453:(a family of competing interpretations) considers degrees of belief: All practical "subjective" probability interpretations are so constrained to rationality as to avoid most subjectivity. Real subjectivity is repellent to some definitions of science which strive for results independent of the observer and analyst. Other applications of Bayesianism in science (e.g. logical Bayesianism) embrace the inherent subjectivity of many scientific studies and objects and use Bayesian reasoning to place boundaries and context on the influence of
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244:. By the end of the 19th century the frequentist interpretation was well established and perhaps dominant in the sciences. The following generation established the tools of classical inferential statistics (significance testing, hypothesis testing and confidence intervals) all based on frequentist probability.
368:... The essential distinction between the frequentists and the non-frequentists is, I think, that the former, in an effort to avoid anything savouring of matters of opinion, seek to define probability in terms of the objective properties of a population, real or hypothetical, whereas the latter do not.
104:
In the frequentist interpretation, probabilities are discussed only when dealing with well-defined random experiments. The set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment is called the sample space of the experiment. An event is defined as a particular subset of the sample space to be considered.
271:
considered the probabilities of testimonies, tables of mortality, judgments of tribunals, etc. which are unlikely candidates for classical probability. In this view, Poisson's contribution was his sharp criticism of the alternative "inverse" (subjective, Bayesian) probability interpretation. Any
516:
lived in a multi-lingual country and himself had regular correspondance and contacts with speakers of German and French, and published in Latin â all of which he spoke fluently. He comfortably and frequently used the three names "Jacob", "James", and "Jacques", depending on the language he was
128:
As an interpretation, it is not in conflict with the mathematical axiomatization of probability theory; rather, it provides guidance for how to apply mathematical probability theory to real-world situations. It offers distinct guidance in the construction and design of practical experiments,
433:. There are a variety of competing interpretations; All have problems. The frequentist interpretation does resolve difficulties with the classical interpretation, such as any problem where the natural symmetry of outcomes is not known. It does not address other issues, such as the
576:) and stated the need for randomness in the repeated samples or trials. He accepted in principle the possibility of multiple competing theories of probability, while expressing several specific reservations about the existing alternative probability interpretation.
96:, based on the natural symmetry of a problem, so, for example, the probabilities of dice games arise from the natural symmetric 6-sidedness of the cube. This classical interpretation stumbled at any statistical problem that has no natural symmetry for reasoning.
352:
3. ... we may broadly distinguish two main attitudes. One takes probability as 'a degree of rational belief', or some similar idea...the second defines probability in terms of frequencies of occurrence of events, or by relative proportions in 'populations' or
444:
assigns probabilities based on physical idealized symmetry (dice, coins, cards). The classical definition is at risk of circularity: Probabilities are defined by assuming equality of probabilities. In the absence of symmetry the utility of the definition is
124:
The frequentist interpretation is a philosophical approach to the definition and use of probabilities; it is one of several such approaches. It does not claim to capture all connotations of the concept 'probable' in colloquial speech of natural languages.
303:; Neyman formulated confidence intervals and contributed heavily to sampling theory; Neyman and Pearson paired in the creation of hypothesis testing. All valued objectivity, so the best interpretation of probability available to them was frequentist.
526:
Bernoulli provided a classical example of drawing many black and white pebbles from an urn (with replacement). The sample ratio allowed
Bernoulli to infer the ratio in the urn, with tighter bounds as the number of samples increased.
40:
85:). Probabilities can be found (in principle) by a repeatable objective process (and are thus ideally devoid of opinion). The continued use of frequentist methods in scientific inference, however, has been called into question.
133:. As to whether this guidance is useful, or is apt to mis-interpretation, has been a source of controversy. Particularly when the frequency interpretation of probability is mistakenly assumed to be the only possible basis for
105:
For any given event, only one of two possibilities may hold: It occurs or it does not. The relative frequency of occurrence of an event, observed in a number of repetitions of the experiment, is a measure of the
422:
in 1933. The theory focuses on the valid operations on probability values rather than on the initial assignment of values; the mathematics is largely independent of any interpretation of probability.
359:
12. It might be thought that the differences between the frequentists and the non-frequentists (if I may call them such) are largely due to the differences of the domains which they purport to cover.
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An essay on the foundations and province of the theory of probability, with especial reference to its logical bearings and its application to moral and social science, and to statistics.
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A claim of the frequentist approach is that, as the number of trials increases, the change in the relative frequency will diminish. Hence, one can view a probability as the
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299:. Fisher contributed to most of statistics and made significance testing the core of experimental science, although he was critical of the frequentist concept of
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All were suspicious of "inverse probability" (the available alternative) with prior probabilities chosen by using the principle of indifference. Fisher said,
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shows how different interpretations, applied to the same data set, can lead to different conclusions about the 'statistical significance' of a result.
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216:(1837) clearly distinguished between objective and subjective probabilities. Soon thereafter a flurry of nearly simultaneous publications by
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While Neyman was a pure frequentist, Fisher's views of probability were unique: Both Fisher and Neyman had nuanced view of probability.
89:
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used frequentist (and other) probability in derivations of the least squares method a century later, a generation before
Poisson.
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88:
The development of the frequentist account was motivated by the problems and paradoxes of the previously dominant viewpoint, the
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are considered by philosophy, the sciences and statistics. All are interested in the extraction of knowledge from observationsâ
78:
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499:, based on Laplace's personal expertise in both astronomy and probability, two centuries of nattering criticism have followed.
255:) posthumously (Bernoulli, 1713). He is also credited with some appreciation for subjective probability (prior to and without
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the mathematical foundations of probability were solidified and current terminology was introduced (all in the 20th century).
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236:(1866, 1876, 1888) provided a thorough exposition two decades later. These were further supported by the publications of
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Probability concepts were introduced and much of the mathematics of probability derived (prior to the 20th century)
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on all analysis. The historical roots of this concept extended to such non-numeric applications as legal evidence.
168:. Before speaking of it we should have to agree on an (idealized) model which would presumably run along the lines
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is a branch of mathematics. While its roots reach centuries into the past, it reached maturity with the axioms of
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Little imagination is required to construct such a model, but it appears both uninteresting and meaningless.
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Ars
Conjectandi: Usum & applicationem praecedentis doctrinae in civilibus, moralibus, & oeconomicis
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1933:
1840:
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1019:
The Art of
Conjecture: The use and application of previous experience in civil, moral, and economic topics
462:
182:
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2736:
532:
Historians can interpret the example as classical, frequentist, or subjective probability. David writes,
372:"The Frequency Theory of Probability" was used a generation earlier as a chapter title in Keynes (1921).
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2013:
1973:
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556:'s derivation of confidence intervals embraced the measure theoretic axioms of probability published by
229:
134:
74:
3841:
2731:
1085:""Repeated sampling from the same population?" A critique of Neyman and Pearson's responses to Fisher"
712:
Morey, Richard D.; Hoekstra, Rink; Rouder, Jeffrey N.; Lee, Michael D.; Wagenmakers, Eric-Jan (2016).
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1900:
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486:'s solution to the "tomorrow's sunrise" problem that used an alternative probability interpretation.
483:
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337:
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277:
273:
268:
264:
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205:
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130:
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The primary historical sources in probability and statistics did not use the current terminology of
308:"... the theory of inverse probability is founded upon an error, and must be wholly rejected."
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70:
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views probability as a causative phenomenon rather than a purely descriptive or subjective one.
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of that event. This is the core conception of probability in the frequentist interpretation.
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1147:"Outline of a theory of statistical estimation based on the classical theory of probability"
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774:
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offered a combination of mathematical and philosophical support for frequentism in the era.
217:
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2001:
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Bernoulli wrote generations before Bayes, LaPlace and Gauss. The controversy continues. â
535:
509:
345:
333:
248:
165:
1356:"Explicit Bayesian analysis for process tracing: Guidelines, opportunities, and caveats"
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961:
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2101:
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800:
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understood the concept of frequentist probability and published a critical proof (the
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There is no place in our system for speculations concerning the probability that the
1953:
986:
A history of
Parametric Statistical Inference from Bernoulli to Fisher, 1713 to 1935
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2026:
1968:
1890:
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1471:
1381:
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698:
553:
454:
296:
292:
237:
660:
Goodman, Steven N. (1999). "Toward evidence-based medical statistics. 1: The
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2021:
1978:
1958:
1938:
1928:
1697:
1287:
988:. KĂžbenhavn, DM: Anders Hald, Department of Applied Mathematics and Statistics,
936:(1854). "Remarks on the fundamental principles of the theory of probabilities".
888:. Cambridge, UK / New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. pp. 35â36, 45.
426:
287:
Major contributors to "classical" statistics in the early 20th century included
66:
1100:
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2111:
1811:
1742:
1692:
1667:
1587:
1274:
1196:(in German and English) (2nd, rev. ed.). Dover Publications. p. 14.
1034:"A Brief History of Statistics in Three and One-half Chapters: A Review Essay"
729:
434:
1537:
1084:
886:
The Empire of Chance : How probability changed science and everyday life
46:, who provided a thorough exposition of frequentist probability in his book,
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2636:
2256:
2051:
1963:
1948:
1943:
1908:
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has definitely started here the controversy on inverse probability ..."
233:
202:
188:
43:
17:
1530:
1511:
1303:
1174:
1146:
884:
Gigerenzer, Gerd; Swijtink, Porter; Daston, Beatty; Daston, KrĂŒger (1989).
747:
690:
92:. In the classical interpretation, probability was defined in terms of the
1243:"Earliest known uses of some of the words of probability & statistics"
2300:
1918:
1795:
1790:
1785:
1757:
138:
30:"Statistical probability" redirects here. For the TV series episode, see
1373:
632:. Methodology in the Social Sciences. Guilford Publications. p. 4.
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1295:
280:
was muted and implicit. (However, note that their later derivations of
39:
3727:
2708:
2682:
2662:
1913:
1704:
824:(1921). "Chapter VIII â The frequency theory of probability".
137:. So, for example, a list of mis-interpretations of the meaning of
1355:
860:. Baltimore, MD: The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 110.
170:"out of infinitely many worlds one is selected at random ..."
38:
858:
The
Science of Conjecture: Evidence and probability before Pascal
1647:
1217:
Gilles, Donald (2000). "Chapter 5 â The frequency theory".
3616:
3183:
2930:
2229:
1999:
1616:
1560:
1556:
912:(1843). "On the foundations of the theory of probabilities".
1272:(1949). "On the Reconciliation of Theories of Probability".
608:(3rd ed.). London, UK: Macmillan & Co. – via
714:"The fallacy of placing confidence in confidence intervals"
1437:
805:
1152:
963:
Exposition de la théorie des chances et des probabilités
201:
the probable is that which for the most part happens â
382:
classical statistical inference methods were developed
145:-values; controversies are detailed in the article on
3469:
Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)
1354:
Fairfield, Tasha; Charman, Andrew E. (15 May 2017).
568:
had published earlier in the decade. Neyman defined
3776:
3713:
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3629:
3584:
3566:
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3524:
3482:
3429:
3390:
3339:
3330:
3251:
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3138:
3104:
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3025:
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2954:
2866:
2775:
2694:
2649:
2617:
2570:
2515:
2441:
2432:
2242:
2184:
2158:
2110:
2065:
2012:
1899:
1854:
1828:
1810:
1766:
1718:
1638:
1629:
939:
Transactions of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society
915:
Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society
187:The frequentist view may have been foreshadowed by
3017:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS)
1264:
1262:
1260:
199:
162:
1137:
1135:
979:
977:
1572:
1512:"The frequency interpretation in probability"
1063:
1061:
8:
816:
814:
301:"repeated sampling from the same population"
629:Bayesian Statistics for the Social Sciences
594:
592:
116:of the corresponding relative frequencies.
3626:
3613:
3530:
3336:
3205:
3180:
2951:
2927:
2655:
2438:
2239:
2226:
2009:
1996:
1635:
1626:
1613:
1579:
1565:
1557:
1476:First Course in Probability and Statistics
1089:European Journal for Philosophy of Science
1529:
1173:
1072:. New York, NY: Hafner. pp. 137â138.
1049:
737:
560:a few years earlier, and referenced the '
1315:
1313:
1126:Statistical Methods for Research Workers
879:
877:
683:10.7326/0003-4819-130-12-199906150-00008
1326:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
588:
475:
3543:KaplanâMeier estimator (product limit)
1219:Philosophical Theories of Probability
966:. Paris, FR: L. Hachette – via
541:
495:'s explicit and immediate disclaimer
7:
3853:
3553:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model
1343:. New York, NY: Wiley. pp. 1â2.
425:Applications and interpretations of
129:especially when contrasted with the
3865:
3148:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova)
1448:On the Concept of a Random Sequence
482:Feller's comment is a criticism of
3243:CochranâMantelâHaenszel statistics
1869:Pearson product-moment correlation
1462:Probability, Statistics, and Truth
1426:Mathematical Methods of Statistics
1194:Probability, Statistics, and Truth
765:-value statement, five years on".
284:did not use inverse probability.)
25:
718:Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
451:Subjective (Bayesian) probability
232:introduced the frequentist view.
3864:
3852:
3840:
3827:
3826:
1412:The Concept of a Random Sequence
1322:"Interpretations of probability"
1221:. Psychology Press. p. 88.
3502:Least-squares spectral analysis
1517:Advances in Applied Mathematics
1328:– via plato.stanford.edu.
1320:HĂĄjek, Alan (21 October 2002).
2483:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance
761:Matthews, Robert (2021). "The
147:statistical hypothesis testing
1:
3796:Geographic information system
3012:Simultaneous equations models
1324:. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.).
1032:Fienberg, Stephen E. (1992).
63:interpretation of probability
27:Interpretation of probability
2979:Coefficient of determination
2590:Uniformly most powerful test
564:(Bayesian) definitions that
366:I assert that this is not so
3893:Probability interpretations
3548:Proportional hazards models
3492:Spectral density estimation
3474:Vector autoregression (VAR)
2908:Maximum posterior estimator
2140:Randomized controlled trial
1485:Reichenbach, Hans (1949) .
1401:The Logic of Modern Physics
1070:Games, Gods, & Gambling
670:Annals of Internal Medicine
411:Probability interpretations
141:accompanies the article on
3909:
3308:Multivariate distributions
1728:Average absolute deviation
1101:10.1007/s13194-020-00309-6
408:
336:in 1949, to contrast with
180:
29:
3822:
3625:
3612:
3296:Structural equation model
3204:
3179:
2950:
2926:
2658:
2632:Score/Lagrange multiplier
2238:
2225:
2047:Sample size determination
2008:
1995:
1625:
1612:
1594:
1487:The Theory of Probability
1288:10.1093/biomet/36.1-2.101
1013:Bernoulli, Jakob (1713).
826:A Treatise on Probability
807:. Vol. 1. p. 4.
730:10.3758/s13423-015-0947-8
375:The historical sequence:
325:Oxford English Dictionary
253:weak law of large numbers
224:(1843) and Ellis (1854),
94:principle of indifference
32:Statistical Probabilities
3791:Environmental statistics
3313:Elliptical distributions
3106:Generalized linear model
3035:Simple linear regression
2805:HodgesâLehmann estimator
2262:Probability distribution
2171:Stochastic approximation
1733:Coefficient of variation
1435:Feller, William (1957).
1341:Basic Probability Theory
990:University of Copenhagen
508:The Swiss mathematician
151:JeffreysâLindley paradox
90:classical interpretation
65:; it defines an event's
3451:Cross-correlation (XCF)
3059:Non-standard predictors
2493:LehmannâScheffĂ© theorem
2166:Adaptive clinical trial
1446:Martin-Löf, P. (1966).
1410:Church, Alonzo (1940).
1399:Bridgman, P.W. (1927).
1339:Ash, Robert B. (1970).
848:. Bk 1, Ch 2.
779:10.1111/1740-9713.01505
570:frequentist probability
131:Bayesian interpretation
55:Frequentist probability
3847:Mathematics portal
3668:Engineering statistics
3576:NelsonâAalen estimator
3153:Analysis of covariance
3040:Ordinary least squares
2964:Pearson product-moment
2368:Statistical functional
2279:Empirical distribution
2112:Controlled experiments
1841:Frequency distribution
1619:Descriptive statistics
1531:10.1006/aama.1999.0653
1175:10.1098/rsta.1937.0005
562:subjective probability
463:Propensity probability
211:
183:History of probability
174:
166:sun will rise tomorrow
51:
3763:Population statistics
3705:System identification
3439:Autocorrelation (ACF)
3367:Exponential smoothing
3281:Discriminant analysis
3276:Canonical correlation
3140:Partition of variance
3002:Regression validation
2846:(JonckheereâTerpstra)
2745:Likelihood-ratio test
2434:Frequentist inference
2346:Locationâscale family
2267:Sampling distribution
2232:Statistical inference
2199:Cross-sectional study
2186:Observational studies
2145:Randomized experiment
1974:Stem-and-leaf display
1776:Central limit theorem
1510:Friedman, C. (1999).
1051:10.1214/ss/1177011360
984:Hald, Anders (2004).
856:Franklin, J. (2001).
442:Classical probability
135:frequentist inference
42:
3686:Probabilistic design
3271:Principal components
3114:Exponential families
3066:Nonlinear regression
3045:General linear model
3007:Mixed effects models
2997:Errors and residuals
2974:Confounding variable
2876:Bayesian probability
2854:Van der Waerden test
2844:Ordered alternative
2609:Multiple comparisons
2488:RaoâBlackwellization
2451:Estimating equations
2407:Statistical distance
2125:Factorial experiment
1658:Arithmetic-Geometric
1545:utexas.edu/~friedman
1068:David, F.N. (1962).
517:speaking or writing.
484:Pierre-Simon Laplace
83:long-run probability
3758:Official statistics
3681:Methods engineering
3362:Seasonal adjustment
3130:Poisson regressions
3050:Bayesian regression
2989:Regression analysis
2969:Partial correlation
2941:Regression analysis
2540:Prediction interval
2535:Likelihood interval
2525:Confidence interval
2517:Interval estimation
2478:Unbiased estimators
2296:Model specification
2176:Up-and-down designs
1864:Partial correlation
1820:Index of dispersion
1738:Interquartile range
1549:University of Texas
1374:10.1017/pan.2017.14
1166:1937RSPTA.236..333N
1038:Statistical Science
626:Kaplan, D. (2014).
605:The Logic of Chance
544:, pp. âŻ137â138
431:inductive reasoning
77:in infinitely many
48:The Logic of Chance
3778:Spatial statistics
3658:Medical statistics
3558:First hitting time
3512:Whittle likelihood
3163:Degrees of freedom
3158:Multivariate ANOVA
3091:Heteroscedasticity
2903:Bayesian estimator
2868:Bayesian inference
2717:KolmogorovâSmirnov
2602:Randomization test
2572:Testing hypotheses
2545:Tolerance interval
2456:Maximum likelihood
2351:Exponential family
2284:Density estimation
2244:Statistical theory
2204:Natural experiment
2150:Scientific control
2067:Survey methodology
1753:Standard deviation
1458:von Mises, Richard
1361:Political Analysis
1190:von Mises, Richard
1145:(30 August 1937).
1083:Rubin, M. (2020).
416:Probability theory
332:was first used by
75:relative frequency
52:
3880:
3879:
3818:
3817:
3814:
3813:
3753:National accounts
3723:Actuarial science
3715:Social statistics
3608:
3607:
3604:
3603:
3600:
3599:
3535:Survival function
3520:
3519:
3382:Granger causality
3223:Contingency table
3198:Survival analysis
3175:
3174:
3171:
3170:
3027:Linear regression
2922:
2921:
2918:
2917:
2893:Credible interval
2862:
2861:
2645:
2644:
2461:Method of moments
2330:Parametric family
2291:Statistical model
2221:
2220:
2217:
2216:
2135:Random assignment
2057:Statistical power
1991:
1990:
1987:
1986:
1836:Contingency table
1806:
1805:
1673:Generalized/power
1497:Russell, Bertrand
1251:Leiden University
1021:] (in Latin).
999:978-87-7834-628-5
895:978-0-521-39838-1
639:978-1-4625-1667-4
558:Andrey Kolmogorov
420:Andrey Kolmogorov
405:Alternative views
340:, whom he called
322:According to the
197:, when he wrote:
16:(Redirected from
3900:
3868:
3867:
3856:
3855:
3845:
3844:
3830:
3829:
3733:Crime statistics
3627:
3614:
3531:
3497:Fourier analysis
3484:Frequency domain
3464:
3411:
3377:Structural break
3337:
3286:Cluster analysis
3233:Log-linear model
3206:
3181:
3122:
3096:Homoscedasticity
2952:
2928:
2847:
2839:
2831:
2830:(KruskalâWallis)
2815:
2800:
2755:Cross validation
2740:
2722:AndersonâDarling
2669:
2656:
2627:Likelihood-ratio
2619:Parametric tests
2597:Permutation test
2580:1- & 2-tails
2471:Minimum distance
2443:Point estimation
2439:
2390:Optimal decision
2341:
2240:
2227:
2209:Quasi-experiment
2159:Adaptive designs
2010:
1997:
1874:Rank correlation
1636:
1627:
1614:
1581:
1574:
1567:
1558:
1552:
1542:
1535:
1533:
1504:
1490:
1479:
1465:
1451:
1440:
1429:
1415:
1404:
1386:
1385:
1351:
1345:
1344:
1336:
1330:
1329:
1317:
1308:
1307:
1282:(1â2): 101â116.
1266:
1255:
1254:
1239:
1233:
1232:
1214:
1208:
1207:
1186:
1180:
1179:
1177:
1160:(767): 333â380.
1139:
1130:
1129:
1119:
1113:
1112:
1080:
1074:
1073:
1065:
1056:
1055:
1053:
1029:
1023:
1022:
1010:
1004:
1003:
992:. pp. 1â5.
981:
972:
971:
968:Internet Archive
954:
948:
947:
930:
924:
923:
906:
900:
899:
881:
872:
871:
849:
836:
830:
829:
818:
809:
808:
797:
791:
790:
764:
758:
752:
751:
741:
709:
703:
702:
677:(12): 995â1004.
666:
664:
657:
651:
650:
648:
646:
623:
617:
616:
610:Internet Archive
596:
577:
572:(under the name
551:
545:
524:
518:
514:Bernoulli family
506:
500:
480:
397:(Bayesian), and
342:non-frequentists
144:
21:
3908:
3907:
3903:
3902:
3901:
3899:
3898:
3897:
3883:
3882:
3881:
3876:
3839:
3810:
3772:
3709:
3695:quality control
3662:
3644:Clinical trials
3621:
3596:
3580:
3568:Hazard function
3562:
3516:
3478:
3462:
3425:
3421:BreuschâGodfrey
3409:
3386:
3326:
3301:Factor analysis
3247:
3228:Graphical model
3200:
3167:
3134:
3120:
3100:
3054:
3021:
2983:
2946:
2945:
2914:
2858:
2845:
2837:
2829:
2813:
2798:
2777:Rank statistics
2771:
2750:Model selection
2738:
2696:Goodness of fit
2690:
2667:
2641:
2613:
2566:
2511:
2500:Median unbiased
2428:
2339:
2272:Order statistic
2234:
2213:
2180:
2154:
2106:
2061:
2004:
2002:Data collection
1983:
1895:
1850:
1824:
1802:
1762:
1714:
1631:Continuous data
1621:
1608:
1590:
1585:
1555:
1540:
1536:
1509:
1501:Human Knowledge
1495:
1484:
1470:
1456:
1445:
1434:
1420:
1409:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1353:
1352:
1348:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1319:
1318:
1311:
1268:
1267:
1258:
1241:
1240:
1236:
1229:
1216:
1215:
1211:
1204:
1188:
1187:
1183:
1141:
1140:
1133:
1121:
1120:
1116:
1082:
1081:
1077:
1067:
1066:
1059:
1031:
1030:
1026:
1012:
1011:
1007:
1000:
983:
982:
975:
956:
955:
951:
932:
931:
927:
908:
907:
903:
896:
883:
882:
875:
868:
855:
838:
837:
833:
820:
819:
812:
799:
798:
794:
762:
760:
759:
755:
711:
710:
706:
662:
661:
659:
658:
654:
644:
642:
640:
625:
624:
620:
598:
597:
590:
586:
581:
580:
552:
548:
525:
521:
510:Jacob Bernoulli
507:
503:
481:
477:
472:
413:
407:
320:
247:Alternatively,
185:
179:
142:
122:
102:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3906:
3904:
3896:
3895:
3885:
3884:
3878:
3877:
3875:
3874:
3862:
3850:
3836:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3816:
3815:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3782:
3780:
3774:
3773:
3771:
3770:
3765:
3760:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3725:
3719:
3717:
3711:
3710:
3708:
3707:
3702:
3697:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3672:
3670:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3660:
3655:
3650:
3641:
3639:Bioinformatics
3635:
3633:
3623:
3622:
3617:
3610:
3609:
3606:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3588:
3586:
3582:
3581:
3579:
3578:
3572:
3570:
3564:
3563:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3550:
3545:
3539:
3537:
3528:
3522:
3521:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3514:
3509:
3504:
3499:
3494:
3488:
3486:
3480:
3479:
3477:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3447:
3446:
3444:partial (PACF)
3435:
3433:
3427:
3426:
3424:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3405:
3400:
3394:
3392:
3391:Specific tests
3388:
3387:
3385:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3343:
3341:
3334:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3322:
3321:
3320:
3305:
3304:
3303:
3293:
3291:Classification
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3257:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3246:
3245:
3240:
3238:McNemar's test
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3214:
3212:
3202:
3201:
3184:
3177:
3176:
3173:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3144:
3142:
3136:
3135:
3133:
3132:
3116:
3110:
3108:
3102:
3101:
3099:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3076:Semiparametric
3073:
3068:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3055:
3053:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3031:
3029:
3023:
3022:
3020:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2993:
2991:
2985:
2984:
2982:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2966:
2960:
2958:
2948:
2947:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2932:
2931:
2924:
2923:
2920:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2911:
2910:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2872:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2856:
2851:
2850:
2849:
2841:
2833:
2817:
2814:(MannâWhitney)
2809:
2808:
2807:
2794:
2793:
2792:
2781:
2779:
2773:
2772:
2770:
2769:
2768:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2747:
2742:
2739:(ShapiroâWilk)
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2706:
2700:
2698:
2692:
2691:
2689:
2688:
2680:
2671:
2659:
2653:
2651:Specific tests
2647:
2646:
2643:
2642:
2640:
2639:
2634:
2629:
2623:
2621:
2615:
2614:
2612:
2611:
2606:
2605:
2604:
2594:
2593:
2592:
2582:
2576:
2574:
2568:
2567:
2565:
2564:
2563:
2562:
2557:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2496:
2495:
2490:
2475:
2474:
2473:
2468:
2463:
2458:
2447:
2445:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2427:
2426:
2421:
2416:
2415:
2414:
2404:
2399:
2398:
2397:
2387:
2386:
2385:
2380:
2375:
2365:
2360:
2355:
2354:
2353:
2348:
2343:
2327:
2326:
2325:
2320:
2315:
2305:
2304:
2303:
2298:
2288:
2287:
2286:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2264:
2259:
2254:
2248:
2246:
2236:
2235:
2230:
2223:
2222:
2219:
2218:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2211:
2206:
2201:
2196:
2190:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2179:
2178:
2173:
2168:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2155:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2122:
2116:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2105:
2104:
2102:Standard error
2099:
2094:
2089:
2088:
2087:
2082:
2071:
2069:
2063:
2062:
2060:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2032:Optimal design
2029:
2024:
2018:
2016:
2006:
2005:
2000:
1993:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1985:
1984:
1982:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1926:
1921:
1916:
1911:
1905:
1903:
1897:
1896:
1894:
1893:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1881:
1871:
1866:
1860:
1858:
1852:
1851:
1849:
1848:
1843:
1838:
1832:
1830:
1829:Summary tables
1826:
1825:
1823:
1822:
1816:
1814:
1808:
1807:
1804:
1803:
1801:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1788:
1778:
1772:
1770:
1764:
1763:
1761:
1760:
1755:
1750:
1745:
1740:
1735:
1730:
1724:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1713:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1701:
1700:
1695:
1690:
1685:
1680:
1675:
1670:
1665:
1663:Contraharmonic
1660:
1655:
1644:
1642:
1633:
1623:
1622:
1617:
1610:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1595:
1592:
1591:
1586:
1584:
1583:
1576:
1569:
1561:
1554:
1553:
1547:. Austin, TX:
1524:(3): 234â254.
1506:
1505:
1492:
1491:
1481:
1480:
1467:
1466:
1453:
1452:
1442:
1441:
1431:
1430:
1422:Cramér, Harald
1417:
1416:
1406:
1405:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1387:
1368:(3): 363â380.
1346:
1331:
1309:
1256:
1249:. Leidin, NL:
1234:
1227:
1209:
1202:
1181:
1131:
1114:
1075:
1057:
1044:(2): 208â225.
1024:
1005:
998:
973:
970:(archive.org).
949:
925:
901:
894:
873:
866:
854:
853:
831:
810:
792:
753:
724:(1): 103â123.
704:
652:
638:
618:
612:(archive.org.
587:
585:
582:
579:
578:
546:
531:
530:
519:
512:of the famous
501:
490:
489:
474:
473:
471:
468:
467:
466:
459:
458:
455:subjectivities
447:
446:
409:Main article:
406:
403:
387:
386:
383:
380:
370:
369:
363:
360:
357:
354:
353:'collectives';
319:
316:
181:Main article:
178:
175:
121:
118:
114:limiting value
101:
98:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3905:
3894:
3891:
3890:
3888:
3873:
3872:
3863:
3861:
3860:
3851:
3849:
3848:
3843:
3837:
3835:
3834:
3825:
3824:
3821:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3801:Geostatistics
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3781:
3779:
3775:
3769:
3768:Psychometrics
3766:
3764:
3761:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3729:
3726:
3724:
3721:
3720:
3718:
3716:
3712:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3673:
3671:
3669:
3665:
3659:
3656:
3654:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3636:
3634:
3632:
3631:Biostatistics
3628:
3624:
3620:
3615:
3611:
3593:
3592:Log-rank test
3590:
3589:
3587:
3583:
3577:
3574:
3573:
3571:
3569:
3565:
3559:
3556:
3554:
3551:
3549:
3546:
3544:
3541:
3540:
3538:
3536:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3523:
3513:
3510:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3489:
3487:
3485:
3481:
3475:
3472:
3470:
3467:
3465:
3463:(BoxâJenkins)
3459:
3457:
3454:
3452:
3449:
3445:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3432:
3428:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3416:DurbinâWatson
3414:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3398:DickeyâFuller
3396:
3395:
3393:
3389:
3383:
3380:
3378:
3375:
3373:
3372:Cointegration
3370:
3368:
3365:
3363:
3360:
3358:
3355:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3347:Decomposition
3345:
3344:
3342:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3329:
3319:
3316:
3315:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3302:
3299:
3298:
3297:
3294:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3282:
3279:
3277:
3274:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3258:
3256:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3218:Cohen's kappa
3216:
3215:
3213:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3182:
3178:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3141:
3137:
3131:
3127:
3123:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3111:
3109:
3107:
3103:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3077:
3074:
3072:
3071:Nonparametric
3069:
3067:
3064:
3063:
3061:
3057:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3028:
3024:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2994:
2992:
2990:
2986:
2980:
2977:
2975:
2972:
2970:
2967:
2965:
2962:
2961:
2959:
2957:
2953:
2949:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2925:
2909:
2906:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2894:
2891:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2878:
2877:
2874:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2865:
2855:
2852:
2848:
2842:
2840:
2834:
2832:
2826:
2825:
2824:
2821:
2820:Nonparametric
2818:
2816:
2810:
2806:
2803:
2802:
2801:
2795:
2791:
2790:Sample median
2788:
2787:
2786:
2783:
2782:
2780:
2778:
2774:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2752:
2751:
2748:
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2403:
2400:
2396:
2395:loss function
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2255:
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2250:
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2245:
2241:
2237:
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2224:
2210:
2207:
2205:
2202:
2200:
2197:
2195:
2192:
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2189:
2187:
2183:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2169:
2167:
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2161:
2157:
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2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
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2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2117:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2103:
2100:
2098:
2097:Questionnaire
2095:
2093:
2090:
2086:
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2081:
2078:
2077:
2076:
2073:
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2070:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2055:
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2045:
2043:
2040:
2038:
2035:
2033:
2030:
2028:
2025:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2015:
2011:
2007:
2003:
1998:
1994:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
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1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1924:Control chart
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1920:
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1539:
1538:"alt. source"
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1472:Neyman, Jerzy
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1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1285:
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1277:
1276:
1271:
1270:Kendall, M.G.
1265:
1263:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1248:
1247:leidenuniv.nl
1244:
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1228:9780415182751
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1143:Neyman, Jerzy
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1009:
1006:
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987:
980:
978:
974:
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965:
964:
959:
958:Cournot, A.A.
953:
950:
945:
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583:
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555:
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547:
543:
539:
537:
529:
528:
523:
520:
515:
511:
505:
502:
498:
497:in the source
494:
488:
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449:
448:
443:
440:
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421:
417:
412:
404:
402:
401:probability.
400:
396:
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384:
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378:
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367:
364:
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331:
327:
326:
317:
315:
313:
309:
304:
302:
298:
294:
290:
285:
283:
282:least squares
279:
275:
272:criticism by
270:
266:
262:
258:
257:Bayes theorem
254:
250:
245:
243:
239:
235:
231:
227:
223:
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72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
19:
3869:
3857:
3838:
3831:
3743:Econometrics
3693: /
3676:Chemometrics
3653:Epidemiology
3646: /
3619:Applications
3461:ARIMA model
3408:Q-statistic
3357:Stationarity
3253:Multivariate
3196: /
3192: /
3190:Multivariate
3188: /
3128: /
3124: /
2898:Bayes factor
2797:Signed rank
2709:
2683:
2675:
2663:
2358:Completeness
2194:Cohort study
2092:Opinion poll
2027:Missing data
2014:Study design
1969:Scatter plot
1891:Scatter plot
1884:Spearman's Ï
1846:Grouped data
1544:
1521:
1515:
1500:
1486:
1475:
1461:
1447:
1436:
1425:
1411:
1400:
1365:
1359:
1349:
1340:
1334:
1325:
1279:
1273:
1246:
1237:
1218:
1212:
1193:
1184:
1157:
1150:
1125:
1123:Fisher, R.A.
1117:
1095:(42): 1â15.
1092:
1088:
1078:
1069:
1041:
1037:
1027:
1018:
1014:
1008:
985:
962:
952:
943:
937:
928:
919:
913:
904:
885:
857:
852:discussed in
844:
834:
825:
822:Keynes, J.M.
804:
795:
773:(2): 16â19.
770:
767:Significance
766:
756:
721:
717:
707:
674:
668:
655:
643:. Retrieved
628:
621:
613:
604:
573:
569:
561:
554:Jerzy Neyman
549:
542:David (1962)
533:
522:
504:
496:
478:
424:
414:
398:
394:
390:
388:
374:
371:
365:
341:
334:M.G. Kendall
329:
323:
321:
307:
305:
300:
286:
246:
228:(1843), and
212:
206:
200:
192:
186:
169:
163:
155:
127:
123:
113:
111:
106:
103:
87:
82:
58:
54:
53:
47:
36:
18:Frequentists
3871:WikiProject
3786:Cartography
3748:Jurimetrics
3700:Reliability
3431:Time domain
3410:(LjungâBox)
3332:Time-series
3210:Categorical
3194:Time-series
3186:Categorical
3121:(Bernoulli)
2956:Correlation
2936:Correlation
2732:JarqueâBera
2704:Chi-squared
2466:M-estimator
2419:Asymptotics
2363:Sufficiency
2130:Interaction
2042:Replication
2022:Effect size
1979:Violin plot
1959:Radar chart
1939:Forest plot
1929:Correlogram
1879:Kendall's Ï
934:Ellis, R.L.
910:Ellis, R.L.
427:probability
399:frequentist
330:frequentist
328:, the term
107:probability
67:probability
59:frequentism
3738:Demography
3456:ARMA model
3261:Regression
2838:(Friedman)
2799:(Wilcoxon)
2737:Normality
2727:Lilliefors
2674:Student's
2550:Resampling
2424:Robustness
2412:divergence
2402:Efficiency
2340:(monotone)
2335:Likelihood
2252:Population
2085:Stratified
2037:Population
1856:Dependence
1812:Count data
1743:Percentile
1720:Dispersion
1653:Arithmetic
1588:Statistics
1392:References
1275:Biometrika
1203:0486242145
867:0801865697
801:Feller, W.
667:fallacy".
600:Venn, John
435:dutch book
395:subjective
100:Definition
3119:Logistic
2886:posterior
2812:Rank sum
2560:Jackknife
2555:Bootstrap
2373:Bootstrap
2308:Parameter
2257:Statistic
2052:Statistic
1964:Run chart
1949:Pie chart
1944:Histogram
1934:Fan chart
1909:Bar chart
1791:L-moments
1678:Geometric
1460:(1939) .
1192:(1981) .
1109:221939887
840:Aristotle
787:233534109
602:(1888) .
584:Citations
574:classical
470:Footnotes
391:classical
348:observed
338:Bayesians
318:Etymology
312:von Mises
249:Bernoulli
203:Aristotle
189:Aristotle
44:John Venn
3887:Category
3833:Category
3526:Survival
3403:Johansen
3126:Binomial
3081:Isotonic
2668:(normal)
2313:location
2120:Blocking
2075:Sampling
1954:QâQ plot
1919:Box plot
1901:Graphics
1796:Skewness
1786:Kurtosis
1758:Variance
1688:Heronian
1683:Harmonic
1499:(1948).
1474:(1950).
1424:(1946).
1304:18132087
960:(1843).
845:Rhetoric
803:(1957).
748:26450628
691:10383371
645:23 April
566:Jeffreys
491:Despite
445:limited.
242:Bertrand
207:Rhetoric
194:Rhetoric
139:p-values
3859:Commons
3806:Kriging
3691:Process
3648:studies
3507:Wavelet
3340:General
2507:Plug-in
2301:L space
2080:Cluster
1781:Moments
1599:Outline
1382:8862619
1296:2332534
1162:Bibcode
739:4742505
699:7534212
493:Laplace
346:Kendall
297:Pearson
278:Laplace
269:Laplace
265:Laplace
226:Cournot
214:Poisson
177:History
160:notes:
73:of its
69:as the
3728:Census
3318:Normal
3266:Manova
3086:Robust
2836:2-way
2828:1-way
2666:-test
2337:
1914:Biplot
1705:Median
1698:Lehmer
1640:Center
1380:
1302:
1294:
1225:
1200:
1107:
996:
892:
864:
785:
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736:
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689:
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295:, and
293:Neyman
289:Fisher
158:Feller
149:. The
79:trials
61:is an
3352:Trend
2881:prior
2823:anova
2712:-test
2686:-test
2678:-test
2585:Power
2530:Pivot
2323:shape
2318:scale
1768:Shape
1748:Range
1693:Heinz
1668:Cubic
1604:Index
1378:S2CID
1292:JSTOR
1105:S2CID
1017:[
783:S2CID
695:S2CID
665:value
536:James
274:Gauss
261:Gauss
238:Boole
230:Fries
222:Ellis
191:, in
120:Scope
81:(the
71:limit
3585:Test
2785:Sign
2637:Wald
1710:Mode
1648:Mean
1541:(PS)
1300:PMID
1223:ISBN
1198:ISBN
994:ISBN
890:ISBN
862:ISBN
744:PMID
687:PMID
647:2022
634:ISBN
263:and
240:and
234:Venn
218:Mill
2765:BIC
2760:AIC
1526:doi
1370:doi
1284:doi
1170:doi
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734:PMC
726:doi
679:doi
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156:As
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Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
