and distributes that work to an

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use to have access to records. Given the large volume of records and limited resources, the amendment also extended the agencies' required response time to FOIA requests. Formerly, the response time was ten days and the amendment extended it to twenty business days.

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and the National Security Council's purging of PROFS records. A Temporary Restraining Order was approved by Senior U.S. District Court Judge Barrington D. Parker. Suit was filed at District Court under Judge Richey, who upheld the injunction of PROFS records.

2489:(FBI) officers in charge of responding to FOIA requests "so heavily redacted the released records as to preclude needed research." This has also brought into question just how one can verify that they have been given complete records in response to a request. 1978:

was enacted into positive law. For reasons now unclear but which may have had to do with the way the enactment of Title 5 changed how the law being amended was supposed to be cited, the original Freedom of Information Act was replaced. A new act in

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on these grounds. According to Scott Armstrong, taking into account labor and material costs, the three presidential administrations spent almost $ 9.3 million on contesting the National Security Archive FOIA requests for PROFS e-mail records.

2004:(originally H.R. 5357 in the 90th Congress), repealed the original and put in its place a substantively identical law. This statute was signed on June 5, 1967, and had the same effective date as the original statute: July 4, 1967. 2387:

it extends the 20-day deadline by allowing for up to 10 days between the FOIA office of the agency and the component of the agency holding the records and specifically allows for clarification of requests by the FOIA office (Effective

5022: 1316: 1822:'s opposition, Congress expanded Section 3 of the APA as a standalone measure in 1966 to further standardize the publication of government records, consistent with the belief that the people have the "right to know" about them. The 1790:(APA). Section 3 of the APA, as enacted in 1946, gave agencies broad discretion concerning the publication of governmental records. Following concerns that the provision had become more of a withholding than a disclosure mechanism, 5282: 3477:. United States of America, United States Department of Justice, and United States Department of State, Petitioners, v. Leslie R. Weatherhead, Respondent, in the Supreme Court of the United States. November 19, 1999. Archived from 5155: 2785:

attempting to disrupt the functioning of local and county election offices. Often unreasonably broad, repetitive, or based on misinformation, the high volume of requests has led to what a Colorado official said amounts to "a

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in 2004. However, on November 21, the lame-duck Congress overrode President Ford's veto, giving the United States the core Freedom of Information Act still in effect today, with judicial review of executive secrecy claims.

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earned an F. The State Department's score (37 percent) was dismal due to its extremely low processing score of 23 percent, which was completely out of line with any other agency's performance. Scores of five agencies, the

1850:(A) specifically authorized under criteria established by an Executive order to be kept secret in the interest of national defense or foreign policy and (B) are in fact properly classified pursuant to such Executive order; 5104: 3222: 1899:

from disclosure of "information of a commercial nature, including trade secrets, whether or not obtained from a person outside the Postal Service, which under good business practice would not be publicly disclosed".

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allowed federal agencies to withhold enormous amounts of information under Exemption 1 (relating to national security information), claiming it would better protect the country and strengthen national security.

1800:, 5 U.S.C. § 552(a)(1)(C), and to make available for public inspection and copying their opinions, statements of policy, interpretations, and staff manuals and instructions that are not already published in the 2280:

The agencies affected by this amendment are those that are part of, or contain "an element of", the "intelligence community". As defined in the National Security Act of 1947 (as amended), they consist of the

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An Act to amend section 3 of the Administrative Procedure Act, chapter 324, of the Act of June 11, 1946 (60 Stat. 238), to clarify and protect the right of the public to information, and for other purposes

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83 (1963), by withholding material exculpatory evidence, he filed Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) requests with the FBI for information it had compiled in connection with the murder investigation."

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foregoing principles is to give citizens access to the information on the basis of which government agencies make their decisions, thereby equipping the populace to evaluate and criticize those decisions.

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contained in or related to examination, operating, or condition reports prepared by, on behalf of, or for the use of an agency responsible for the regulation or supervision of financial institutions; or

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on local government." Local election officials in Florida and Michigan have reported spending 25-70% of staff time in recent years on processing public records requests. In 2022, officials in

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With the ongoing stress on both constitutional and inherent rights of American citizens and the added assertion of government subservience to the individual, some, particularly representative

2358:, on December 31, 2007. This law, also known as the "OPEN Government Act of 2007", amended the federal FOIA statute in several ways. According to a White House press release, it does so by: 1811:, thought that it was necessary for government information to be available to the public. This push built on existing principles and protocols of government administration already in place. 1925:, who was chairman of the House Government Information Subcommittee. It took Moss 12 years to get the FOIA through Congress. Much of the desire for government transparency stemmed from the 4974: 2699: 1190: 4958: 3280:. This means that while Title 5 existed before, it was merely a compilation of laws but not the law itself. Only about half of the U.S. Code is positive law, meaning the law itself. See 2239:

legislation were amendments to the FOIA (pertaining mainly to intelligence agencies) entitled "Prohibition on Compliance with Requests for Information Submitted by Foreign Governments":

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amended the section in 1966 as a standalone act to implement "a general philosophy of full agency disclosure." The amendment required agencies to publish their rules of procedure in the

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of financial companies, including "watch lists" they gathered about other companies, trading records of investment managers, and "trading algorithms" used by investment firms.

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had an accessible file which documented all the reports of this folder, the FBI and Office of Information and Privacy put forth "stony resistance" to the FOIA appeal process.

5309: 2454:(SEC) from requests under the Freedom of Information Act. The provisions were initially motivated out of concern that the FOIA would hinder SEC investigations that involved 1934:

adequately. The Moss Committee took it upon itself to reform confidentiality policy and implement punishments for the overuse of classification by officials and departments.

3231: 766: 3309:"Veto Battle 30 Years Ago Set Freedom of Information Norms: Scalia, Rumsfeld, Cheney Opposed Open Government Bill; Congress Overrode President Ford's Veto of Court Review" 2624:, Armstrong's association for the preservation of government historical documents, obtained an injunction in Federal District Court against the head, John Fawcett, of the 3101: 5266: 4078: 2632:

Richey gave a further injunction to prevent a purging of the George H.W. Bush's administration's records as well. On counts of leaving the White House clean for the new

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Memorandum for President Ford from Ken Cole, "H.R. 12471, Amendments to the Freedom of Information Act", September 25, 1974 Source: Gerald R. Ford Library. Document 10.

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to provide for certain disclosures under section 552 of title 5, United States Code, (commonly referred to as the Freedom of Information Act), and for other purposes."

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Especially where, as here, an agency's responses to a request for information have been tardy and grudging, courts should be sure they do not abdicate their own duty.

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it establishes an Office of Government Information Services (OGIS) which will offer mediation services to resolve disputes as non-exclusive alternative to litigation.

2253:(E) An agency, or part of an agency, that is an element of the intelligence community (as that term is defined in section 3(4) of the National Security Act of 1947 ( 5006: 4795: 3475:"Brief Amici Curiae of The Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press and the Society of Professional Journalists in support of Leslie R. Weatherhead, Respondent" 3366: 1688: 218: 4942: 2318: 2314: 1100: 5250: 2782: 1512: 1466: 747: 5274: 4745: 4026: 2745: 2625: 2372: 1787: 1601: 1133: 1095: 153: 4294: 2930: 2294: 2122:

The outcry from the effect that the Reagan Order had on FOIA requests was a factor in leading President Clinton to dramatically alter the criteria in 1995.

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it requires agencies to assign tracking numbers to FOIA requests that take longer than 10 days, and to provide systems determining the status of a request.

1751: 31: 1967:, but had an effective date of one year after the date of enactment, or July 4, 1967. The law set up the structure of FOIA as we know it today. President 5072: 4998: 3075: 1774:

for reporting purposes, though such uses make up less than 10% of all requests—which are more frequently made by businesses, law firms, and individuals.

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Administration were insulated. However, they were also backed up and transferred to paper memos. The National Security Council, on the eve of President

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it specifically addresses data sources used to generate reports; "shall make the raw statistical data used in its reports available electronically ..."

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denies a freedom of information request, shazam!—the full force of the Third Branch of the government is summoned to the wronged party's assistance."

1550: 1413: 367: 2733: 2702:, and the court issued an order commanding the FBI to either immediately comply with or deny Open America's request. The government appealed to the 2465:

passed an act repealing those provisions. The act was introduced in the Senate on August 5, 2010 as S.3717 and given the name "A bill to amend the

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inter-agency or intra-agency memoranda or letters which would not be available by law to a party other than an agency in litigation with the agency;

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Freedom of Information Act requests have led to the release of information such as this letter by J. Edgar Hoover about surveillance of ex-Beatle

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asking them to lobby a particular White House staffer. President Ford was persuaded to veto the bill on October 17, 1974, according to documents

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it requires agencies to make recommendations personnel matters related to FOIA such as whether FOIA performance should be used as a merit factor.

1329: 329: 4757:. Enrolled Acts and Resolutions of Congress, compiled 1789–2008. U.S. National Archives and Records Administration. July 4, 1966. Archived from 4455: 4354: 2485:

A major issue in released documentation is government "redaction" of certain passages deemed applicable to the Exemption section of the FOIA.

804: 500: 462: 4966: 4618: 4604: 4489: 4419: 3168: 1420: 1349: 1183: 4052: 880: 5219: 2698:. The FBI had over 5,000 pending FOIA requests at the time and did not respond within the statutory 20-day limit. Open America sued in the 1623: 1596: 1567: 1454: 1403: 1396: 1164: 1077: 1067: 1869:

personnel and medical files and similar files the disclosure of which would constitute a clearly unwarranted invasion of personal privacy;

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it calls for each agency to designate a FOIA Public Liaison, "who shall assist in the resolution of any disputes" (Effective 12/31/2008).

671: 4788: 3007: 2749: 2326: 2266:(i) any government entity, other than a State, territory, commonwealth, or district of the United States, or any subdivision thereof; or 1926: 1681: 1557: 1311: 1306: 3504: 1942:

The FOIA was initially introduced as the bill S. 1160 in the 89th Congress. When the two-page bill was signed into law, it became

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law that requires the full or partial disclosure of previously unreleased or uncirculated information and documents controlled by the

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reported one request that required nearly half the election office’s staff to spend four days sorting and scanning 20,000 documents.

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wrote the unanimous opinion. "In an effort to support his claim in subsequent state court proceedings that the prosecution violated

1975: 1839: 1743: 1734: 1529: 1437: 1037: 899: 176: 163: 4397: 3749: 3610: 4804: 2542: 1478: 988: 976: 951: 728: 519: 204: 2554:

165 (1993), involved what was alleged to be a felony murder committed during a group burglary by defendant Landano. Justice

2207:. Public access to presidential records was restored to the original extent of five years (12 for some records) outlined in the 4218: 3777: 3647: 3269: 3097: 2737: 2725: 2720: 2486: 2474: 2466: 1993: 1956: 1630: 1495: 1461: 1299: 134: 126: 709: 538: 5139: 5064: 4863: 4781: 4752: 4685: 4315: 3820: 2687: 2470: 2298: 2073: 1826:

was passed as a countervailing measure to ensure the security of government documents increasingly kept on private citizens.

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Related to information which would lead to financial speculation or endanger the stability of any financial institution, and

4666:"The Freedom of Information Act Reimagined: Lawmaking, Transparency, and National Security In Twenty-First-Century America" 557: 5314: 4828: 4700: 4520: 4500: 3191: 1918: 1818:—believed that certain types of unclassified government information should nonetheless remain secret. Notwithstanding the 1574: 1052: 981: 4376: 3351: 595: 576: 5179: 5038: 4851: 4628: 4470: 3798: 3579: 2781:

Since 2020, election officials across the U.S. have reported an overwhelming increase in records requests from apparent

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Administration, the Bush group appealed but was denied its request. Finally, the Clinton Administration appealed to the

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This trend of unwillingness to release records was especially evident in the process of making public the FBI files on

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it redefines the definition of an agency "record" to include information held for an agency by a government contractor.

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with explanatory entries on various aspects of FOIA, including caselaw, agency information, and recent FOIA decisions

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directing that required attorney fees be paid from an agency's own appropriation rather than from the Judgment Fund;

2301:(and certain other reconnaissance offices within the Department of Defense), the intelligence elements of the Army, 5131: 4901: 4869: 4018: 3631: 3256: 2343: 2246:(1) in subparagraph (A) by inserting "and except as provided in subparagraph (E)", after "of this subsection"; and 2220: 2030: 1980: 1943: 1432: 1057: 4232: 1110: 861: 2922: 2831: 2621: 2310: 1884: 1858: 4138: 959: 46: 2791: 2787: 2322: 2286: 2208: 1660: 1579: 1541: 1444: 1386: 1342: 1217: 1072: 1047: 993: 3067: 3192:"Lyndon B. Johnson: "Statement by the President Upon Signing the "Freedom of Information Act.", July 4, 1966" 2163:

An example of an E-FOIA request. This particular request concerns possible records the FBI might have on the

386: 4696: 4079:"While US Attorney General, Eric Holder Used Kareem Abdul-Jabbar's Birth Name as His Official Email Address" 3996: 2608:

computer communications software. With encryption designed for secure messaging, PROFS notes concerning the

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That law was initially repealed. During the period between the enactment of the act and its effective date,

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confidentiality ladder "confidential" should be removed. They deemed that "secret" and "top secret" covered

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trade secrets and commercial or financial information obtained from a person and privileged or confidential;

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Your Right to Federal Records: Questions and Answers on the Freedom of Information Act and the Privacy Act

2836: 2555: 2525:, most notably one entire folder entitled the "White House Security Survey". Despite finding out that the 2355: 2306: 2232: 1791: 1760: 1363: 1212: 2521:. Of the 164 files and about eighteen thousand pages collected by the FBI, two-thirds were withheld from 481: 4990: 3936: 2637: 2569: 2551: 2430: 2182: 1222: 1114: 932: 912: 889: 870: 851: 832: 813: 794: 775: 756: 737: 718: 699: 680: 661: 642: 623: 604: 585: 566: 547: 528: 509: 490: 471: 452: 433: 414: 395: 376: 357: 338: 319: 4207: 4171: 3881: 443: 1767:

to address them. The FOIA has been changed repeatedly by both the legislative and executive branches.

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This article is about the U.S. federal law. For freedom of information in the fifty U.S. states, see

2588:'s assertions of the government's need for "greater openness" and "discretionary releases" in 1993. 119: 5014: 4451: 4268: 3914: 3131: 2821: 2761: 2497: 2204: 2186: 2115: 2026: 1896: 1823: 1268: 1204: 842: 261: 4427: 3640: 3160: 3068:"Michael Smith's Law Blog: Why Wells?: Exploring the Freedom of Information Act's Ninth Exemption" 2352: 2229: 1759:

American public could more easily identify problems in government functioning and put pressure on

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and the FBI requesting copies of all their documents relating to the role of former FBI Director

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prohibiting an agency from assessing certain fees if it fails to comply with FOIA deadlines; and

4633:(Editor's Note: I have added links to those articles I located that were available at no cost.) 17: 5080: 4982: 4600: 4485: 4309: 4240: 3442: 3050: 3003: 2695: 2617: 2560: 2434: 2090: 2018: 1968: 1931: 1815: 1197: 1172: 243: 4735: 3500: 3438: 3049:; American Civil Liberties Union Foundation pamphlet written by Allan Robert Adler, pp. 3–5, 1786:, the Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) was moved from its original home in Section 3 of the 4894: 4592: 4548: 3555: 2658: 2433:, which allows the government to classify certain specific types of information relevant to 1796: 1711: 1008: 4503:. The American Presidency Project. University of California – Santa Barbara. Archived from 3721:"Public Law 110-175 OPENNESS PROMOTES EFFECTIVENESS IN OUR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT ACT OF 2007" 3230:. 4th International Conference of Information Commissioners. pp. 54–74. Archived from 5203: 5171: 4907: 4843: 4673: 4380: 4361: 4214: 4178: 3851: 3781: 3478: 3426: 3308: 3288: 2826: 2691: 2518: 2201: 2112: 2033: 1755: 1155: 1105: 924: 904: 3688: 3281: 4393: 3852:"Legislative Proposals to Address Concerns Over the SEC's New Confidentiality Provision" 3606: 2987: 5088: 4924: 4295:"Insight: Pro-Trump activists swamp election officials with sprawling records requests" 2526: 2462: 2339: 2190: 2044: 2022: 1892: 1241: 892: 873: 854: 835: 816: 778: 767:

Bibles, Oregon Director, Bureau of Land Management v. Oregon Natural Desert Association

759: 740: 721: 702: 683: 664: 607: 569: 531: 512: 493: 474: 455: 436: 417: 398: 379: 360: 341: 200: 4053:"'Secret' Email Accounts Raise More Questions, Concerns About Government Transparency" 3939: 3670: 3660: 3558: 2893: 2860: 2450:, signed into law in July 2010, included provisions in section 929I that shielded the 588: 550: 5303: 4677: 4584: 4568: 4531:(Mentions inadequacy of government response to FOIA requests, e.g. around 22 min. in) 3431: 2613: 2397:

it codifies and defines annual reporting requirements for each agency's FOIA program.

797: 645: 626: 322: 3706: 2861:"To Suspend the Rules and Pass S. 1160, A Bill … – House Vote #277 – Jun 20, 1966" 2259: 4818: 4773: 4758: 3265: 2954:"John Moss and the Roots of the Freedom of Information Act: Worldwide Implications" 2633: 2605: 2455: 2426: 2342:

signed the Openness Promotes Effectiveness in our National Government Act of 2007,

2236: 2197: 2143: 2052: 1952: 1808: 3828: 3006:. Office of Information and Privacy, U.S. Department of Justice. August 13, 2014. 2219:

In 2002, Congress passed the Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2003,

2096:

Related to investigatory records where the information would harm the proceedings,

1989: 1879:

geological and geophysical information and data, including maps, concerning wells.

4619:"Features – A Selected Bibliography on the Freedom of Information Act, 1980–2004" 3774: 3753: 2798:

election staff the authority to deny unreasonable or clearly frivolous requests.

2076:, Exemption 3 of the FOIA was amended so that several exemptions were specified: 1903:

A federal court has concisely described the vital role of the FOIA in democracy:

4640: 4596: 4355:

OPM establishes a new occupational series for FOIA and Privacy Act professionals

2601: 2502: 2438:

information that is not specifically identified as requiring continued secrecy.

2037: 1843: 1819: 1771: 1747: 4689: 4504: 3609:. United States Department of Justice Office of Information and Privacy. 2002. 3199: 4823: 4373: 3794: 3571: 2585: 2506: 1922: 1783: 4729: 4585:"Towards More Open Democracies: The Expansion of Freedom of Information Laws" 4244: 3391: 2413: 2412:

it requires agencies to specify the specific exemption for each deletion or

2193:

on November 1, 2001, restricted access to the records of former presidents.

4665: 4583:

Cain, Bruce E.; Dalton, Russell J.; Scarrow, Susan E. (December 18, 2003).

2159: 4501:"Statement by the President Upon Signing the 'Freedom of Information Act'" 3530: 1853:

related solely to the internal personnel rules and practices of an agency;

3651: 3529:. Illinois Institute of Technology Paul V. Galvin Library. Archived from 2841: 2148: 1227: 208: 27:

1967 US statute regarding access to information held by the US government

4374:

Position Classification Flysheet for Government Information Series, 0306

2371:

establishing an Office of Government Information Services (OGIS) in the

748:

United States Department of Defense v. Federal Labor Relations Authority

4233:"Trump backers flood election offices with requests as 2022 vote nears" 3273: 1960: 138: 62: 4560: 4536: 3433:

A Culture of Secrecy: The Government Versus the People's Right to Know

1997: 3910: 2269:(ii) a representative of a government entity described in clause (i). 653:

Department of Justice v. Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press

282:

The Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002, PL 107-306, 116 Stat 2383

4552: 4420:"Want to Obtain FBI Records a Little Quicker? Try New eFOIA System" 3224:

The Presidential Executive Order on the Freedom of Information Act

2669: 2662:

records that appeals showed should be available for minimal cost.

2496: 2362:

establishing a definition of "a representative of the news media;"

2158: 406:

Federal Open Market Committee of Federal Reserve System v. Merrill

4537:"The Early Years of the Freedom of Information Act. 1955 to 1974" 4109:"DEA wants $ 1.4 million before it will begin processing request" 4019:"US officials found to be using secret government email accounts" 2196:

This order was revoked on January 21, 2009, as part of President

1834:

The act explicitly applies only to government agencies under the

4623: 4269:"Election Officials & the Misuse of Public Records Requests" 2513:, eventually resulted in the release of documents like this one. 2510: 2263:)) shall not make any record available under this paragraph to— 4777: 4726:– The National Security Archive at George Washington University 4191: 4189: 4187: 2040:

were concerned about leaks. Assistant Attorney General for the

368:

National Labor Relations Board v. Robbins Tire & Rubber Co.

3752:. National Archives and Records Administration. Archived from 3501:"FOIA Reform Legislation Enacted: FOIA Update Vol. VII, No. 4" 2904: 2902: 2282: 2243:

Section 552(a)(3) of title 5, United States Code, is amended—

2047:

advised the bill was unconstitutional and even telephoned the

1720: 786:

Department of Interior v. Klamath Water Users Protective Assn.

4738:– compiled by the Law Librarians' Society of Washington, D.C. 4526:

Reflections on the U.S. Treasury Department in the Late 1990s

3907:

Bill Summary & Status- 111th Congress (2009–2010) S.3717

3291:

for background on positive law codifiation of the U.S. Code.

3098:"USPS: ZIP Codes are "Commercially Sensitive" Trade Secrets" 2773:, the SEC, the DOJ, and the EPA, even decreased marginally. 2598:

Scott Armstrong v. Executive Office of the President, et al.

958: 5330:

United States federal government administration legislation

3607:"FOIA Post: FOIA Amended by Intelligence Authorization Act" 2102:

Related to the agency's participation in legal proceedings.

2089:

Related to information where disclosure would constitute a

1726: 330:

Administrator, Federal Aviation Administration v. Robertson

4472:

US Gov't Sets Record for Failures to Find Files When Asked

4330:"Lawmakers eye more exemptions to target "abuse'" of FOIA" 3047:

Step-by-Step Guide to using the Freedom of Information Act

2923:"Who files the most FOIA requests? It's not who you think" 2710:

the District of Columbia Circuit Court of Appeals stated:

2686:, in which Open America had filed a FOIA request with the 2421:

2009 Executive Order permitting retroactive classification

4975:

Bi-Metallic Investment Co. v. State Board of Equalization

4454:

from judicial opinions or other documents created by the

3821:"House holds hearing on controversial SEC FOIA exemption" 2448:

Dodd–Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act

2083:

Related solely to internal personnel rules and practices,

1723: 4717: 2817:

Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy

2442:

2010 repeal of FOIA amendments in Wall Street reform act

2215:

Intelligence Authorization Act of 2002 amending the FOIA

2155:

Electronic Freedom of Information Act Amendments of 1996

2130:

The FOIA amendments were a small part of the bipartisan

805:

National Archives & Records Administration v. Favish

501:

United States Department of State v. Washington Post Co.

463:

Consumer Product Safety Commission v. GTE Sylvania, Inc.

5320:

Freedom of information legislation in the United States

4690:"Access to Government Information in the United States" 4484:(2nd ed.). St. Paul, Minnesota: Foundation Press. 3255:

The enactment of Title 5 into positive law was done by

2620:'s inauguration, planned to destroy these records. The 2509:

based on FOIA, with the assistance of lawyers from the

2126:

1986 Omnibus Anti-Drug Abuse Act amendments to the FOIA

4208:

Making the Grade: Access to Information Scorecard 2015

920:

United States Fish and Wildlife Service v. Sierra Club

881:

Schindler Elevator Corp. v. United States ex rel. Kirk

285:

OPEN Government Act of 2007, PL 110-175, 121 Stat 2524

1735: 1717: 4741: 4720:– U.S. Department of Justice FOIA complete reference 4480:

Hickman, Kristen E.; Pierce, Richard J. Jr. (2014).

4231:

Gardner, Amy; Marley, Patrick (September 13, 2022).

2876:

Who Owns Information?: From Privacy To Public Access

2682:

The first major case of this type was the 1976 case

2151:

and other historical events to be discussed openly.

2025:

wanted to sign FOIA-strengthening amendments in the

1971:, despite his misgivings, signed the FOIA into law. 5234: 5115: 5056: 5049: 4950: 4941: 4916: 4879: 4842: 4811: 4168:

Open America v. Watergate Special Prosecution Force

2684:

Open America v. Watergate Special Prosecution Force

1917:The law came about because of the determination of 1714: 672:

United States Department of Justice v. Tax Analysts

297: 253: 187: 169: 159: 149: 144: 125: 115: 110: 102: 91: 74: 61: 53: 3993:"TOP OBAMA APPOINTEES USING SECRET EMAIL ACCOUNTS" 3882:"Schapiro explains why some info should be secret" 3632: 3430: 3257: 2344: 2221: 1981: 1944: 4499:Peters, Gerhard; Woolley, John T (July 4, 1966). 4273:The Center for Election Innovation & Research 3723:. Government Printing Office. December 31, 2007. 2111:Between 1982 and 1995, President Ronald Reagan's 615:Church of Scientology v. Internal Revenue Service 425:Kissinger v. Reporters Comm. for Freedom of Press 4055:. Chilling Effects Clearinghouse. Archived from 2700:U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia 1770:The FOIA is commonly known for being invoked by 4482:Federal Administrative Law: Cases and Materials 3744: 3742: 3572:"Executive Order 13489 on Presidential Records" 3552:Executive Order no. 13489, Presidential Records 3396:. Electronic Privacy Information Center. 1992. 3352:"The Freedom of Information Act Has No Clothes" 2712: 2241: 1905: 311:Renegotiation Board v. Bannercraft Clothing Co. 164:5 U.S.C.: Government Organization and Employees 4046: 4044: 3437:. Kansas: University Press of Kansas. p. 2068:1976 Government in the Sunshine Act amendments 900:Food Marketing Institute v. Argus Leader Media 4789: 4195: 3986: 3984: 3150:. New York, NY: Marshall Cavendish Benchmark. 3121: 3119: 2908: 1682: 279:Electronic Freedom of Information Act of 1996 8: 4746:Reporters Committee for Freedom of the Press 3041: 3039: 3037: 3035: 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 3025: 2746:United States Department of Veterans Affairs 2626:National Archives and Records Administration 2373:National Archives and Records Administration 1857:particular types of matters to be withheld; 1096:Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs 39: 4475:, March 18, 2016 – via New York Times 2998: 2996: 2325:, the Department of Homeland Security, the 520:Federal Bureau of Investigation v. Abramson 32:Freedom of information in the United States 5310:Freedom of Information Act (United States) 5073:Citizens to Preserve Overton Park v. Volpe 5053: 4999:Board of Regents of State Colleges v. Roth 4947: 4796: 4782: 4774: 3461:Exec. Order No. 12356, 3 C.F.R. 166 (1983) 3100:. The WebLaws.org Blog. November 6, 2013. 2704:U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit 1689: 1675: 943: 3975: 3963: 3951: 3929:United States Dep't of Justice v. Landano 3469: 3467: 3345: 3343: 2080:Information relating to national defense, 3850:Schapiro, Mary L. (September 16, 2010). 2734:United States Department of the Treasury 2249:(2) by adding at the end the following: 2086:Related to accusing a person of a crime, 710:United States Department of State v. Ray 539:Federal Trade Commission v. Grolier Inc. 5259:Bowen v. Georgetown University Hospital 4139:"The Pentagon's $ 660 million FOIA fee" 3171:from the original on September 27, 2013 3142: 3140: 2852: 2771:Department of Health and Human Services 2767:Equal Employment Opportunity Commission 2758:Department of Health and Human Services 2674:U.S. Department of Justice headquarters 2653:Secret e-mail accounts and abusive fees 946: 4706:from the original on December 4, 2021. 4456:federal judiciary of the United States 4307: 4119:from the original on February 17, 2016 4089:from the original on February 26, 2016 4025:. The Associated Press. June 4, 2013. 3995:. The Associated Press. Archived from 3888:from the original on February 25, 2021 3775:President Bush Signs S. 2488 into Law 3601: 3599: 3597: 3372:from the original on February 22, 2016 3303: 3301: 3299: 3297: 3010:from the original on February 14, 2007 2375:to review agency compliance with FOIA. 2178:2001 Executive Order limiting the FOIA 2107:1982 Executive Order limiting the FOIA 1814:Others, though—most notably President 38: 4617:Ravnitzky, Michael (March 15, 2004). 4263: 4261: 3924: 3922: 3862:from the original on January 11, 2023 3801:from the original on November 8, 2015 3797:. Federation of American Scientists. 3727:from the original on January 11, 2009 3582:from the original on January 26, 2016 3104:from the original on November 7, 2013 2802:Implementation by government agencies 558:United States v. Weber Aircraft Corp. 7: 5220:Loper Bright Enterprises v. Raimondo 4736:Freedom of Information Act Resources 4664:Phillips, Matthew F. (May 1, 2017). 4641:"The myth of freedom of information" 3613:from the original on August 24, 2007 3503:. U.S. Department of Justice. 1986. 3421: 3419: 3417: 3415: 3221:Metcalfe, Daniel J. (May 23, 2006). 3190:Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley. 4426:. November 30, 2015. Archived from 3527:"Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)" 3507:from the original on August 6, 2007 2933:from the original on April 10, 2022 2750:United States Department of Defense 2327:Bureau of Intelligence and Research 2295:National Imagery and Mapping Agency 596:Central Intelligence Agency v. Sims 577:Department of Justice v. Provenzano 4541:PS: Political Science and Politics 4400:from the original on July 19, 2019 4149:from the original on March 4, 2016 3637:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 3400:from the original on June 17, 2004 3319:from the original on July 13, 2007 3262:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 3078:from the original on July 31, 2020 2964:from the original on July 19, 2019 2754:Securities and Exchange Commission 2452:Securities and Exchange Commission 2349:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 2226:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1986:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 1949:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 223:Committee on Government Operations 25: 4029:from the original on May 15, 2016 3784:FAS Project on Government Secrecy 2921:Schouten, Cory (March 17, 2017). 2742:United States Department of Labor 2142:Between 1995 and 1999, President 1976:Title 5 of the United States Code 1038:National Environmental Policy Act 691:John Doe Agency v. John Doe Corp. 230:on October 13, 1965 (passed) 199:in the Senate as S. 1160 by 5325:Privacy law in the United States 4805:United States administrative law 4535:Archibald, Sam (December 1993). 4443: 4364:, April 23, 2012, at justice.gov 4293:Layne, Nathan (August 3, 2022). 3313:Electronic Briefing Book No. 142 3066:Smith, Michael (April 1, 2014). 2543:Department of Justice v. Landano 2540:A murder trial decided in 1993, 2534:Department of Justice v. Landano 2505:. A 25-year battle by historian 2425:On December 29, 2009, President 2008:Amendments and executive actions 1710: 1128:Judicial review of agency action 729:Department of Justice v. Landano 45: 4730:Stanford Libraries FOIA archive 4611:Chapter In book, PDF Available 4219:Center for Effective Government 3196:The American Presidency Project 2738:Environmental Protection Agency 2726:Department of Homeland Security 2721:Center for Effective Government 2487:Federal Bureau of Investigation 2475:Investment Advisers Act of 1940 2467:Securities Exchange Act of 1934 2379:Changes include the following: 1750:, is the United States federal 1376:Regulated fields (and agencies) 634:Department of Justice v. Julian 349:Department of Air Force v. Rose 84:Public Information Availability 18:Freedom of Information Act (US) 5140:Universal Camera Corp. v. NLRB 5065:Abbott Laboratories v. Gardner 4864:Government in the Sunshine Act 4686:Congressional Research Service 4639:Chenault, John (Spring 2014). 4051:Woolery, Liz (June 14, 2013). 3350:Scalia, Antonin (March 1982). 2952:Jones, Nate (April 17, 2018). 2612:(arms-for-hostages) under the 2471:Investment Company Act of 1940 2299:National Reconnaissance Office 2074:Government in the Sunshine Act 2013:Privacy Act Amendments of 1974 1173:Committed to agency discretion 1043:Government in the Sunshine Act 288:Wall Street Reform Act of 2010 268:Government in the Sunshine Act 81:Public Information Act of 1966 1: 3991:Gillum, Jack (June 4, 2013). 3165:The National Security Archive 2736:(Treasury) (68 percent), the 1919:U.S. House of Representatives 982:Notice of proposed rulemaking 236:on June 20, 1966 (306–0) 5180:Christensen v. Harris County 5039:Logan v. Zimmerman Brush Co. 4852:Administrative Procedure Act 4629:Law Library Resource Xchange 2730:Department of Transportation 1788:Administrative Procedure Act 1763:, agency officials, and the 1078:Federal Vacancies Reform Act 1068:Unfunded Mandates Reform Act 1028:Administrative Procedure Act 862:Milner v. Department of Navy 291:FOIA Improvement Act of 2016 154:Administrative Procedure Act 5196:United States v. Mead Corp. 5132:Skidmore v. Swift & Co. 5124:NLRB v. Hearst Publications 4888:Code of Federal Regulations 4597:10.1093/0199264996.003.0006 4196:Hickman & Pierce (2014) 3884:. CNN. September 16, 2010. 3780:September 24, 2015, at the 3654:, § 312 (to be codified at 2909:Hickman & Pierce (2014) 2334:OPEN Government Act of 2007 2291:Defense Intelligence Agency 2132:Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 1002:Code of Federal Regulations 299:United States Supreme Court 274:Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986 97:89th United States Congress 5346: 4902:Emergency Federal Register 4870:Regulatory Flexibility Act 4858:Freedom of Information Act 4754:Freedom of Information Act 4521:Mariano-Florentino Cuéllar 4450:This article incorporates 4314:: CS1 maint: url-status ( 3161:"FOIA Legislative History" 3148:Freedom of Information Act 3146:Gold, Susan Dudley. 2012. 3134: (D.C. Cir. 1983). 2927:Columbia Journalism Review 2592:Iran–Contra affair e-mails 2315:Department of the Treasury 2031:White House Chief of Staff 1703:Freedom of Information Act 1058:Regulatory Flexibility Act 1033:Freedom of Information Act 276:, PL 99–570, 100 Stat 3207 219:Committee on the Judiciary 40:Freedom of Information Act 29: 4221:, retrieved 21 March 2016 2832:FOIA Exemption 3 Statutes 2622:National Security Archive 1885:Postal Reorganization Act 1859:FOIA Exemption 3 Statutes 1382:Antitrust and competition 1101:Administrative Conference 305: 270:, PL 94–409, 90 Stat 1241 264:, PL 93–579, 88 Stat 1896 258: 192: 44: 4724:FOIA Legislative History 4213:August 11, 2019, at the 3072:Michael Smith's Law Blog 2874:Branscomb, Anne (1994). 2792:Maricopa County, Arizona 2788:denial-of-service attack 2740:(EPA) (67 percent), the 2287:National Security Agency 2209:Presidential Records Act 2189:and issued by President 2072:In 1976, as part of the 1661:Statutory interpretation 1343:Unitary executive theory 1134:Arbitrary and capricious 1073:Congressional Review Act 1048:National Emergencies Act 994:Administrative law judge 4943:Supreme Court decisions 4697:The Library of Congress 3795:"Executive Order 13526" 3689:§ 552(a)(3)(E)(ii) 3287:April 21, 2021, at the 2461:In September 2010, the 2416:in disclosed documents. 2042:Office of Legal Counsel 1921:member John E. Moss of 1290:Congressional oversight 1090:Regulatory coordination 1063:Paperwork Reduction Act 387:Chrysler Corp. v. Brown 215:Committee consideration 5023:Vermont Yankee v. NRDC 5007:United States v. FECRC 4932:Foreign Affairs Manual 4834:Nondelegation doctrine 4589:Democracy Transformed? 4452:public domain material 4379:July 31, 2020, at the 4360:July 19, 2019, at the 4217:March 2015, 80 pages, 2988:§ 552(a)(4)(F)(i) 2837:Mosaic theory (US law) 2777:Abuse of FOIA requests 2717: 2675: 2514: 2274: 2170: 1910: 1752:freedom of information 963: 4991:Richardson v. Perales 4744:– wiki maintained by 4177:July 7, 2019, at the 4145:. February 26, 2016. 4085:. February 25, 2016. 3831:on September 19, 2010 3132:697 F.2d 1095 2688:U.S. Attorney General 2673: 2638:U.S. Court of Appeals 2500: 2431:Executive Order 13526 2183:Executive Order 13233 2162: 1927:Department of Defense 1223:Nationwide injunction 1115:Executive Order 12866 1111:Cost–benefit analysis 1053:Inspector General Act 962: 5315:1966 in American law 5212:West Virginia v. EPA 5031:Califano v. Yamasaki 4917:Policies and manuals 4761:on February 22, 2014 4523:(January 12, 2016). 4430:on December 8, 2015. 4115:. February 5, 2015. 2319:Department of Energy 1782:As indicated by its 1324:Independent agencies 1263:Separation of powers 843:FCC v. AT&T Inc. 211:) on October 4, 1965 181:ch. 5, subch. II 5015:Mathews v. Eldridge 4844:Federal legislation 3954:, pp. 151–152. 3915:Library of Congress 3756:on November 5, 2018 3671:§ 552(a)(3)(E) 3661:§ 552(a)(3)(A) 3237:on October 18, 2011 2894:§ 552(a)(4)(F) 2822:Federal Records Act 2762:Department of State 2556:Sandra Day O'Connor 2187:Alberto R. Gonzales 2027:Privacy Act of 1974 1913:Legislative history 1897:U.S. Postal Service 1824:Privacy Act of 1974 1330:Humphrey's Executor 1317:Senate confirmation 1269:Appointments Clause 1022:Statutory framework 482:Baldrige v. Shapiro 262:Privacy Act of 1974 188:Legislative history 41: 5148:MVMA v. State Farm 5105:Corner Post v. FRB 4967:Londoner v. Denver 4959:CMSPR v. Minnesota 4645:Kentucky Libraries 4507:on August 22, 2018 4394:"About FOIAonline" 3999:on October 7, 2013 3561:(January 21, 2009) 3202:on August 22, 2018 2756:(61 percent). The 2752:(61 percent), the 2748:(64 percent), the 2744:(63 percent), the 2676: 2642:writ of certiorari 2610:Iran–Contra affair 2523:Athan G. Theoharis 2515: 2171: 1772:news organizations 1656:Constitutional law 964: 948:Administrative law 824:Taylor v. Sturgell 5297: 5296: 5293: 5292: 5230: 5229: 5081:Heckler v. Chaney 4983:Goldberg v. Kelly 4688:(June 13, 2007). 4606:978-0-19-926499-5 4491:978-1-60930-337-2 4181:(D.C. Cir. 1976). 3278:September 6, 1966 2696:Watergate scandal 2618:George H. W. Bush 2561:Brady v. Maryland 2435:national security 2138:1995–99 expansion 2091:breach of privacy 2019:Watergate scandal 1969:Lyndon B. Johnson 1938:Initial enactment 1932:national security 1816:Lyndon B. Johnson 1699: 1698: 942: 941: 444:Forsham v. Harris 244:Lyndon B. Johnson 228:Passed the Senate 128:Statutes at Large 16:(Redirected from 5337: 5054: 4948: 4895:Federal Register 4798: 4791: 4784: 4775: 4770: 4768: 4766: 4707: 4705: 4694: 4681: 4660: 4658: 4656: 4635: 4613: 4579: 4577: 4575: 4530: 4516: 4514: 4512: 4495: 4476: 4447: 4446: 4432: 4431: 4416: 4410: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4390: 4384: 4371: 4365: 4352: 4346: 4345: 4343: 4341: 4326: 4320: 4319: 4313: 4305: 4303: 4301: 4290: 4284: 4283: 4281: 4279: 4265: 4256: 4255: 4253: 4251: 4228: 4222: 4205: 4199: 4193: 4182: 4165: 4159: 4158: 4156: 4154: 4135: 4129: 4128: 4126: 4124: 4105: 4099: 4098: 4096: 4094: 4075: 4069: 4068: 4066: 4064: 4059:on July 20, 2013 4048: 4039: 4038: 4036: 4034: 4015: 4009: 4008: 4006: 4004: 3988: 3979: 3976:Theoharis (1998) 3973: 3967: 3964:Theoharis (1998) 3961: 3955: 3952:Theoharis (1998) 3949: 3943: 3926: 3917: 3904: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3878: 3872: 3871: 3869: 3867: 3847: 3841: 3840: 3838: 3836: 3827:. Archived from 3817: 3811: 3810: 3808: 3806: 3791: 3785: 3772: 3766: 3765: 3763: 3761: 3750:"OGIS Home Page" 3746: 3737: 3736: 3734: 3732: 3717: 3711: 3709: 3699: 3693: 3691: 3681: 3675: 3673: 3663: 3638: 3634: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3603: 3592: 3591: 3589: 3587: 3568: 3562: 3549: 3543: 3542: 3540: 3538: 3523: 3517: 3516: 3514: 3512: 3497: 3491: 3490: 3488: 3486: 3471: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3452: 3436: 3427:Theoharis, Athan 3423: 3410: 3409: 3407: 3405: 3388: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3377: 3371: 3356: 3347: 3338: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3326: 3324: 3305: 3292: 3282:uscode.house.gov 3279: 3263: 3259: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3236: 3229: 3218: 3212: 3211: 3209: 3207: 3198:. Archived from 3187: 3181: 3180: 3178: 3176: 3157: 3151: 3144: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3114: 3113: 3111: 3109: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3085: 3083: 3063: 3057: 3043: 3020: 3019: 3017: 3015: 3000: 2991: 2990: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2971: 2969: 2949: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2938: 2918: 2912: 2906: 2897: 2896: 2886: 2880: 2879: 2871: 2865: 2864: 2857: 2783:election deniers 2659:Associated Press 2350: 2346: 2262: 2227: 2223: 2003: 1987: 1983: 1966: 1950: 1946: 1893:§ 410(c)(2) 1836:executive branch 1802:Federal Register 1797:Federal Register 1738: 1733: 1732: 1729: 1728: 1725: 1722: 1719: 1716: 1691: 1684: 1677: 1350:Legislative veto 1106:Executive orders 1009:Federal Register 944: 254:Major amendments 234:Passed the House 173:sections created 129: 67: 49: 42: 21: 5345: 5344: 5340: 5339: 5338: 5336: 5335: 5334: 5300: 5299: 5298: 5289: 5283:NCTA v. Brand X 5226: 5204:Kisor v. Wilkie 5172:Auer v. Robbins 5164:Chevron v. NRDC 5111: 5050:Judicial Review 5045: 4937: 4912: 4908:Regulations.gov 4875: 4838: 4807: 4802: 4764: 4762: 4751: 4714: 4703: 4692: 4684: 4674:Lewiston, Maine 4663: 4654: 4652: 4638: 4616: 4607: 4582: 4573: 4571: 4534: 4519: 4510: 4508: 4498: 4492: 4479: 4469: 4466: 4464:Further reading 4444: 4435: 4418: 4417: 4413: 4403: 4401: 4392: 4391: 4387: 4381:Wayback Machine 4372: 4368: 4362:Wayback Machine 4353: 4349: 4339: 4337: 4328: 4327: 4323: 4306: 4299: 4297: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4277: 4275: 4267: 4266: 4259: 4249: 4247: 4237:Washington Post 4230: 4229: 4225: 4215:Wayback Machine 4206: 4202: 4194: 4185: 4179:Wayback Machine 4166: 4162: 4152: 4150: 4137: 4136: 4132: 4122: 4120: 4107: 4106: 4102: 4092: 4090: 4077: 4076: 4072: 4062: 4060: 4050: 4049: 4042: 4032: 4030: 4017: 4016: 4012: 4002: 4000: 3990: 3989: 3982: 3974: 3970: 3962: 3958: 3950: 3946: 3927: 3920: 3905: 3901: 3891: 3889: 3880: 3879: 3875: 3865: 3863: 3849: 3848: 3844: 3834: 3832: 3819: 3818: 3814: 3804: 3802: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3782:Wayback Machine 3773: 3769: 3759: 3757: 3748: 3747: 3740: 3730: 3728: 3719: 3718: 3714: 3701: 3700: 3696: 3683: 3682: 3678: 3665: 3655: 3636: 3630: 3626: 3616: 3614: 3605: 3604: 3595: 3585: 3583: 3570: 3569: 3565: 3550: 3546: 3536: 3534: 3533:on June 2, 2002 3525: 3524: 3520: 3510: 3508: 3499: 3498: 3494: 3484: 3482: 3481:on June 9, 2007 3473: 3472: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3449: 3425: 3424: 3413: 3403: 3401: 3390: 3389: 3385: 3375: 3373: 3369: 3354: 3349: 3348: 3341: 3336: 3332: 3322: 3320: 3307: 3306: 3295: 3289:Wayback Machine 3277: 3261: 3254: 3250: 3240: 3238: 3234: 3227: 3220: 3219: 3215: 3205: 3203: 3189: 3188: 3184: 3174: 3172: 3159: 3158: 3154: 3145: 3138: 3125: 3124: 3117: 3107: 3105: 3096: 3095: 3091: 3081: 3079: 3065: 3064: 3060: 3044: 3023: 3013: 3011: 3002: 3001: 2994: 2982: 2981: 2977: 2967: 2965: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2936: 2934: 2920: 2919: 2915: 2907: 2900: 2888: 2887: 2883: 2873: 2872: 2868: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2850: 2827:Glomar response 2813: 2804: 2779: 2692:L. Patrick Gray 2668: 2666:Processing time 2655: 2596:In the case of 2594: 2538: 2519:J. Edgar Hoover 2495: 2493:J. Edgar Hoover 2483: 2444: 2423: 2348: 2336: 2313:, the FBI, the 2254: 2225: 2217: 2202:Executive Order 2180: 2157: 2140: 2128: 2113:Executive Order 2109: 2070: 2034:Donald Rumsfeld 2015: 2010: 2001: 1985: 1964: 1948: 1940: 1915: 1832: 1780: 1756:U.S. government 1736: 1713: 1709: 1695: 1666: 1665: 1651: 1643: 1642: 1631:Social Security 1377: 1369: 1368: 1300:Organic statute 1264: 1256: 1255: 1218:Major questions 1129: 1121: 1120: 1091: 1083: 1082: 1023: 1015: 1014: 972: 938: 249: 246:on July 4, 1966 240:Signed into law 127: 92:Enacted by 87: 65: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5343: 5341: 5333: 5332: 5327: 5322: 5317: 5312: 5302: 5301: 5295: 5294: 5291: 5290: 5288: 5287: 5279: 5275:Whitman v. ATA 5271: 5263: 5255: 5247: 5238: 5236: 5232: 5231: 5228: 5227: 5225: 5224: 5216: 5208: 5200: 5192: 5184: 5176: 5168: 5160: 5152: 5144: 5136: 5128: 5119: 5117: 5113: 5112: 5110: 5109: 5101: 5097:Norton v. SUWA 5093: 5089:Webster v. Doe 5085: 5077: 5069: 5060: 5058: 5051: 5047: 5046: 5044: 5043: 5035: 5027: 5019: 5011: 5003: 4995: 4987: 4979: 4971: 4963: 4954: 4952: 4945: 4939: 4938: 4936: 4935: 4928: 4925:Justice Manual 4920: 4918: 4914: 4913: 4911: 4910: 4905: 4898: 4891: 4883: 4881: 4877: 4876: 4874: 4873: 4867: 4861: 4855: 4848: 4846: 4840: 4839: 4837: 4836: 4831: 4826: 4821: 4815: 4813: 4809: 4808: 4803: 4801: 4800: 4793: 4786: 4778: 4772: 4771: 4749: 4739: 4733: 4727: 4721: 4713: 4712:External links 4710: 4709: 4708: 4682: 4661: 4636: 4614: 4605: 4580: 4553:10.2307/419539 4547:(4): 726–731. 4532: 4517: 4496: 4490: 4477: 4465: 4462: 4461: 4460: 4440: 4439: 4434: 4433: 4411: 4385: 4366: 4347: 4336:. June 9, 2021 4321: 4285: 4257: 4223: 4200: 4198:, p. 123. 4183: 4160: 4130: 4100: 4070: 4040: 4010: 3980: 3978:, p. 159. 3968: 3966:, p. 156. 3956: 3944: 3918: 3899: 3873: 3842: 3812: 3786: 3767: 3738: 3712: 3707:§ 401a(4) 3694: 3676: 3641:107–306 (text) 3624: 3593: 3563: 3544: 3518: 3492: 3463: 3454: 3447: 3411: 3383: 3339: 3330: 3293: 3248: 3213: 3182: 3152: 3136: 3127:McGehee v. CIA 3115: 3089: 3058: 3021: 2992: 2975: 2944: 2913: 2911:, p. 122. 2898: 2881: 2866: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2845: 2844: 2839: 2834: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2812: 2809: 2803: 2800: 2778: 2775: 2732:(68 percent), 2728:(69 percent), 2708:McGehee v. CIA 2667: 2664: 2654: 2651: 2593: 2590: 2537: 2531: 2527:Truman Library 2494: 2491: 2482: 2479: 2463:111th Congress 2443: 2440: 2422: 2419: 2418: 2417: 2410: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2385: 2377: 2376: 2369: 2366: 2363: 2353:110–175 (text) 2340:George W. Bush 2335: 2332: 2273: 2272: 2271: 2270: 2267: 2260:§ 401a(4) 2235:. Within this 2230:107–306 (text) 2216: 2213: 2191:George W. Bush 2179: 2176: 2156: 2153: 2139: 2136: 2127: 2124: 2108: 2105: 2104: 2103: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2069: 2066: 2045:Antonin Scalia 2023:Gerald R. Ford 2017:Following the 2014: 2011: 2009: 2006: 1939: 1936: 1914: 1911: 1895:) exempts the 1889:39 U.S.C. 1881: 1880: 1877: 1874: 1870: 1867: 1864: 1861: 1854: 1851: 1831: 1828: 1779: 1776: 1697: 1696: 1694: 1693: 1686: 1679: 1671: 1668: 1667: 1664: 1663: 1658: 1652: 1650:Related topics 1649: 1648: 1645: 1644: 1641: 1640: 1639: 1638: 1628: 1627: 1626: 1621: 1616: 1609:Transportation 1606: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1589: 1588: 1587: 1582: 1572: 1571: 1570: 1565: 1555: 1554: 1553: 1539: 1538: 1537: 1532: 1522: 1521: 1520: 1515: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1486: 1476: 1475: 1474: 1469: 1459: 1458: 1457: 1452: 1442: 1441: 1440: 1430: 1429: 1428: 1423: 1418: 1417: 1416: 1401: 1400: 1399: 1394: 1389: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1371: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1361: 1360: 1359: 1347: 1346: 1345: 1340: 1333: 1321: 1320: 1319: 1314: 1309: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1287: 1286: 1285: 1278: 1265: 1262: 1261: 1258: 1257: 1254: 1253: 1252: 1251: 1239: 1238: 1237: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1209: 1208: 1201: 1194: 1187: 1175: 1170: 1169: 1168: 1161: 1145: 1144: 1143: 1130: 1127: 1126: 1123: 1122: 1119: 1118: 1108: 1103: 1098: 1092: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1017: 1016: 1013: 1012: 1005: 998: 997: 996: 986: 985: 984: 973: 970: 969: 966: 965: 955: 954: 940: 939: 937: 936: 935:___ (2021) 916: 915:___ (2019) 896: 877: 858: 839: 820: 801: 782: 763: 744: 725: 706: 687: 668: 649: 630: 611: 592: 573: 554: 535: 516: 497: 478: 459: 440: 421: 402: 383: 364: 345: 326: 306: 303: 302: 295: 294: 293: 292: 289: 286: 283: 280: 277: 271: 265: 256: 255: 251: 250: 248: 247: 237: 231: 225: 212: 193: 190: 189: 185: 184: 174: 167: 166: 161: 160:Titles amended 157: 156: 151: 147: 146: 142: 141: 131: 123: 122: 117: 113: 112: 108: 107: 104: 100: 99: 93: 89: 88: 86: 85: 82: 78: 76: 72: 71: 68: 59: 58: 55: 51: 50: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 5342: 5331: 5328: 5326: 5323: 5321: 5318: 5316: 5313: 5311: 5308: 5307: 5305: 5285: 5284: 5280: 5277: 5276: 5272: 5269: 5268: 5267:Gade v. NSWMA 5264: 5261: 5260: 5256: 5253: 5252: 5251:CFTC v. Schor 5248: 5245: 5244: 5243:INS v. Chadha 5240: 5239: 5237: 5235:Agency Action 5233: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5214: 5213: 5209: 5206: 5205: 5201: 5198: 5197: 5193: 5190: 5189: 5185: 5182: 5181: 5177: 5174: 5173: 5169: 5166: 5165: 5161: 5158: 5157: 5153: 5150: 5149: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5137: 5134: 5133: 5129: 5126: 5125: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5114: 5107: 5106: 5102: 5099: 5098: 5094: 5091: 5090: 5086: 5083: 5082: 5078: 5075: 5074: 5070: 5067: 5066: 5062: 5061: 5059: 5057:Reviewability 5055: 5052: 5048: 5041: 5040: 5036: 5033: 5032: 5028: 5025: 5024: 5020: 5017: 5016: 5012: 5009: 5008: 5004: 5001: 5000: 4996: 4993: 4992: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4980: 4977: 4976: 4972: 4969: 4968: 4964: 4961: 4960: 4956: 4955: 4953: 4949: 4946: 4944: 4940: 4934: 4933: 4929: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4921: 4919: 4915: 4909: 4906: 4904: 4903: 4899: 4897: 4896: 4892: 4890: 4889: 4885: 4884: 4882: 4878: 4871: 4868: 4865: 4862: 4859: 4856: 4853: 4850: 4849: 4847: 4845: 4841: 4835: 4832: 4830: 4827: 4825: 4822: 4820: 4817: 4816: 4814: 4810: 4806: 4799: 4794: 4792: 4787: 4785: 4780: 4779: 4776: 4760: 4756: 4755: 4750: 4747: 4743: 4740: 4737: 4734: 4731: 4728: 4725: 4722: 4719: 4716: 4715: 4711: 4702: 4698: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4678:Bates College 4675: 4671: 4670:Honors Theses 4667: 4662: 4650: 4646: 4642: 4637: 4634: 4630: 4626: 4625: 4620: 4615: 4612: 4608: 4602: 4598: 4594: 4590: 4586: 4581: 4570: 4566: 4562: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4528: 4527: 4522: 4518: 4506: 4502: 4497: 4493: 4487: 4483: 4478: 4474: 4473: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4442: 4441: 4437: 4436: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4415: 4412: 4399: 4395: 4389: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4375: 4370: 4367: 4363: 4359: 4356: 4351: 4348: 4335: 4331: 4325: 4322: 4317: 4311: 4296: 4289: 4286: 4274: 4270: 4264: 4262: 4258: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4227: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4209: 4204: 4201: 4197: 4192: 4190: 4188: 4184: 4180: 4176: 4173: 4169: 4164: 4161: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4134: 4131: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4104: 4101: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4074: 4071: 4063:September 24, 4058: 4054: 4047: 4045: 4041: 4033:September 24, 4028: 4024: 4020: 4014: 4011: 4003:September 24, 3998: 3994: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3972: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3957: 3953: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3938: 3934: 3930: 3925: 3923: 3919: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3903: 3900: 3887: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3846: 3843: 3835:September 25, 3830: 3826: 3822: 3816: 3813: 3800: 3796: 3790: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3776: 3771: 3768: 3755: 3751: 3745: 3743: 3739: 3726: 3722: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3704: 3698: 3695: 3690: 3686: 3680: 3677: 3672: 3668: 3662: 3658: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3642: 3635: 3628: 3625: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3560: 3557: 3553: 3548: 3545: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3519: 3506: 3502: 3496: 3493: 3480: 3476: 3470: 3468: 3464: 3458: 3455: 3450: 3448:9780700608805 3444: 3440: 3435: 3434: 3428: 3422: 3420: 3418: 3416: 3412: 3399: 3395: 3394: 3387: 3384: 3368: 3364: 3360: 3353: 3346: 3344: 3340: 3334: 3331: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3304: 3302: 3300: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3286: 3283: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3252: 3249: 3233: 3226: 3225: 3217: 3214: 3206:September 24, 3201: 3197: 3193: 3186: 3183: 3175:September 24, 3170: 3166: 3162: 3156: 3153: 3149: 3143: 3141: 3137: 3133: 3128: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3103: 3099: 3093: 3090: 3077: 3073: 3069: 3062: 3059: 3056: 3055:0-86566-062-X 3052: 3048: 3042: 3040: 3038: 3036: 3034: 3032: 3030: 3028: 3026: 3022: 3009: 3005: 2999: 2997: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2979: 2976: 2963: 2959: 2955: 2948: 2945: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2917: 2914: 2910: 2905: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2885: 2882: 2878:. BasicBooks. 2877: 2870: 2867: 2862: 2856: 2853: 2847: 2843: 2840: 2838: 2835: 2833: 2830: 2828: 2825: 2823: 2820: 2818: 2815: 2814: 2810: 2808: 2801: 2799: 2795: 2793: 2789: 2784: 2776: 2774: 2772: 2768: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2751: 2747: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2722: 2719:In 2015, the 2716: 2711: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2685: 2680: 2672: 2665: 2663: 2660: 2657:In 2013, the 2652: 2650: 2647: 2646:Supreme Court 2643: 2639: 2635: 2630: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2615: 2611: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2591: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2578: 2574: 2571: 2567: 2563: 2562: 2557: 2553: 2549: 2545: 2544: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2499: 2492: 2490: 2488: 2481:Notable cases 2480: 2478: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2459: 2457: 2456:trade secrets 2453: 2449: 2441: 2439: 2436: 2432: 2428: 2420: 2415: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2402: 2399: 2396: 2393: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2381: 2380: 2374: 2370: 2367: 2364: 2361: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2354: 2347: 2341: 2333: 2331: 2328: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2278: 2268: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2257: 2252: 2251: 2250: 2247: 2244: 2240: 2238: 2234: 2231: 2224: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2194: 2192: 2188: 2185:, drafted by 2184: 2177: 2175: 2169:urban legend. 2168: 2167: 2161: 2154: 2152: 2150: 2145: 2137: 2135: 2133: 2125: 2123: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2106: 2101: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2088: 2085: 2082: 2079: 2078: 2077: 2075: 2067: 2065: 2061: 2057: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2043: 2039: 2035: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2012: 2007: 2005: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1984: 1977: 1972: 1970: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1947: 1937: 1935: 1933: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1912: 1909: 1904: 1901: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1878: 1875: 1871: 1868: 1865: 1862: 1860: 1855: 1852: 1849: 1848: 1847: 1845: 1841: 1840:5 U.S.C. 1837: 1829: 1827: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1812: 1810: 1805: 1803: 1799: 1798: 1793: 1789: 1785: 1777: 1775: 1773: 1768: 1766: 1762: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1744:5 U.S.C. 1741: 1740: 1731: 1708: 1704: 1692: 1687: 1685: 1680: 1678: 1673: 1672: 1670: 1669: 1662: 1659: 1657: 1654: 1653: 1647: 1646: 1637: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1629: 1625: 1622: 1620: 1617: 1615: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1603: 1600: 1598: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1590: 1586: 1583: 1581: 1578: 1577: 1576: 1573: 1569: 1566: 1564: 1561: 1560: 1559: 1556: 1552: 1549: 1548: 1547: 1543: 1540: 1536: 1533: 1531: 1528: 1527: 1526: 1523: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1510: 1509: 1506: 1502: 1499: 1498: 1497: 1494: 1490: 1487: 1485: 1482: 1481: 1480: 1477: 1473: 1470: 1468: 1465: 1464: 1463: 1460: 1456: 1453: 1451: 1448: 1447: 1446: 1443: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1434: 1433:Communication 1431: 1427: 1424: 1422: 1419: 1415: 1412: 1411: 1410: 1407: 1406: 1405: 1402: 1398: 1395: 1393: 1390: 1388: 1385: 1384: 1383: 1380: 1379: 1373: 1372: 1365: 1364:Nondelegation 1362: 1358: 1357: 1353: 1352: 1351: 1348: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1338: 1334: 1332: 1331: 1327: 1326: 1325: 1322: 1318: 1315: 1313: 1310: 1308: 1307:Appropriation 1305: 1301: 1298: 1297: 1296: 1295:Authorization 1293: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1284: 1283: 1279: 1277: 1276: 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