Fresnel lens - Knowledge (XXG)

811: 1269: 612:(younger brother of Alan) went a step beyond Fresnel with his "holophotal" lens, which focused the light radiated by the lamp in nearly all directions, forward or backward, into a single beam. The first version, described in 1849, consisted of a standard Fresnel bull's-eye lens, a paraboloidal reflector, and a rear hemispherical reflector (functionally equivalent to the Rogers mirror of 60 years earlier, except that it subtended a whole hemisphere). Light radiated into the forward hemisphere but missing the bull's-eye lens was deflected by the paraboloid into a parallel beam surrounding the bull's-eye lens, while light radiated into the backward hemisphere was reflected back through the lamp by the spherical reflector (as in Rogers' arrangement), to be collected by the forward components. The first unit was installed at North Harbour, 1242: 1473: 1285: 1254: 1210: 1186: 616:, in August 1849. Stevenson called this version a "catadioptric holophote", although each of its elements was either purely reflective or purely refractive. In the second version of the holophote concept, the bull's-eye lens and paraboloidal reflector were replaced by a catadioptric Fresnel lens—as conceived by Fresnel, but expanded to cover the whole forward hemisphere. The third version, which Stevenson confusingly called a "dioptric holophote", was more innovative: it retained the catadioptric Fresnel lens for the front hemisphere, but replaced the rear hemispherical reflector with a hemispherical array of annular prisms, each of which used 1198: 635: 1226: 1170: 3738: 361:('lenses by steps') to replace the reflectors then in use, which reflected only about half of the incident light. Another report by Fresnel, dated 29 August 1819 (Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 15–21), concerns tests on reflectors, and does not mention stepped lenses except in an unrelated sketch on the last page of the manuscript. The minutes of the meetings of the Commission go back only to 1824, when Fresnel himself took over as Secretary. Thus the exact date on which Fresnel formally recommended 1158: 20: 1381: 734: 300: 1496:. The "meatball" light aids the pilot in maintaining proper glide slope for the landing. In the center are amber and red lights composed of Fresnel lenses. Although the lights are always on, the angle of the lens from the pilot's point of view determines the color and position of the visible light. If the lights appear above the green horizontal bar, the pilot is too high. If it is below, the pilot is too low, and if the lights are red, the pilot is very low. 430:, giving eight rotating beams—to be seen by mariners as a periodic flash. Above and behind each main panel was a smaller, sloping bull's-eye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements. This refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror, which then reflected it horizontally, 7 degrees ahead of the main beam, increasing the duration of the flash. Below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings, stacked like the slats of a 1528: 1520: 3970: 823: 1308:. Imaging Fresnel lenses use segments with curved cross-sections and produce sharp images, while non-imaging lenses have segments with flat cross-sections, and do not produce sharp images. As the number of segments increases, the two types of lens become more similar to each other. In the abstract case of an infinite number of segments, the difference between curved and flat segments disappears. 3990: 1438: 718: 4000: 3980: 544:('lighthouse map'), calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights, in a hierarchy of lens sizes called "orders" (the first being the largest), with different characteristics to facilitate recognition: a constant light (from a fixed lens), one flash per minute (from a rotating lens with eight panels), and two per minute (16 panels). 531:) rings above and below the refracting (dioptric) parts, the entire apparatus would look like a beehive. The second Fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens, of third order, installed at Dunkirk by 1 February 1825. However, due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms, this apparatus had a 16-sided polygonal plan. 29:, Paris. In this case the dioptric prisms (inside the bronze rings) and catadioptric prisms (outside) are arranged to concentrate the light from the central lamp into four revolving beams, seen by sailors as four flashes per revolution. The assembly stands 2.54 metres (8.3 ft) tall and weighs about 1.5 tonnes (3,300 lb). 1469:) to tint the light or wire screens or frosted plastic to diffuse it. The Fresnel lens is useful in the making of motion pictures not only because of its ability to focus the beam brighter than a typical lens, but also because the light is a relatively consistent intensity across the entire width of the beam of light. 1465:, to increase or decrease the size of the light beam. As a result, they are very flexible, and can often produce a beam as narrow as 7° or as wide as 70°. The Fresnel lens produces a very soft-edged beam, so is often used as a wash light. A holder in front of the lens can hold a colored plastic film ( 708:

patented a method of making lenses from pressed and molded glass. The company made small bull's-eye lenses for use on railroads, steamboats, and docks; such lenses were common in the United States by the 1870s. In 1858 the company produced "a very small number of pressed flint-glass sixth-order

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entering the UK and Republic of Ireland (and vice versa, right-hand-drive Irish and British trucks entering mainland Europe) to overcome the blind spots caused by the driver operating the lorry while sitting on the wrong side of the cab relative to the side of the road the car is on. They attach to

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A non-imaging spot Fresnel lens uses ring-shaped segments with cross sections that are straight lines rather than circular arcs. Such a lens can focus light on a small spot, but does not produce a sharp image. These lenses have application in solar power, such as focusing sunlight on a solar panel.

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The development of hyper-radial lenses was driven in part by the need for larger light sources, such as gas lights with multiple jets, which required a longer focal length for a given beam-width, hence a larger lens to collect a given fraction of the generated light. The first hyper-radial lens was

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in the planar Fresnel element. These lenses conferred many practical benefits upon the designers, builders, and users of lighthouses and their illumination. Among other things, smaller lenses could fit into more compact spaces. Greater light transmission over longer distances, and varied patterns,

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eliminated the need for filters by inventing the "group-flashing" lens, in which the dioptric and/or the catadioptric panels were split so as to give multiple flashes—allowing lighthouses to be identified not only by frequency of flashes, but also by multiplicity of flashes. Double-flashing lenses

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The day before the test of the Cordouan lens in Paris, a committee of the Academy of Sciences reported on Fresnel's memoir and supplements on double refraction—which, although less well known to modern readers than his earlier work on diffraction, struck a more decisive blow for the wave theory of

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catadioptric first-order lens, installed at Pointe d'Ailly in 1852, also gave eight rotating beams plus a fixed light at the bottom; but its top section had eight catadioptric panels focusing the light about 4 degrees ahead of the main beams, in order to lengthen the flashes. The first fully

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based on their size and focal length. The 3rd and 4th orders were sub-divided into "large" and "small". In modern use, the orders are classified as first through sixth order. An intermediate size between third and fourth order was added later, as well as sizes above first order and below sixth.

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in London. Later, to ease manufacturing, Chance divided the prisms into segments, and arranged them in a cylindrical form while retaining the property of reflecting light from a single point back to that point. Reflectors of this form, paradoxically called "dioptric mirrors", proved particularly

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In some lenses, the curved surfaces are replaced with flat surfaces, with a different angle in each section. Such a lens can be regarded as an array of prisms arranged in a circular fashion with steeper prisms on the edges and a flat or slightly convex center. In the first (and largest) Fresnel

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The Fresnel lens reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections. An ideal Fresnel lens would have an infinite number of sections. In each section, the overall thickness is decreased compared to an equivalent

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High-quality glass Fresnel lenses were used in lighthouses, where they were considered state of the art in the late 19th and through the middle of the 20th centuries; most lighthouses have now retired glass Fresnel lenses from service and replaced them with much less expensive and more durable

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The first stage of the development of lighthouse lenses after the death of Augustin Fresnel consisted in the implementation of his designs. This was driven in part by his younger brother Léonor—who, like Augustin, was trained as a civil engineer but, unlike Augustin, had a strong aptitude for

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Fresnel acknowledged the British lenses and Buffon's invention in a memoir read on 29 July 1822 and printed in the same year. The date of that memoir may be the source of the claim that Fresnel's lighthouse advocacy began two years later than Brewster's; but the text makes it clear that

1606:, plastic Fresnel screens appear ostensibly as magnifiers for the small CRT monitors used throughout the offices of the Ministry of Information. However, they occasionally appear between the actors and the camera, distorting the scale and composition of the scene to humorous effect. The 2320:

2, vol. 17, pp. 102–111 (May 1821), 167–196 (June 1821), 312–315 ("Postscript", July 1821); reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–1870, vol. 1, pp. 609–648; translated as "On the calculation of the tints that polarization develops in crystalline plates, & postscript",

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A non-imaging linear Fresnel lens uses straight segments whose cross sections are straight lines rather than arcs. These lenses focus light into a narrow band. They do not produce a sharp image, but can be used in solar power, such as for focusing sunlight on a pipe, to heat the water

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Fresnel lens design allows a substantial reduction in thickness (and thus mass and volume of material) at the expense of reducing the imaging quality of the lens, which is why precise imaging applications such as photography usually still use larger conventional lenses.

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The use of Fresnel lenses for image projection reduces image quality, so they tend to occur only where quality is not critical or where the bulk of a solid lens would be prohibitive. Cheap Fresnel lenses can be stamped or molded of transparent plastic and are used in

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with a ratio of almost 500:1. This allows the active solar-cell surface to be reduced, lowering cost and allowing the use of more efficient cells that would otherwise be too expensive. In the early 21st century, Fresnel reflectors began to be used in

3938: 508:, becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary, albeit in the concurrent role of Engineer-in-Chief. Late that year, being increasingly ill, he curtailed his fundamental research and resigned his seasonal job as an examiner at the 2793: 1339:, using straight segments with circular cross-section, focusing light on a single line. This type produces a sharp image, although not quite as clear as the equivalent simple cylindrical lens due to diffraction at the edges of the ridges. 1268: 1241: 1185: 382:

With an official budget of 500 francs, Fresnel approached three manufacturers. The third, François Soleil, found a way to remove defects by reheating and remolding the glass. Arago assisted Fresnel with the design of a modified

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under Fresnel's supervision—in part by Fresnel's own hands. On 25 July 1823, the world's first lighthouse Fresnel lens was lit. As expected, the light was visible to the horizon, more than 32 kilometres (20 mi) out.

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cm on a side, containing 97 polygonal (not annular) prisms—and so impressed the Commission that Fresnel was asked for a full eight-panel version. This model, completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding, had panels

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without the mass and volume of material that would be required by a lens of conventional design. A Fresnel lens can be made much thinner than a comparable conventional lens, in some cases taking the form of a flat sheet.

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In late 1825, to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements, Fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism, through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface, then

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projection. The collimator lens has the lower focal length and is placed closer to the light source, and the collector lens, which focuses the light into the triplet lens, is placed after the projection image (an

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lenses" for use in lighthouses—the first Fresnel lighthouse lenses made in America. By the 1950s, the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use Fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors.

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lens, lit in 1844, was only partly catadioptric; it was similar to the Cordouan lens except that the lower slats were replaced by French-made catadioptric prisms, while mirrors were retained at the top. The first

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In 1825 Fresnel extended his fixed-lens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array. Each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam.

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cameras, where they provide multiple in- and out-of-focus images of a fixation target inside the camera. For virtually all users, at least one of the images will be in focus, thus allowing correct eye alignment.

338:'s employer, the Corps of Bridges and Roads. As the members of the commission were otherwise occupied, it achieved little in its early years. However, on 21 June 1819—three months after winning the physics 3023: 746:

lenses, each section was actually a separate prism. 'Single-piece' Fresnel lenses were later produced, being used for automobile headlamps, brake, parking, and turn signal lenses, and so on. In modern times,

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have used Fresnel lenses to reduce the size of telephoto lenses. Photographic lenses that include Fresnel elements can be much shorter than corresponding conventional lens design. Nikon calls the technology

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suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame; but even that was impractical at the time. These designs were intended not for lighthouses, but for

879: in) and stands about 2.59 m (8 ft 6 in) high, and 1.8 m (6 ft) wide. The smallest (sixth) order has a focal length of 150 mm (6 in) and a height of 433 mm ( 838: 1422:, where they can shape the roughly parallel beam from the parabolic reflector to meet requirements for dipped and main-beam patterns, often both in the same headlamp unit (such as the European 1403:

elements, arrayed in faceted domes above and below the central planar Fresnel, in order to catch all light emitted from the light source. The light path through these elements can include an

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the metal rings seen in the photographs. While the inner elements are sections of refractive lenses, the outer elements are reflecting prisms, each of which performs two refractions and one

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total internal reflections to turn light diverging from the center of the hemisphere back toward the center. The result was an all-glass holophote, with no losses from metallic reflections.

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Fresnel lenses are usually made of glass or plastic; their size varies from large (old historical lighthouses, meter size) to medium (book-reading aids, OHP viewgraph projectors) to small (

2786: 1253: 2997: 1209: 1461:. The entire instrument consists of a metal housing, a reflector, a lamp assembly, and a Fresnel lens. Many Fresnel instruments allow the lamp to be moved relative to the lens' 552:

off the second surface, then refraction through the third surface. The result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it. In 1826 he assembled a small model for use on the

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cm square. In a public spectacle on the evening of 13 April 1821, it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors, which it suddenly rendered obsolete.

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in 1789. Behind each lamp was a back-coated spherical glass mirror, which reflected rear radiation back through the lamp and into the lens. Further samples were installed at

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simple lens. This effectively divides the continuous surface of a standard lens into a set of surfaces of the same curvature, with stepwise discontinuities between them.

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Shishavanf, Amir Asgharzadeh; Nordin, Leland; Tjossem, Paul; Abramoff, Michael D.; Toor, Fatima (2016), Engheta, Nader; Noginov, Mikhail A.; Zheludev, Nikolay I (eds.),

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cm and indicates that the first panel was tested on 31 October 1820; cf. Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. xxxii & xxxiv, and Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, p.

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Most modern Fresnel lenses consist only of refractive elements. Lighthouse lenses, however, tend to include both refracting and reflecting elements, the latter being

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Since plastic Fresnel lenses can be made larger than glass lenses, as well as being much cheaper and lighter, they are used to concentrate sunlight for heating in

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made use of them in his early solo live performances to magnify the size of his head, in contrast to the rest of his body, for dramatic and comic effect. In the

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By the end of August 1819, unaware of the Buffon-Condorcet-Brewster proposal, Fresnel made his first presentation to the commission, recommending what he called

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prisms, ground as steps in a single piece of glass,to reduce weight and absorption. In 1790 (although secondary sources give the date as 1773 or 1788), the

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modified Thomas Stevenson's all-glass holophotal design by arranging the double-reflecting prisms about a vertical axis. The prototype was shown at the

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lens—for spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below. Ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of

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J. Elton, 2009, "A Light to Lighten our Darkness: Lighthouse Optics and the Later Development of Fresnel's Revolutionary Refracting Lens 1780–1900",

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of a lens attached to the rear window permits examining the scene behind a vehicle, particularly a tall or bluff-tailed one, more effectively than a

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in Hawaii. Rather than order a new lens, the huge optic construction, 3.7 metres (12 ft) tall and with over a thousand prisms, was used there.

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As lighthouses proliferated, they became harder to distinguish from each other, leading to the use of colored filters, which wasted light. In 1884,

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which reduces the amount of material required compared to a conventional lens by dividing the lens into a set of concentric annular sections.

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A. Fresnel, 1822, "Mémoire sur un nouveau système d'éclairage des phares", read 29 July 1822; reprinted in Fresnel, 1866–1870, vol. 3,

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as well as refraction to capture more oblique light from the light source and add it to the beam, making it visible at greater distances.

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The first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens was apparently the London glass-cutter Thomas Rogers, who proposed the idea to

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Production of one-piece stepped dioptric lenses—roughly as envisaged by Buffon—became feasible in 1852, when John L. Gilliland of the

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about a common vertical axis, so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum. If this was supplemented by reflecting (

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camera screens, micro-optics). In many cases they are very thin and flat, almost flexible, with thicknesses in the 1 to 5 mm (

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Lighthouses, Lenses, Illuminants, Engineering, & Augustin Fresnel: A Historical Bibliography on Works Published Through 2007

1157: 3502: 3284: 2869: 3107: 2748: 580:, Scotland, on 22 September 1836. The first large catadioptric lenses were made in 1842 for the lighthouses at Gravelines and 576:

under the guidance of Léonor Fresnel, and fabricated by Isaac Cookson & Co. using French glass; it entered service at the

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was heat-resistant, making it suitable for use in the lens. The prototype, finished in March 1820, had a square lens panel 55

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208) notes that although the Skerryvore lens was lit on 1 February 1844, the catadioptric portion was yet to be added.

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design). For reasons of economy, weight, and impact resistance, newer cars have dispensed with glass Fresnel lenses, using

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management. Léonor entered the service of the Lighthouse Commission in 1825, and went on to succeed Augustin as Secretary.

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The first fixed lens to be constructed with toroidal prisms was a first-order apparatus designed by the Scottish engineer

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A. Fresnel, "Note sur le calcul des teintes que la polarisation développe dans les lames cristallisées" et seq.,

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use Fresnel lenses, as they allow a thinner and lighter form factor than regular lenses. Newer devices, such as the

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59. The biconvex shape may be inferred from Buffon's description, quoted in Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, at p.

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First-order lens from Destruction Island WA, built in France 1888. Currently at Westport Maritime Museum.

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lenses. However, Fresnel lenses continue in wide use in automobile tail, marker, and reversing lights.

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Fresnel's next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight "bull's-eye" panels, made in annular arcs by

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The Rise of the Wave Theory of Light: Optical Theory and Experiment in the Early Nineteenth Century

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Fresnel lenses have also been used in the field of popular entertainment. The British rock artist

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Because of its use in lighthouses, it has been called "the invention that saved a million ships".

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Levitt, 2013, pp. 59–66. Levitt gives the size of the eight-panel version as 720 mm (

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used to heat water for domestic use. They can also be used to generate steam or to power a

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Soon after this demonstration, Fresnel published the idea that light, including apparently

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First-order group-flashing Fresnel lens, on display at the Point Arena Lighthouse Museum,

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hypothesis. Shortly after the Cordouan lens was lit, Fresnel started coughing up blood.

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light. Between the test and the reassembly at Cordouan, Fresnel submitted his papers on

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Cross-section of a first-generation Fresnel lighthouse lens, with sloping mirrors

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and his entourage—from 32 kilometres (20 mi) away. The apparatus was stored at

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useful for returning light from the landward side of the lamp to the seaward side.

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A. Fresnel (ed. H. de Sénarmont, E. Verdet, and L. Fresnel), 1866–1870,

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is the same (cylindrical symmetry), the light is spread evenly around the horizon.

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Another automobile application of a Fresnel lens is a rear view enhancer, as the

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is unknown. Much to Fresnel's embarrassment, one of the assembled commissioners,

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features a Fresnel lens in the scenes where the protagonist watches the musical

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Fourth order lens from Cape Arago Lighthouse. Currently at Coos History Museum.

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1: Cross-section of Buffon/Fresnel lens. 2: Cross-section of conventional

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Buchwald, 1989, pp. 260, 288–290, 297; cf. Born & Wolf, 1999, p.

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A Short Bright Flash: Augustin Fresnel and the Birth of the Modern Lighthouse

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First-order rotating catadioptric Fresnel lens, dated 1870, displayed at the

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G.-A. Boutry, 1948, "Augustin Fresnel: His time, life and work, 1788–1827",

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Close-up view of a flat Fresnel lens shows concentric circles on the surface

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240, is a transcription error, inconsistent with the primary source cited.)

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Perhaps the most widespread use of Fresnel lenses, for a time, occurred in

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Lighthouse in 1887. In the same year, Barbier installed a hyper-radial at

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portable CRT TV, which enlarges the vertical aspect of the display only

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International Journal for the History of Engineering & Technology

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Elton, 2009, pp. 199, 200, 202; Levitt, 2013, pp. 104–105.

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Fresnel, 1866–1870, vol. 1, pp. 713–718, 731–751, 767–799.

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alone. Fresnel lenses have been used on rangefinding equipment and

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Fresnel designed six sizes of lighthouse lenses, divided into four

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was the first to replace a convex lens with a series of concentric

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Comparison of first- and fourth-order lenses (Key West Lighthouse)

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in 1854, and marked the completion of Augustin Fresnel's original

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Levitt, 2013, pp. 108–110, 113–116, 122–123. Elton (2009, p.

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Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, pp. 5–14; on the date, see p.

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Dictionary of Machines, Mechanics, Engine-work, and Engineering

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camera used a Fresnel reflector as part of its viewing system.

1547:. Fresnel lenses have been used to increase the visual size of 1445:

Glass Fresnel lenses also are used in lighting instruments for

1093:

Breakwaters, river and channel lights, Small islands in sounds

3581: 3432:

19 August 2016. (Cited page numbers refer to the translation.)

3034:, Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers: 99180C, 1714: 747: 116: 70: 3260:"Phase Fresnel – The "PF" in Nikon's New 300mm f/4E PF ED VR" 1492:

and naval air stations typically use Fresnel lenses in their

1074:

Shoals, reefs, harbor lights, islands in rivers and harbors

387:

with concentric wicks (a concept that Fresnel attributed to

2892:"Fresnel Lens Orders, Sizes, Weights, Quantities and Costs" 1685:

cameras can utilize a Fresnel lens in conjunction with the

1523:

A plastic Fresnel lens sold as a TV-screen enlarging device

1028:

Seacoast sounds, river entry, bays, channels, range lights

153: 144: 107: 101: 58: 52: 3565:"Seeing the Light: Lighthouses on the western Great Lakes" 3409:, vol. 79, no. 2 (July 2009), pp. 183–244; 2760:

A. Finstad, "New developments in audio-visual materials",

1856: 1854: 1852: 1850: 454:

on 20 August 1822, was witnessed by the Commission—and by

3134:"What Tech is Inside of a VR Headset? (Quest 2 Teardown)" 2604:"Appareil catadioptrique, Appareil du canal Saint-Martin" 2127: 2125: 1329:

when the ridges are microscopic, at the wavelength scale.

659:(Sri Lanka) in 1875, and a triple-flashing lens at 344:

of the Academy of Sciences for his celebrated memoir on

3079:

Lowe's Transport Manager's and Operator's Handbook 2012

2747:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 1 March 2021; 1441:

A Fresnel lantern with the lens open to show the ridges

191:, and independently reinvented by the French physicist 2727:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 28 February 2021; 1653:

Multi-focal Fresnel lenses are also used as a part of

865:

A first-order lens has a focal length of 920 mm (

502:

In May 1824, Fresnel was promoted to Secretary of the

214:

The design allows the construction of lenses of large

3577:

The Fresnel Lens: the Invention That Saved 1000 Ships

3524: 3426:"Memoir upon a new system of lighthouse illumination" 1335:

A cylindrical Fresnel lens is equivalent to a simple

379:

and made of multiple prisms for easier construction.

165: 150: 138: 125: 104: 95: 79: 67: 55: 46: 3428:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 26 August 2017; 3030:, Metamaterials, Metadevices, and Metasystems 2016, 2837:, Michigan Lighthouse Conservancy, 31 January 2008, 2075:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; 2049:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 22 August 2017; 1977:, U.S. Lighthouse Society, accessed 12 August 2017; 1569:

Fresnel lenses are used in left-hand-drive European

156: 141: 110: 98: 61: 49: 3939:

International Association of Lighthouse Authorities

3924: 3893: 3847: 3816: 3745: 3701: 3649: 3642: 2107: 2105: 2103: 2101: 147: 92: 43: 1726:). Fresnel lenses are also used as collimators in 754:might be used to manufacture more complex lenses. 3311:"Soitec's high-performance Concentrix technology" 2927:Introduction to Nonimaging Optics, Second Edition 1713:, and one collector) are used in commercial and 423:Fresnel's involvement began no later than 1819. 2768:15 (1 April 1952), pp. 176–178, at p. 2677:Elton, 2009, pp. 227–230; Levitt, 2013, p. 2021: 2019: 1709:Fresnel lenses of different focal lengths (one 1646:design due to its smaller form factor and less 415:, and went on to consider the implications for 3949:International Lighthouse and Lightship Weekend 3219:VR Expert | Enterprise VR/AR Hardware Supplier 3159:"How Lenses for Virtual Reality Headsets Work" 2167:Levitt, 2013, pp. 51, 53; Elton, 2009, p. 487:(9 December), and partial reflection and 251:cm thick at the center, were installed at the 3597: 3439:(3 vols.), Paris: Imprimerie Impériale; 2910:R. Winston, J. C. Miñano, and P. G. Benítez, 2393:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, pp. 13, 25. 2230: 2228: 2087: 2085: 1753:Fresnel lenses can concentrate sunlight onto 8: 3471:Miscellaneous Works of the late Thomas Young 1539:Fresnel lenses are used as simple hand-held 1457:); such instruments are often called simply 1412:made it possible to triangulate a position. 1351:Fresnel lenses may be used as components of 1318:A spherical Fresnel lens is equivalent to a 845:Walking around a fresnel lens on display in 553: 539: 509: 503: 447: 362: 356: 339: 3559:(5-minute video), Vega Science Trust, 2008. 2067: 2065: 2063: 2061: 2059: 2041: 2039: 1969: 1967: 1387:lighthouse lens and drive mechanism at the 748:computer-controlled milling equipment (CNC) 725:of equivalent power. (Buffon's version was 598:beams—also of first order—was installed at 3646: 3604: 3590: 3582: 2348:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, pp. 2–4. 2011:Histoire de l'Académie Royale des Sciences 1950:"The invention that saved a million ships" 1300:There are two main types of Fresnel lens: 906: 671:, which was in service from 1908 to 1977. 307:above and below the refractive panel 2780: 2778: 2739: 2737: 2326: 1499:Fresnel lenses are also commonly used in 1343:Non-imaging lenses can be classified as: 187:) form of the lens was first proposed by 2983:, 2nd Ed., Broadway Press, 1997, p. 2417:"Science Makes a Better Lighthouse Lens" 1359:Fresnel-Köhler (FK) solar concentrators. 1231:Fourth-order lens (Sekizaki Lighthouse, 1008:lighthouses, seacoasts, islands, sounds 462:for the winter, and then reassembled at 2200:58) gives the date only as August 1819. 1818: 1153: 655:were installed at Tampico (Mexico) and 519:In the same year he designed the first 3469:T. Young (ed. G. Peacock), 1855, 3338:"This 3D printer runs on sand and sun" 2841:from the original on 21 September 2012 2796:from the original on 21 September 2015 2690:Point Arena Lighthouse Keepers, Inc., 2171:190; Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 1, p. 2119:, 1879, vol. 7, pp. 486–489. 2033:, 1861, vol. 2, pp. 606–618. 1112:Pier and breakwater lights in harbors 896:The largest Fresnel lenses are called 272:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 189:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon 3108:"Projected Map Display [PMD]" 2998:"Fresnel Lens Optical Landing System" 2427:5 (August 1999), pp 30–31. 2111:G. Ripley and C.A. Dana (eds.), 1901:from the original on 17 December 2013 1311:Imaging lenses can be classified as: 7: 3979: 3911:Lighthouses by century of completion 3437:Oeuvres complètes d'Augustin Fresnel 3348:from the original on 1 December 2017 2714:233; Levitt, 2013, pp. 222–224. 2518:399; Boutry, 1948, pp. 601–602. 2179:xxiv. ("July 21" in Levitt, 2013, p. 675:built for the Stevensons in 1885 by 391:), and accidentally discovered that 243:in 1788. The first Rogers lenses, 53 3999: 3550:"Fresnel Lens - Maxwell Simulation" 2872:from the original on 5 October 2008 2650:Elton, 2009, pp. 209–210, 238. 2505:, 1907–12, vol. 6 (1909). 2006:Éloge de M. le Comte de Buffon 1948:Bernhard, Adrienne (21 June 2019), 1355:optics resulting in very effective 538:Also in 1825, Fresnel unveiled the 2890:United States Lighthouse Society, 2619:Levitt, 2013, pp. 28, 72, 99. 2406:195; Levitt, 2013, pp. 72–76. 14: 3916:Lighthouses by year of completion 3240:"AF-S NIKKOR 300mm f/4E PF ED VR" 2218:Fresnel, 1866–70, vol. 3, p. 2047:"Chronology of Lighthouse Events" 1927:(3rd ed.), Pearson Longman, 1833:(3rd ed.), Pearson Longman, 814:Description of lens orders, from 172:) is a type of composite compact 3998: 3988: 3978: 3969: 3968: 3944:Amateur Radio Lighthouse Society 3906:Lighthouses by heritage register 3736: 3525:United States Lighthouse Society 3374:, 7th Ed., Cambridge, 1999. 3285:"Soitec's Concentrix technology" 2314:Annales de Chimie et de Physique 1925:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 1831:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 1283: 1267: 1252: 1240: 1224: 1208: 1203:Close-up of a second-order lens. 1196: 1184: 1168: 1156: 375:and in one piece, Fresnel's was 134: 88: 39: 3503:U.S. Government Printing Office 3424:; translated by T. Tag as 3394:, University of Chicago Press, 3076:Lowe, David (3 December 2011), 2357:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, p. 2264:Fresnel, 1822, tr. Tag, p. 411:light, consists exclusively of 3491:, Winter 1985, pp. 12–14. 3458:, New York: W.W. Norton, 3336:M. Margolin (24 August 2016), 3165:. 8 March 2016. Archived from 3132:Poore, Shaun (21 April 2022). 2745:"American-Made Fresnel Lenses" 2668:Elton, 2009, pp. 221–223. 2659:Elton, 2009, pp. 210–213. 2562:Elton, 2009, pp. 198–199. 2553:Elton, 2009, pp. 197–198. 2370:D. Gombert, photograph of the 2209:Levitt, 2013, pp. 56, 58. 1769:Fresnel lenses can be used to 1766:, in Hunter Valley Australia. 1: 2701:, accessed 1 March 2021. 2602:Musée national de la Marine, 2593:Levitt, 2013, pp. 79–80. 2571:Levitt, 2013, pp. 82–84. 2384:, France, 23 March 2017. 2158:Levitt, 2013, pp. 49–50. 1531:The Fresnel lens used in the 947:Major "landfall" lighthouses 628:1862 International Exhibition 3934:General lighthouse authority 3557:"How the Fresnel lens works" 1479:on US Navy aircraft carrier 1148:Used in Scotland and Canada 1130:Used in Scotland and Canada 816:Block Island Southeast Light 706:Brooklyn Flint-Glass Company 683:with various light sources. 644:Mendocino County, California 3629:Conservation of lighthouses 2606:, accessed 26 August 2017; 2378:Musée des Phares et Balises 2138:"Brewster, Sir David" 2013:for 1788, printed in 1791.) 1975:"Lens use prior to Fresnel" 1574:the passenger-side window. 1389:National Museum of Scotland 438:. Each ring, shaped like a 311:(with central segment 26:Musée national de la Marine 4058: 3473:, London: J. Murray, 3112:Rochester Avionic Archives 2291: in). Elton (2009, p. 2175:xcvii, and vol. 3, p. 1742:, in solar forges, and in 966:Two Brazilian lighthouses 600:Saint-Clément-des-Baleines 475:(16 September 1822), 295:Publication and refinement 3964: 3734: 3619: 3383:jstor.org/stable/43413515 3213:C, Mark (26 April 2022). 2785:Baiges, Mabel A. (1988), 2376:in the collection of the 1760:concentrating solar power 1407:, rather than the simple 1276:Ponce de Leon Inlet Light 1134: 1116: 1097: 1078: 1059: 1032: 1012: 990: 970: 951: 932: 927: 924: 921: 918: 915: 912: 798:total internal reflection 698:Hyperradiant Fresnel lens 681:South Foreland Lighthouse 679:of France, and tested at 677:F. Barbier & Cie 554: 550:total internal reflection 510: 489:total internal reflection 448: 209:total internal reflection 3415:10.1179/175812109X449612 3246:15 February 2015 at the 2499:"Fresnel, Augustin-Jean" 2113:"Fresnel, Augustin Jean" 1802:Linear Fresnel reflector 1562:. They are also used in 419:and partial reflection. 3449:vol. 3 (1870) 3445:vol. 2 (1868) 3441:vol. 1 (1866) 3270:14 January 2015 at the 3242:, 6 January 2015, 2914:, Academic Press, 2005. 2697:19 January 2021 at the 2144:Encyclopædia Britannica 2025:D. Appleton & Co., 1873:Encyclopædia Britannica 1494:optical landing systems 1428:multifaceted reflectors 1217:St. Simons Island Light 908:Lighthouse lens orders 594:catadioptric lens with 195:(1788–1827) for use in 3763:Automatic lamp changer 3624:History of lighthouses 3388:J. Z. Buchwald, 1989, 2924:Chaves, Julio (2015), 2337:10.5281/zenodo.4058004 1704:projection televisions 1630:headsets, such as the 1536: 1524: 1486: 1477:Optical landing system 1442: 1391: 1177:Cape Meares Lighthouse 986:Large seacoast lights 854: 829: 819: 738: 730: 647: 640:Point Arena Lighthouse 540: 504: 363: 357: 340: 320: 30: 16:Compact composite lens 3552:, 13 April 2009. 3370:M. Born and E. Wolf, 3084:Kogan Page Publishers 2981:Photometrics Handbook 2725:"Hyper-Radial Lenses" 2503:Catholic Encyclopedia 1764:Liddell Power Station 1655:retina identification 1650:than Fresnel lenses. 1642:, have switched to a 1587:projected map display 1530: 1522: 1475: 1440: 1383: 1259:Fifth-order lens, at 844: 825: 813: 804:Lighthouse lens sizes 736: 720: 637: 505:Commission des Phares 481:circular polarization 336:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 325:Commission des Phares 302: 247:cm in diameter and 14 193:Augustin-Jean Fresnel 22: 4037:Solar thermal energy 3803:Light characteristic 3702:Navigational purpose 3534:2 March 2021 at the 3487:"The Fresnel Lens", 3454:T. H. Levitt, 2013, 3372:Principles of Optics 3317:on 23 September 2013 2897:27 June 2023 at the 2822:on 27 September 2007 2692:"Lighthouse History" 2531:198, Figure 12. 2196:6n. Levitt (2013, p. 1648:chromatic aberration 1483:Dwight D. Eisenhower 624:James Timmins Chance 364:lentilles à échelons 358:lentilles à échelons 280:Marquis de Condorcet 253:Old Lower Lighthouse 4032:Lighthouse fixtures 3901:Lighthouse builders 3545:(with photographs). 3264:The Digital Picture 3040:2016SPIE.9918E..0CA 2527:Cf. Elton, 2009, p. 2373:Optique de Cordouan 2295:193) gives it as 76 2117:American Cyclopædia 1728:overhead projectors 1700:overhead projectors 1551:displays in pocket 1405:internal reflection 1353:Köhler illumination 1261:Key West Lighthouse 909: 902:Makapuu Point Light 827:Makapuu Point Light 661:Casquets Lighthouse 512:École Polytechnique 464:Cordouan Lighthouse 3571:on 30 January 2008 3543:"The Fresnel lens" 3508:U.S. Coast Guard, 3501:, Washington, DC: 3499:Aids to Navigation 3169:on 27 October 2022 3048:10.1117/12.2237994 2866:Lighthouse Friends 2764:, vol. 8, no. 2423:, vol. 30 no. 2073:"The Fresnel lens" 1867:"Lighthouse" 1792:Fresnel zone plate 1537: 1525: 1487: 1443: 1392: 1274:Sixth-order lens ( 1215:Third-order lens ( 1175:First-order lens ( 919:Focal length (mm) 907: 855: 830: 820: 739: 731: 648: 556:Canal Saint-Martin 321: 207:elements that use 31: 4042:French inventions 4012: 4011: 3955:Lighthouse Digest 3768:Bird-cage lantern 3732: 3731: 3464:978-0-393-35089-0 3400:978-0-226-07886-1 3093:978-0-7494-6410-3 2979:Mumm, Robert C., 2941:978-1-4822-0673-9 2912:Nonimaging Optics 2860:Anderson, Kraig, 2751:21 February 2021. 2731:11 February 2021. 2003:N. de Condorcet, 1934:978-1-4058-8118-0 1840:978-1-4058-8118-0 1720:active matrix LCD 1490:Aircraft carriers 1357:nonimaging optics 1163:First-order lens. 1152: 1151: 842: 789: in) range. 723:plano-convex lens 669:Point Arena Light 417:double refraction 83:-nel, -⁠nəl 4049: 4002: 4001: 3992: 3982: 3981: 3972: 3971: 3740: 3647: 3606: 3599: 3592: 3583: 3572: 3567:, archived from 3495:U.S. Coast Guard 3489:The Keeper's Log 3379:Science Progress 3358: 3356: 3355: 3353: 3333: 3327: 3325: 3324: 3322: 3313:, archived from 3307: 3301: 3299: 3298: 3296: 3291:on 17 April 2011 3287:, archived from 3281: 3275: 3257: 3251: 3236: 3230: 3229: 3227: 3225: 3210: 3204: 3203: 3201: 3199: 3185: 3179: 3178: 3176: 3174: 3155: 3149: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3129: 3123: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3104: 3098: 3096: 3073: 3067: 3065: 3064: 3062: 3019: 3013: 3012: 3010: 3008: 2994: 2988: 2986: 2977: 2971: 2970: 2968: 2966: 2952: 2946: 2944: 2921: 2915: 2908: 2902: 2888: 2882: 2880: 2879: 2877: 2857: 2851: 2849: 2848: 2846: 2835:"Fresnel lenses" 2831: 2825: 2823: 2818:, archived from 2816:"Fresnel lenses" 2812: 2806: 2804: 2803: 2801: 2791: 2787:"Fresnel Orders" 2782: 2773: 2771: 2767: 2762:Higher Education 2758: 2752: 2741: 2732: 2721: 2715: 2713: 2708: 2702: 2688: 2682: 2680: 2675: 2669: 2666: 2660: 2657: 2651: 2648: 2642: 2640: 2635: 2629: 2626: 2620: 2617: 2611: 2600: 2594: 2591: 2585: 2583: 2578: 2572: 2569: 2563: 2560: 2554: 2551: 2545: 2543: 2540:Levitt, 2013, p. 2538: 2532: 2530: 2525: 2519: 2517: 2512: 2506: 2495: 2489: 2487: 2482: 2476: 2474: 2471:Levitt, 2013, p. 2469: 2463: 2461: 2458:Levitt, 2013, p. 2456: 2450: 2447: 2441: 2439: 2434: 2428: 2426: 2415:B. Watson, 2413: 2407: 2405: 2400: 2394: 2391: 2385: 2368: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2349: 2346: 2340: 2330: 2319: 2310: 2304: 2302: 2298: 2294: 2290: 2289: 2285: 2282: 2275: 2269: 2267: 2262: 2256: 2254: 2250: 2247:Levitt, 2013, p. 2245: 2239: 2237: 2234:Levitt, 2013, p. 2232: 2223: 2221: 2216: 2210: 2207: 2201: 2199: 2195: 2190: 2184: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2165: 2159: 2156: 2150: 2148: 2140: 2129: 2120: 2109: 2096: 2094: 2091:Levitt, 2013, p. 2089: 2080: 2069: 2054: 2043: 2034: 2023: 2014: 2001: 1995: 1993: 1990:Levitt, 2013, p. 1988: 1982: 1971: 1962: 1960: 1959: 1957: 1945: 1939: 1937: 1923:(3 April 2008), 1917: 1911: 1909: 1908: 1906: 1885: 1879: 1877: 1869: 1858: 1845: 1843: 1829:(3 April 2008), 1823: 1744:solar collectors 1620:magnified on an 1583:rear-view mirror 1337:cylindrical lens 1287: 1271: 1256: 1244: 1228: 1212: 1200: 1188: 1172: 1160: 1045: 1044: 1040: 1037: 925:First installed 910: 892: 891: 887: 884: 878: 877: 873: 870: 843: 788: 787: 783: 778: 777: 773: 693:Tory Island 610:Thomas Stevenson 604:Carte des Phares 596:purely revolving 559: 558: 543: 541:Carte des Phares 515: 514: 507: 485:optical rotation 453: 452: 413:transverse waves 403: 398: 366: 360: 343: 333: 250: 246: 169: 163: 162: 159: 158: 155: 152: 149: 146: 143: 140: 128: 123: 122: 119: 118: 113: 112: 109: 106: 103: 100: 97: 94: 82: 77: 76: 73: 72: 69: 64: 63: 60: 57: 54: 51: 48: 45: 4057: 4056: 4052: 4051: 4050: 4048: 4047: 4046: 4017: 4016: 4013: 4008: 3960: 3926: 3920: 3889: 3843: 3812: 3741: 3728: 3697: 3638: 3615: 3610: 3562: 3541:W. A. Britten, 3536:Wayback Machine 3521: 3484: 3482:Further reading 3422:pp. 97–126 3367: 3362: 3361: 3351: 3349: 3335: 3334: 3330: 3320: 3318: 3309: 3308: 3304: 3294: 3292: 3283: 3282: 3278: 3272:Wayback Machine 3258: 3254: 3248:Wayback Machine 3237: 3233: 3223: 3221: 3212: 3211: 3207: 3197: 3195: 3187: 3186: 3182: 3172: 3170: 3157: 3156: 3152: 3142: 3140: 3131: 3130: 3126: 3116: 3114: 3106: 3105: 3101: 3094: 3075: 3074: 3070: 3060: 3058: 3021: 3020: 3016: 3006: 3004: 2996: 2995: 2991: 2984: 2978: 2974: 2964: 2962: 2954: 2953: 2949: 2942: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2909: 2905: 2899:Wayback Machine 2889: 2885: 2875: 2873: 2859: 2858: 2854: 2844: 2842: 2833: 2832: 2828: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2799: 2797: 2789: 2784: 2783: 2776: 2769: 2765: 2759: 2755: 2742: 2735: 2722: 2718: 2711: 2710:Elton, 2009, p. 2709: 2705: 2699:Wayback Machine 2689: 2685: 2678: 2676: 2672: 2667: 2663: 2658: 2654: 2649: 2645: 2638: 2636: 2632: 2627: 2623: 2618: 2614: 2610:26 August 2017. 2601: 2597: 2592: 2588: 2581: 2580:Elton, 2009, p. 2579: 2575: 2570: 2566: 2561: 2557: 2552: 2548: 2541: 2539: 2535: 2528: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2514:Young, 1855, p. 2513: 2509: 2496: 2492: 2485: 2484:Elton, 2009, p. 2483: 2479: 2472: 2470: 2466: 2459: 2457: 2453: 2448: 2444: 2437: 2435: 2431: 2424: 2414: 2410: 2403: 2402:Elton, 2009, p. 2401: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2369: 2365: 2358: 2356: 2352: 2347: 2343: 2317: 2311: 2307: 2300: 2296: 2292: 2287: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2276: 2272: 2265: 2263: 2259: 2252: 2248: 2246: 2242: 2235: 2233: 2226: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2208: 2204: 2197: 2193: 2191: 2187: 2180: 2176: 2172: 2168: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2153: 2131: 2130: 2123: 2110: 2099: 2092: 2090: 2083: 2070: 2057: 2044: 2037: 2024: 2017: 2002: 1998: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1972: 1965: 1955: 1953: 1947: 1946: 1942: 1935: 1919: 1918: 1914: 1904: 1902: 1894:Merriam-Webster 1887: 1886: 1882: 1860: 1859: 1848: 1841: 1825: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1797:Lenticular lens 1783: 1773:sand, allowing 1748:Stirling engine 1736: 1695: 1628:Virtual reality 1579:wide view angle 1517: 1455:Fresnel lantern 1451:motion pictures 1378: 1373: 1298: 1291: 1288: 1279: 1272: 1263: 1257: 1248: 1245: 1236: 1229: 1220: 1213: 1204: 1201: 1192: 1189: 1180: 1173: 1164: 1161: 1042: 1038: 1035: 1033: 889: 885: 882: 880: 875: 871: 868: 866: 832: 818:, Rhode Island. 806: 785: 781: 780: 775: 771: 770: 715: 685:Chance Brothers 665:Channel Islands 566: 497:transverse wave 493:physical optics 473:photoelasticity 450:Arc de Triomphe 401: 396: 369:Jacques Charles 327: 297: 285:burning glasses 248: 244: 237: 232: 167: 137: 133: 129:-el, -⁠əl 126: 115: 91: 87: 80: 66: 42: 38: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4055: 4053: 4045: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4019: 4018: 4010: 4009: 4007: 4006: 3996: 3986: 3976: 3965: 3962: 3961: 3959: 3958: 3951: 3946: 3941: 3936: 3930: 3928: 3922: 3921: 3919: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3897: 3895: 3891: 3890: 3888: 3887: 3882: 3877: 3872: 3867: 3862: 3857: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3844: 3842: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3826: 3820: 3818: 3814: 3813: 3811: 3810: 3805: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3785: 3780: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3749: 3747: 3743: 3742: 3735: 3733: 3730: 3729: 3727: 3726: 3721: 3716: 3714:Leading lights 3711: 3705: 3703: 3699: 3698: 3696: 3695: 3689: 3687:Skeletal tower 3684: 3679: 3674: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3653: 3651: 3644: 3640: 3639: 3637: 3636: 3631: 3626: 3620: 3617: 3616: 3611: 3609: 3608: 3601: 3594: 3586: 3580: 3579: 3574: 3560: 3553: 3546: 3539: 3529:Fresnel Lenses 3527:, especially " 3520: 3519:External links 3517: 3516: 3515: 3506: 3492: 3483: 3480: 3479: 3478: 3467: 3452: 3433: 3418: 3403: 3386: 3375: 3366: 3363: 3360: 3359: 3328: 3302: 3276: 3252: 3231: 3205: 3193:www.oculus.com 3180: 3150: 3138:ShaunPoore.com 3124: 3099: 3092: 3068: 3014: 2989: 2972: 2947: 2940: 2916: 2903: 2883: 2862:"Makapu'u, HI" 2852: 2826: 2807: 2774: 2753: 2733: 2716: 2703: 2683: 2670: 2661: 2652: 2643: 2630: 2621: 2612: 2595: 2586: 2573: 2564: 2555: 2546: 2533: 2520: 2507: 2490: 2477: 2464: 2451: 2442: 2429: 2408: 2395: 2386: 2363: 2350: 2341: 2305: 2270: 2257: 2240: 2224: 2211: 2202: 2185: 2160: 2151: 2135:, ed. (1911), 2133:Chisholm, Hugh 2121: 2097: 2081: 2055: 2035: 2015: 1996: 1983: 1963: 1940: 1933: 1912: 1889:"Fresnel lens" 1880: 1864:, ed. (1911), 1862:Chisholm, Hugh 1846: 1839: 1817: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1809: 1807:Prism lighting 1804: 1799: 1794: 1789: 1787:Fresnel imager 1782: 1779: 1735: 1732: 1724:LCD projectors 1694: 1691: 1675:Polaroid SX-70 1640:Meta Quest Pro 1564:traffic lights 1555:, notably the 1516: 1513: 1377: 1374: 1372: 1369: 1368: 1367: 1363: 1360: 1348: 1341: 1340: 1333: 1330: 1323:spherical lens 1316: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1292: 1289: 1282: 1280: 1273: 1266: 1264: 1258: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1239: 1237: 1230: 1223: 1221: 1214: 1207: 1205: 1202: 1195: 1193: 1190: 1183: 1181: 1174: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1155: 1150: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1136: 1132: 1131: 1128: 1126: 1123: 1120: 1118: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1102: 1099: 1095: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1083: 1080: 1076: 1075: 1072: 1070: 1067: 1064: 1061: 1057: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1048: 1046: 1030: 1029: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1017: 1014: 1010: 1009: 1003: 1001: 998: 995: 992: 988: 987: 984: 981: 978: 975: 972: 968: 967: 964: 961: 958: 955: 953: 949: 948: 945: 942: 939: 936: 934: 930: 929: 926: 923: 920: 917: 916:Fresnel order 914: 805: 802: 714: 711: 652:John Hopkinson 574:Alan Stevenson 565: 562: 436:Venetian blind 350:François Arago 296: 293: 289:David Brewster 265:North Foreland 236: 233: 231: 228: 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4054: 4043: 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4024: 4022: 4015: 4005: 3997: 3995: 3991: 3987: 3985: 3977: 3975: 3967: 3966: 3963: 3957: 3956: 3952: 3950: 3947: 3945: 3942: 3940: 3937: 3935: 3932: 3931: 3929: 3927:organizations 3923: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3902: 3899: 3898: 3896: 3892: 3886: 3885:South America 3883: 3881: 3878: 3876: 3875:North America 3873: 3871: 3868: 3866: 3863: 3861: 3858: 3856: 3853: 3852: 3850: 3846: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3821: 3819: 3815: 3809: 3806: 3804: 3801: 3799: 3796: 3794: 3791: 3789: 3786: 3784: 3781: 3779: 3776: 3774: 3771: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3754: 3751: 3750: 3748: 3744: 3739: 3725: 3722: 3720: 3717: 3715: 3712: 3710: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3700: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3654: 3652: 3648: 3645: 3641: 3635: 3632: 3630: 3627: 3625: 3622: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3607: 3602: 3600: 3595: 3593: 3588: 3587: 3584: 3578: 3575: 3570: 3566: 3561: 3558: 3554: 3551: 3547: 3544: 3540: 3537: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3523: 3522: 3518: 3513: 3512: 3507: 3504: 3500: 3496: 3493: 3490: 3486: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3472: 3468: 3465: 3461: 3457: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3442: 3438: 3434: 3431: 3427: 3423: 3419: 3416: 3412: 3408: 3404: 3401: 3397: 3393: 3392: 3387: 3384: 3380: 3376: 3373: 3369: 3368: 3364: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3329: 3316: 3312: 3306: 3303: 3290: 3286: 3280: 3277: 3273: 3269: 3265: 3261: 3256: 3253: 3249: 3245: 3241: 3238:Nikon Corp., 3235: 3232: 3220: 3216: 3209: 3206: 3194: 3190: 3184: 3181: 3168: 3164: 3160: 3154: 3151: 3139: 3135: 3128: 3125: 3113: 3109: 3103: 3100: 3095: 3089: 3085: 3081: 3080: 3072: 3069: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3028:Metamaterials 3025: 3018: 3015: 3003: 2999: 2993: 2990: 2982: 2976: 2973: 2961: 2957: 2951: 2948: 2943: 2937: 2933: 2929: 2928: 2920: 2917: 2913: 2907: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2893: 2887: 2884: 2871: 2867: 2863: 2856: 2853: 2840: 2836: 2830: 2827: 2821: 2817: 2811: 2808: 2795: 2788: 2781: 2779: 2775: 2763: 2757: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2740: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2720: 2717: 2707: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2693: 2687: 2684: 2674: 2671: 2665: 2662: 2656: 2653: 2647: 2644: 2634: 2631: 2625: 2622: 2616: 2613: 2609: 2605: 2599: 2596: 2590: 2587: 2577: 2574: 2568: 2565: 2559: 2556: 2550: 2547: 2537: 2534: 2524: 2521: 2511: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2494: 2491: 2481: 2478: 2468: 2465: 2455: 2452: 2446: 2443: 2433: 2430: 2422: 2418: 2412: 2409: 2399: 2396: 2390: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2374: 2367: 2364: 2354: 2351: 2345: 2342: 2338: 2334: 2329: 2324: 2315: 2309: 2306: 2274: 2271: 2261: 2258: 2244: 2241: 2231: 2229: 2225: 2215: 2212: 2206: 2203: 2189: 2186: 2164: 2161: 2155: 2152: 2146: 2145: 2139: 2134: 2128: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2108: 2106: 2104: 2102: 2098: 2088: 2086: 2082: 2079:22 July 2017. 2078: 2074: 2068: 2066: 2064: 2062: 2060: 2056: 2053:8 April 2017. 2052: 2048: 2042: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2022: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2007: 2000: 1997: 1987: 1984: 1980: 1976: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1951: 1944: 1941: 1936: 1930: 1926: 1922: 1916: 1913: 1900: 1896: 1895: 1890: 1884: 1881: 1875: 1874: 1868: 1863: 1857: 1855: 1853: 1851: 1847: 1842: 1836: 1832: 1828: 1827:J. Wells 1822: 1819: 1812: 1808: 1805: 1803: 1800: 1798: 1795: 1793: 1790: 1788: 1785: 1784: 1780: 1778: 1776: 1772: 1767: 1765: 1761: 1756: 1751: 1749: 1745: 1741: 1740:solar cookers 1733: 1731: 1729: 1725: 1721: 1716: 1712: 1707: 1705: 1701: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1672: 1671:Phase Fresnel 1667: 1663: 1659: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1619: 1618: 1617:Hello, Dolly! 1613: 1609: 1605: 1604: 1599: 1598:Terry Gilliam 1595: 1594:Peter Gabriel 1590: 1588: 1584: 1580: 1575: 1572: 1567: 1565: 1561: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1546: 1542: 1534: 1533:Sinclair FTV1 1529: 1521: 1514: 1512: 1510: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1495: 1491: 1485: 1484: 1478: 1474: 1470: 1468: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1448: 1439: 1435: 1433: 1432:polycarbonate 1429: 1425: 1421: 1418: 1413: 1410: 1406: 1402: 1398: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1375: 1370: 1364: 1361: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1346: 1345: 1344: 1338: 1334: 1331: 1328: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1307: 1303: 1295: 1286: 1281: 1277: 1270: 1265: 1262: 1255: 1250: 1243: 1238: 1234: 1227: 1222: 1218: 1211: 1206: 1199: 1194: 1187: 1182: 1178: 1171: 1166: 1159: 1154: 1147: 1145: 1142: 1139: 1137: 1133: 1129: 1127: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1103: 1100: 1096: 1092: 1090: 1087: 1084: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1071: 1068: 1065: 1062: 1058: 1055: 1052: 1049: 1047: 1031: 1027: 1024: 1021: 1018: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1004: 1002: 999: 996: 993: 989: 985: 982: 979: 976: 973: 969: 965: 962: 959: 956: 954: 950: 946: 943: 940: 937: 935: 933:Hyper-radial 931: 913:Modern order 911: 905: 903: 899: 894: 863: 860: 852: 848: 828: 824: 817: 812: 808: 803: 801: 799: 795: 790: 768: 764: 759: 755: 753: 749: 743: 735: 728: 724: 719: 712: 710: 707: 702: 700: 699: 694: 690: 686: 682: 678: 672: 670: 666: 662: 658: 657:Little Basses 653: 645: 641: 636: 632: 629: 625: 621: 619: 615: 611: 607: 605: 601: 597: 592: 587: 583: 579: 575: 570: 564:After Fresnel 563: 561: 557: 551: 545: 542: 536: 532: 530: 526: 522: 517: 513: 506: 500: 498: 494: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 468: 465: 461: 457: 451: 445: 441: 437: 433: 429: 424: 420: 418: 414: 410: 405: 394: 390: 389:Count Rumford 386: 380: 378: 374: 370: 365: 359: 353: 351: 347: 342: 337: 331: 326: 318: 314: 310: 306: 301: 294: 292: 290: 286: 281: 277: 273: 268: 266: 262: 258: 257:Portland Bill 254: 242: 241:Trinity House 234: 229: 227: 224: 221: 217: 212: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 186: 182: 177: 175: 171: 170: 161: 131: 130: 121: 85: 84: 75: 36: 28: 27: 21: 4014: 3953: 3834:Pharologists 3793:Lens lantern 3788:Fresnel lens 3787: 3724:Sector light 3650:Construction 3569:the original 3548:J. Francis, 3510: 3498: 3488: 3470: 3455: 3436: 3406: 3389: 3378: 3371: 3365:Bibliography 3350:, retrieved 3341: 3331: 3319:, retrieved 3315:the original 3305: 3293:, retrieved 3289:the original 3279: 3263: 3255: 3234: 3222:. Retrieved 3218: 3208: 3196:. Retrieved 3192: 3183: 3171:. Retrieved 3167:the original 3162: 3153: 3141:. Retrieved 3137: 3127: 3115:. Retrieved 3111: 3102: 3078: 3071: 3059:, retrieved 3031: 3027: 3017: 3005:. Retrieved 3001: 2992: 2980: 2975: 2963:. Retrieved 2959: 2950: 2926: 2919: 2911: 2906: 2886: 2874:, retrieved 2865: 2855: 2843:, retrieved 2829: 2820:the original 2810: 2798:, retrieved 2761: 2756: 2719: 2706: 2686: 2673: 2664: 2655: 2646: 2633: 2624: 2615: 2598: 2589: 2576: 2567: 2558: 2549: 2536: 2523: 2510: 2502: 2497:H.M. Brock, 2493: 2480: 2467: 2454: 2445: 2432: 2420: 2411: 2398: 2389: 2377: 2372: 2366: 2353: 2344: 2313: 2308: 2273: 2260: 2243: 2214: 2205: 2188: 2163: 2154: 2142: 2116: 2030: 2027:"Sea-lights" 2010: 2005: 1999: 1986: 1981:20 May 2017. 1954:, retrieved 1943: 1924: 1915: 1903:, retrieved 1892: 1883: 1871: 1830: 1821: 1768: 1752: 1737: 1708: 1696: 1687:ground glass 1683:large format 1670: 1660: 1652: 1644:pancake lens 1636:HTC Vive Pro 1632:Meta Quest 2 1626: 1616: 1601: 1591: 1576: 1568: 1538: 1501:searchlights 1498: 1488: 1482: 1466: 1458: 1444: 1414: 1393: 1376:Illumination 1342: 1310: 1305: 1301: 1299: 1101:4th (small) 1082:4th (large) 1063:3rd (small) 1016:3rd (large) 928:Application 898:hyperradiant 895: 864: 858: 856: 807: 793: 791: 760: 756: 752:3-D printers 744: 740: 703: 696: 673: 649: 622: 617: 608: 603: 595: 590: 571: 567: 546: 537: 533: 520: 518: 501: 469: 428:Saint-Gobain 425: 421: 406: 381: 377:plano-convex 354: 322: 316: 312: 308: 304: 269: 238: 225: 220:focal length 213: 201:catadioptric 179:The simpler 178: 35:Fresnel lens 34: 32: 24: 4004:WikiProject 3817:Maintenance 3778:Dalén light 3773:Carcel lamp 3758:Argand lamp 3613:Lighthouses 3563:T. Pepper, 3475:vol. 1 3352:27 February 3321:27 February 3295:3 September 3163:VR Lens Lab 2876:26 February 2845:27 February 2800:9 September 2421:Smithsonian 1921:Wells, John 1775:3D printing 1755:solar cells 1734:Solar power 1553:televisions 1509:flashlights 1463:focal point 1430:with plain 1397:aerobeacons 1332:Cylindrical 1306:non-imaging 1006:Great Lakes 952:Mesoradial 922:Height (m) 893: in). 689:Bishop Rock 578:Isle of May 456:Louis XVIII 409:unpolarized 385:Argand lamp 346:diffraction 328: [ 323:The French 261:Howth Baily 235:Forerunners 197:lighthouses 4021:Categories 3994:Wiktionary 3894:Categories 3860:Antarctica 3829:Light dues 3798:Lewis lamp 3753:Aerobeacon 3682:Screw-pile 3224:27 October 3198:27 October 3173:27 October 3143:27 October 2960:Energy.gov 1813:References 1777:in glass. 1711:collimator 1693:Projection 1545:strabismus 1541:magnifiers 1505:spotlights 1417:automobile 1409:refraction 586:Skerryvore 582:Île Vierge 477:elliptical 341:Grand Prix 305:m, n 218:and short 185:refractive 3848:Locations 3555:J. Hare, 3117:17 August 3056:125689110 2932:CRC Press 1722:panel in 1589:screens. 1420:headlamps 1401:prismatic 1385:Inchkeith 1315:Spherical 1235:, Japan). 614:Peterhead 529:catoptric 393:fish glue 270:In 1748, 205:prismatic 3974:Category 3746:Fixtures 3719:Sea mark 3694:(acting) 3672:Integral 3532:Archived 3430:archived 3346:archived 3268:Archived 3244:Archived 3007:16 April 2895:Archived 2870:archived 2839:archived 2794:archived 2749:archived 2743:T. Tag, 2729:archived 2723:T. Tag, 2695:Archived 2608:archived 2382:Ouessant 2077:archived 2071:T. Tag, 2051:archived 2045:T. Tag, 1979:archived 1973:T. 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