375:
forging of the material at the rear of the tool. Tilting the tool by 2–4 degrees, such that the rear of the tool is lower than the front, has been found to assist this forging process. The plunge depth needs to be correctly set, both to ensure the necessary downward pressure is achieved and to ensure that the tool fully penetrates the weld. Given the high loads required, the welding machine may deflect and so reduce the plunge depth compared to the nominal setting, which may result in flaws in the weld. On the other hand, an excessive plunge depth may result in the pin rubbing on the backing plate surface or a significant undermatch of the weld thickness compared to the base material. Variable-load welders have been developed to automatically compensate for changes in the tool displacement, while TWI have demonstrated a roller system that maintains the tool position above the weld plate.
28:
306:
445:
considerations based on fundamental scientific principles. Material flow calculations are routinely used in numerous engineering applications. Calculation of material flow fields in friction stir welding can be undertaken both using comprehensive numerical simulations or simple but insightful analytical equations. The comprehensive models for the calculation of material flow fields also provide important information such as geometry of the stir zone and the torque on the tool. The numerical simulations have shown the ability to correctly predict the results from marker experiments and the stir zone geometry observed in friction stir welding experiments.
110:
48:
424:, where the tool, backing plate and cold base material form the "extrusion chamber", through which the hot, plasticised material is forced. In this model the rotation of the tool draws little or no material around the front of the probe; instead, the material parts in front of the pin and passes down either side. After the material has passed the probe, the side pressure exerted by the "die" forces the material back together, and consolidation of the joint occurs, as the rear of the tool shoulder passes overhead and the large down force forges the material.
65:) is a solid-state joining process that uses a non-consumable tool to join two facing workpieces without melting the workpiece material. Heat is generated by friction between the rotating tool and the workpiece material, which leads to a softened region near the FSW tool. While the tool is traversed along the joint line, it mechanically intermixes the two pieces of metal, and forges the hot and softened metal by the mechanical pressure, which is applied by the tool, much like joining clay, or dough. It is primarily used on wrought or extruded
1087:
354:
the rotation speed, the welding speed and the heat input during welding is complex, but in general, it can be said that increasing the rotation speed or decreasing the traverse speed will result in a hotter weld. In order to produce a successful weld, it is necessary that the material surrounding the tool is hot enough to enable the extensive plastic flow required and minimize the forces acting on the tool. If the material is too cold, then voids or other flaws may be present in the stir zone and in extreme cases the tool may break.
1079:
818:
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185:(TMAZ) occurs on either side of the stir zone. In this region the strain and temperature are lower and the effect of welding on the micro-structure is correspondingly smaller. Unlike the stir zone, the micro-structure is recognizably that of the parent material, albeit significantly deformed and rotated. Although the term TMAZ technically refers to the entire deformed region, it is often used to describe any region not already covered by the terms stir zone and flow arm.
333:
uses a tapered pin with re-entrant features or a variable-pitch thread to improve the downwards flow of material. Additional designs include the
Triflute and Trivex series. The Triflute design has a complex system of three tapering, threaded re-entrant flutes that appear to increase material movement around the tool. The Trivex tools use a simpler, non-cylindrical, pin and have been found to reduce the forces acting on the tool during welding.
227:
in long, tunnel-like defects running along the weld, which may occur on the surface or subsurface. Low temperatures may also limit the forging action of the tool and so reduce the continuity of the bond between the material from each side of the weld. The light contact between the material has given rise to the name "kissing bond". This defect is particularly worrying, since it is very difficult to detect using nondestructive methods such as
740:
102:
94:
20:
925:
990:
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358:"processing window": the range of processing parameters viz. tool rotation and traverse speed, that will produce a good quality weld. Within this window the resulting weld will have a sufficiently high heat input to ensure adequate material plasticity but not so high that the weld properties are excessively deteriorated.
1138:
FSW is proven able to be used as one of the methods to join the metal 3D printing materials. By using proper FSW tools and correct parameter setting a sound and defect-free weld can be produced in order to joint the metal 3D printing materials. Besides, the FSW tools must be harder than the materials
357:
Excessively high heat input, on the other hand, may be detrimental to the final properties of the weld. Theoretically, this could even result in defects due to the liquation of low-melting-point phases (similar to liquation cracking in fusion welds). These competing demands lead onto the concept of a
124:
between two clamped workpieces, until the probe pierces into the workpiece and its shoulder touches the surface of the workpieces. The probe is slightly shorter than the weld depth required, with the tool shoulder riding atop the work surface. After a short dwell time, the tool is moved forward along
457:
When the traverse speed is increased, for a given heat input, there is less time for heat to conduct ahead of the tool, and the thermal gradients are larger. At some point the speed will be so high that the material ahead of the tool will be too cold, and the flow stress too high, to permit adequate
419:
Early work on the mode of material flow around the tool used inserts of a different alloy, which had a different contrast to the normal material when viewed through a microscope, in an effort to determine where material was moved as the tool passed. The data was interpreted as representing a form of
353:
There are two tool speeds to be considered in friction-stir welding; how fast the tool rotates and how quickly it traverses along the interface. These two parameters have considerable importance and must be chosen with care to ensure a successful and efficient welding cycle. The relationship between
226:
Nevertheless, FSW is associated with a number of unique defects if it isn't done properly. Insufficient weld temperatures, due to low rotational speeds or high traverse speeds, for example, mean that the weld material is unable to accommodate the extensive deformation during welding. This may result
170:
within the stir zone are roughly equiaxed and often an order of magnitude smaller than the grains in the parent material. A unique feature of the stir zone is the common occurrence of several concentric rings, which has been referred to as an "onion-ring" structure. The precise origin of these rings
69:
and particularly for structures which need very high weld strength. FSW is capable of joining aluminium alloys, copper alloys, titanium alloys, mild steel, stainless steel and magnesium alloys. More recently, it was successfully used in welding of polymers. In addition, joining of dissimilar metals,
717:
A major difficulty in applying these equations is determining suitable values for the friction coefficient or the interfacial shear stress. The conditions under the tool are both extreme and very difficult to measure. To date, these parameters have been used as "fitting parameters", where the model
490:
Heat generation during friction-stir welding arises from two main sources: friction at the surface of the tool and the deformation of the material around the tool. The heat generation is often assumed to occur predominantly under the shoulder, due to its greater surface area, and to be equal to the
432:
Material on the advancing side of a weld enters into a zone that rotates and advances with the profiled probe. This material was very highly deformed and sloughs off behind the pin to form arc-shaped features when viewed from above (i.e. down the tool axis). It was noted that the copper entered the
410:
In order to prevent tool fracture and to minimize excessive wear and tear on the tool and associated machinery, the welding cycle is modified so that the forces acting on the tool are as low as possible, and abrupt changes are avoided. In order to find the best combination of welding parameters, it
332:
Improvements in tool design have been shown to cause substantial improvements in productivity and quality. TWI has developed tools specifically designed to increase the penetration depth and thus increasing the plate thicknesses that can be successfully welded. An example is the "whorl" design that
427:
More recently, an alternative theory has been advanced that advocates considerable material movement in certain locations. This theory holds that some material does rotate around the probe, for at least one rotation, and it is this material movement that produces the "onion-ring" structure in the
374:
The plunge depth is defined as the depth of the lowest point of the shoulder below the surface of the welded plate and has been found to be a critical parameter for ensuring weld quality. Plunging the shoulder below the plate surface increases the pressure below the tool and helps ensure adequate
336:
The majority of tools have a concave shoulder profile, which acts as an escape volume for the material displaced by the pin, prevents material from extruding out of the sides of the shoulder and maintains downwards pressure and hence good forging of the material behind the tool. The
Triflute tool
444:
The marker technique for friction stir welding provides data on the initial and final positions of the marker in the welded material. The flow of material is then reconstructed from these positions. Detailed material flow field during friction stir welding can also be calculated from theoretical
391:
The traverse force acts parallel to the tool motion and is positive in the traverse direction. Since this force arises as a result of the resistance of the material to the motion of the tool, it might be expected that this force will decrease as the temperature of the material around the tool is
453:
For any welding process, it is, in general, desirable to increase the travel speed and minimise the heat input, as this will increase productivity and possibly reduce the impact of welding on the mechanical properties of the weld. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure that the temperature
194:(HAZ) is common to all welding processes. As indicated by the name, this region is subjected to a thermal cycle but is not deformed during welding. The temperatures are lower than those in the TMAZ but may still have a significant effect if the micro-structure is thermally unstable. In fact, in
344:
will require the development of cost-effective and durable tools. Material selection, design and cost are important considerations in the search for commercially useful tools for the welding of hard materials. Work is continuing to better understand the effects of tool material's composition,
436:
The lighter material came from the retreating side in front of the pin and was dragged around to the rear of the tool and filled in the gaps between the arcs of advancing side material. This material did not rotate around the pin, and the lower level of deformation resulted in a larger grain
235:. If the pin is not long enough or the tool rises out of the plate, then the interface at the bottom of the weld may not be disrupted and forged by the tool, resulting in a lack-of-penetration defect. This is essentially a notch in the material, which can be a potential source of
387:
A downwards force is necessary to maintain the position of the tool at or below the material surface. Some friction-stir welding machines operate under load control, but in many cases the vertical position of the tool is preset, and so the load will vary during
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598:
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that need to weld. The most important parameters in FSW are the rotation of probe, traverse speed, spindle tilt angle and target depth. The weld joint efficiency of FSW on the 3D printing metal can reach up to 83.3% compared to its base materials strength.
718:
works back from measured thermal data to obtain a reasonable simulated thermal field. While this approach is useful for creating process models to predict, for example, residual stresses, it is less useful for providing insights into the process itself.
40:
980:
at Riftec. The B-column of the Audi R8 Spider is friction stir welded from two extrusions at
Hammerer Aluminium Industries in Austria. The front subframe of the 2013 Honda Accord was friction stir welded to join aluminum and steel halves.
1102:
meat slicers, Ökolüfter HVAC units and
Siemens X-ray vacuum vessels are friction stir welded at Riftec. Vacuum valves and vessels are made by FSW at Japanese and Swiss companies. FSW is also used for the encapsulation of nuclear waste at
324:
such as AISI H13 has proven perfectly acceptable for welding aluminium alloys within thickness ranges of 0.5–50 mm but more advanced tool materials are necessary for more demanding applications such as highly abrasive
948:. A spin-off of this company is called Friction Stir Link, Inc. and successfully exploits the FSW process, e.g. for the flatbed trailer "Revolution" of Fontaine Trailers. In Japan FSW is applied to suspension struts at
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491:
power required to overcome the contact forces between the tool and the workpiece. The contact condition under the shoulder can be described by sliding friction, using a friction coefficient μ and interfacial pressure
119:
Friction stir welding is performed with a rotating cylindrical tool which has a profiled pin (also known as a probe) having a diameter smaller than the diameter of its shoulder. During welding the tool is fed into a
428:
stir zone. The researchers used a combination of thin copper strip inserts and a "frozen pin" technique, where the tool is rapidly stopped in place. They suggested that material motion occurs by two processes:
411:
is likely that a compromise must be reached, since the conditions that favour low forces (e.g. high heat input, low travel speeds) may be undesirable from the point of view of productivity and weld properties.
468:. The material is preheated by a stationary, rotating tool to achieve a sufficient temperature ahead of the tool to allow the traverse. This period may also include the plunge of the tool into the workpiece.
726:
The FSW process has initially been patented by TWI in most industrialised countries and licensed for over 183 users. Friction stir welding and its variants – friction stir spot welding and
2945:
2435:, Paper presented at 2007 International Forum on Welding Technologies in the Shipping Industry (IFWT). Held in conjunction with the Beijing Essen Welding and Cutting Fair in Shanghai, 16–19 June 2007.
1223:
474:. When the tool begins to move, there will be a transient period where the heat production and temperature around the tool will alter in a complex manner until an essentially steady state is reached.
759:. Some of these freezer panels are now produced by Riftec and Bayards. In 1997 two-dimensional friction stir welds in the hydrodynamically flared bow section of the hull of the ocean viewer vessel
1107:
in 50-mm-thick copper canisters. Pressure vessels from ø1 m semispherical forgings of 38.1 mm thick aluminium alloy 2219 at
Advanced Joining Technologies and Lawrence Livermore Nat Lab.
178:
is on the upper surface of the weld and consists of material that is dragged by the shoulder from the retreating side of the weld, around the rear of the tool, and deposited on the advancing side.
731: – are used for the following industrial applications: shipbuilding and offshore, aerospace, automotive, rolling stock for railways, general fabrication, robotics, and computers.
139:. As the tool is moved forward, a special profile on the probe forces plasticised material from the leading face to the rear, where the high forces assist in a forged consolidation of the weld.
2630:
1122:
Robot Group has adapted its KR500-3MT heavy-duty robot for friction stir welding via the DeltaN FS tool. The system made its first public appearance at the EuroBLECH show in
November 2012.
495:, or sticking friction, based on the interfacial shear strength at an appropriate temperature and strain rate. Mathematical approximations for the total heat generated by the tool shoulder
607:
508:
77:
The concept was patented in the Soviet Union by Yu. Klimenko in 1967, but it wasn't developed into a commercial technology at that time. It was experimentally proven and commercialized at
337:
uses an alternative system with a series of concentric grooves machined into the surface, which are intended to produce additional movement of material in the upper layers of the weld.
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in 1996, as well as deck panels and helicopter landing platforms at Marine
Aluminium Aanensen. Marine Aluminium Aanensen subsequently merged with Hydro Aluminium Maritime to become
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2447:
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Sheikh-Ahmad, J.Y.; Ali, Dima S.; Deveci, Suleyman; Almaskari, Fahad; Jarrar, Firas (February 2019). "Friction stir welding of high density polyethylene—Carbon black composite".
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Friction Stir
Welding (FSW) is an innovative technology, which allows a solid junction of heterogeneous alloys, using a wear-resistant rotary tool that follows the welding seam.
316:
It is desirable that the tool material be sufficiently strong, tough, and hard wearing at the welding temperature. Further, it should have a good oxidation resistance and a low
3098:
1287:
Hou, Z.; Sheikh-Ahmad, J.; Jarrar, F.; Ozturk, F. (2018-05-01). "Residual
Stresses in Dissimilar Friction Stir Welding of AA2024 and AZ31: Experimental and Numerical Study".
207:
The solid-state nature of FSW leads to several advantages over fusion welding methods, as problems associated with cooling from the liquid phase are avoided. Issues such as
3205:
1490:
2195:
Arora A.; DebRoy T.; Bhadeshia H. K. D. H. (2011). "Back-of-the-envelope calculations in friction stir welding – Velocities, peak temperature, torque, and hardness".
2861:
2787:
2233:
Arora A.; Nandan R.; Reynolds A. P.; DebRoy T. (2009). "Torque, power requirement and stir zone geometry in friction stir welding through modeling and experiments".
166:(also known as the dynamically recrystallised zone) is a region of heavily deformed material that roughly corresponds to the location of the pin during welding. The
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is applied to ship propellers at
Friction Stir Link, Inc. and to hunting knives by DiamondBlade. Bosch uses it in Worcester for the production of heat exchangers.
458:
material movement, resulting in flaws or tool fracture. If the "hot zone" is too large, then there is scope to increase the traverse speed and hence productivity.
223:
do not arise during FSW. In general, FSW has been found to produce a low concentration of defects and is very tolerant to variations in parameters and materials.
3167:
2503:
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Prado, R. A.; Murr, L. E.; Shindo, D. J.; Soto, H. F. (2001). "Tool wear in the friction stir welding of aluminium alloy 6061+20% Al2O3: A preliminary study".
2731:
2598:
Friction Stir Welding Demonstrated for Combat Vehicle Construction ... for 2519 aluminium armor for the U.S. Marine Corps' Advanced Amphibious Assault Vehicle
433:
rotational zone around the pin, where it was broken up into fragments. These fragments were only found in the arc-shaped features of material behind the tool.
1395:
3041:
L F Kanan.; B Vicharapu.; A F B Bueno.; T Clarke.; A De. (2018). "Friction Hydro-Pillar Processing of a High Carbon Steel: Joint Structure and Properties".
2750:
916:. BRÖTJE-Automation uses friction stir welding for gantry production machines developed for the aerospace sector, as well as other industrial applications.
27:
1231:
480:. Although fluctuations in heat generation will occur, the thermal field around the tool remains effectively constant, at least on the macroscopic scale.
131:
heat is generated between the wear-resistant tool and the work pieces. This heat, along with that generated by the mechanical mixing process and the
74:
to magnesium alloys, has been recently achieved by FSW. Application of FSW can be found in modern shipbuilding, trains, and aerospace applications.
2806:
2967:
714:
is that of the pin. Several other equations have been proposed to account for factors such as the pin, but the general approach remains the same.
2303:
Nandan R.; Roy G. G.; DebRoy T. (2011). "Numerical simulation of three-dimensional heat transfer and plastic flow during friction stir welding".
154:
The solid-state nature of the FSW process, combined with its unusual tool shape and asymmetric speed profile, results in a highly characteristic
1951:
V Buchibabu.; G M Reddy.; A De. (March 2017). "Probing torque, traverse force and tool durability in friction stir welding of aluminum alloys".
1671:
Mahoney, M. W.; Rhodes, C. G.; Flintoff, J. G.; Bingel, W. H.; Spurling, R. A. (1998). "Properties of Friction-stir-welded 7075 T651 Aluminum".
3198:
1168:
2130:
Nandan R.; Roy G. G.; Lienert T. J.; DebRoy T. (2007). "Three-dimensional heat and material flow during friction stir welding of mild steel".
395:
The lateral force may act perpendicular to the tool traverse direction and is defined here as positive towards the advancing side of the weld.
305:
2413:
2093:
Nandan R.; DebRoy T.; Bhadeshia H. K. D. H. (2008). "Recent advances in friction-stir welding – Process, weldment structure and properties".
1737:
1508:
313:
The design of the tool is a critical factor, as a good tool can improve both the quality of the weld and the maximal possible welding speed.
1322:
2013:
Seidel, T. U.; Reynolds, A. P. (2001). "Visualization of the Material Flow in AA2195 Friction-Stir Welds Using a Marker Insert Technique".
1104:
904:, and this company delivered 259 friction stir welded business jets, before they were forced into Chapter 7 liquidation. Floor panels for
2463:
1004:
Since 1997 roof panels were made from aluminium extrusions at Hydro Marine Aluminium with a bespoke 25 m long FSW machine, e.g. for
2444:
2401:
1066:
Heat sinks for cooling high-power electronics of locomotives are made at Sykatek, EBG, Austerlitz Electronics, EuroComposite, Sapa and
265:
Generally good weld appearance and minimal thickness under/over-matching, thus reducing the need for expensive machining after welding.
1729:
778:
441:
The primary advantage of this explanation is that it provides a plausible explanation for the production of the onion-ring structure.
109:
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Two Scandinavian aluminium extrusion companies were the first to apply FSW commercially to the manufacture of fish freezer panels at
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2543:
47:
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1153:
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Often slower traverse rate than some fusion welding techniques, although this may be offset if fewer welding passes are required.
1609:
Murr, L. E.; Liu, G.; McClure, J. C. (1997). "Dynamic re-crystallisation in the friction-stir welding of aluminium alloy 1100".
256:, e.g., hardened H13, can weld over 1 km (0.6 mi) of aluminium, and no filler or gas shield is required for aluminium.
171:
has not been firmly established, although variations in particle number density, grain size and texture have all been suggested.
3125:
3092:
2341:
Frigaard, O.; Grong, O.; Midling, O. T. (2001). "A process model for friction-stir welding of age hardening aluminium alloys".
852:, and the first of these with a friction stir welded interstage module was launched in 1999. The process was also used for the
2712:
142:
This process of the tool traversing along the weld line in a plasticised tubular shaft of metal results in severe solid-state
3508:
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2581:
2914:
2428:
1584:
Ding, Jeff; Bob Carter; Kirby Lawless; Dr. Arthur Nunes; Carolyn Russell; Michael Suites; Dr. Judy Schneider (2008-02-14).
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2493:, Paper presented at DVS Annual Welding Conference "Große Schweißtechnische Tagung", Essen, Germany, 12–14 September 2005.
865:
2784:
2048:
Guerra, M.; Schmidt, C.; McClure, J. C.; Murr, L. E.; Nunes, A. C. (2003). "Flow patterns during friction stir welding".
1440:
3343:
3153:
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1531:
1060:
486:. Near the end of the weld, heat may "reflect" from the end of the plate, leading to additional heating around the tool.
2613:
1082:
The lids of 50-mm-thick copper canisters for nuclear waste are attached to the cylinder by friction stir welding at SKB
912:
and Embraer used FSW for the Legacy 450 and 500 Jets Friction stir welding also is employed for fuselage panels on the
787:
contain prefabricated panels by the FSW fabricators Advanced Technology and Friction Stir Link, Inc. respectively. The
461:
The welding cycle can be split into several stages, during which the heat flow and thermal profile will be different:
52:
3288:
2677:"JEC Composites Show – Day 3: EADS licenses its patented DeltaN friction-stir welding technology to BRÖTJE-Automation"
1417:
889:
853:
689:{\displaystyle Q_{\text{total}}={\frac {2}{3}}\pi \tau \omega \left(R_{\text{shoulder}}^{3}-R_{\text{pin}}^{3}\right)}
593:{\displaystyle Q_{\text{total}}={\frac {2}{3}}\pi P\mu \omega \left(R_{\text{shoulder}}^{3}-R_{\text{pin}}^{3}\right)}
2794:, Long length FSW — Max. length 26 m — Max. width 3,5 m — Double sided welding, Sapa company brochure.
2168:
Seidel T. U.; Reynolds A. P. (2003). "Two-dimensional friction stir welding process model based on fluid mechanics".
2842:
3265:
2932:
2728:
1585:
105:
The progress of the tool through the joint, also showing the weld zone and the region affected by the tool shoulder
2260:
Mehta M.; Arora A.; De A.; DebRoy T. (2011). "Tool Geometry for Friction Stir Welding—Optimum Shoulder Diameter".
1392:
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3135:
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2747:
1044:
973:
788:
143:
2654:
1862:
V Buchibabu.; G M Reddy.; D V Kulkarni.; A De. (2016). "Friction Stir Welding of a Thick Al-Zn-Mg Alloy Plate".
3255:
1586:"A Decade of Friction Stir Welding R&D At NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center and a Glance into the Future"
1158:
1130:
Apple applied friction stir welding on the 2012 iMac to effectively join the bottom to the back of the device.
1108:
1078:
728:
2579:
Stephan Kallee: "NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir Welding to produce aluminium components and panels"
1059:
double decker rail cars, to obtain an internal height of 2 m on both floors and for the new car bodies of the
801:
in New Zealand has FSW panels made by Donovans in a converted milling machine. Various companies apply FSW to
2399:
D. Lohwasser and Z. Chen: "Friction stir welding — From basics to applications" Woodhead Publishing 2010
2384:
Chao, Y. J.; Qi, X. (1999). "Heat transfer and Thermo-Mechanical analysis of FSW joining of 6061-T6 plates".
932:
is made from two aluminium extrusions friction stir welded to a bent aluminium sheet and houses the fuel tank
340:
Widespread commercial applications of friction stir welding process for steels and other hard alloys such as
216:
3482:
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849:
806:
326:
195:
3006:
B Vicharapu.; L F Kanan.; T Clarke.; A De. (2017). "An investigation on friction hydro-pillar processing".
3338:
3245:
2102:
1936:
Leonard, A. J. (2000). "Microstructure and aging behaviour of FSW in Al alloys 2014A-T651 and 7075-T651".
1189:"Using coupled Eulerian Lagrangian formulation for accurate modeling of the friction stir welding process"
1036:
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1021:
997:
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Less flexible than manual and arc processes (difficulties with thickness variations and non-linear welds).
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A number of potential advantages of FSW over conventional fusion-welding processes have been identified:
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around the tool is sufficiently high to permit adequate material flow and prevent flaws or tool damage.
366:
220:
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floor panels. Innovative FSW floor panels are made by Hammerer Aluminium Industries in Austria for the
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S.W. Kallee, J. Davenport and E.D. Nicholas: "Railway Manufacturers Implement Friction Stir Welding"
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were the first commercially produced aircraft parts. FAA-approved wings and fuselage panels of the
861:
964:. Wheels are friction stir welded at Simmons Wheels, UT Alloy Works and Fundo. Rear seats for the
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2946:"Partnership success with EADS' DeltaN FS friction-stir welding technology for industrial robots"
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1995:
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1809:
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Bhadeshia H. K. D. H.; DebRoy T. (2009). "Critical assessment: friction stir welding of steels".
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and for joining of aluminium sheets to galvanized steel brackets for the boot (trunk) lid of the
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to minimise heat loss and thermal damage to the machinery further up the drive train. Hot-worked
232:
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3109:
Friction-stir welding of aluminum alloy to steel; academic article from the 2004 Welding Journal
2859:
FSW: Increased strength, Improved leakproofness, Improved repeatability. Reduced heat distortion
2697:
2843:
Einsatz des Rührreibschweißens bei der Fertigung der Wagenkästen für die Schwebebahn Wuppertal.
1827:
Rai R.; De A.; Bhadeshia H. K. D. H.; DebRoy T. (2011). "Review: friction stir welding tools".
3457:
3452:
2409:
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1504:
1304:
1095:
956:. Friction stir spot welding is successfully used for the bonnet (hood) and rear doors of the
71:
2900:
Modeling and Control of Friction Stir Welding in 5 cm (2 in) thick Copper Canisters
2398:
1907:"A flow-partitioned deformation zone model for defect formation during friction stir welding"
1098:
and Hammerer Aluminium Industries, including friction stir lap welds of copper to aluminium.
398:
Torque is required to rotate the tool, the amount of which will depend on the down force and
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1987:
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Reynolds, A. P. (2000). "Visualisation of material flow in autogenous friction stir welds".
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937:
901:
32:
2484:"Development and implementation of innovative joining processes in the automotive industry"
3425:
3120:
2884:
2865:
2829:
2810:
2791:
2754:
2735:
2716:
2617:
2585:
2566:
2559:
2547:
2490:
2470:
2451:
2432:
2405:
1421:
1399:
1359:
1352:
1032:
994:
845:
285:
Large down forces required with heavy-duty clamping necessary to hold the plates together.
155:
3103:
2426:
Fred Delany, Stephan W Kallee, Mike J Russell: "Friction stir welding of aluminium ships"
16:
Using a spinning tool to mix metal workpieces together at the joint, without melting them
3113:
3054:
2913:
E. Dalder, J. W. Pasternak, J. Engel, R. S. Forrest, E. Kokko, K. McTernan, D, Waldron.
2597:
2540:
2354:
2273:
2208:
2143:
1875:
1684:
763:
were produced at Research Foundation Institute with the first portable FSW machine. The
370:
A drawing showing the plunge depth and tilt of the tool. The tool is moving to the left.
3420:
3384:
1048:
402:(sliding friction) and/or the flow strength of the material in the surrounding region (
341:
259:
Easily automated on simple milling machines — lower setup costs and less training.
82:
2822:
2061:
1777:
Nelson, T.; Zhang, H.; Haynes, T. (2000). "friction stir welding of Al MMC 6061-B4C".
1763:
1657:
1470:, GB Patent No. 9125978.8, International patent application No. PCT/GB92/02203, (1991)
739:
3502:
3399:
3394:
3358:
3308:
3240:
3114:
Friction stir welding research at Vanderbilt University Welding Automation Laboratory
3070:
3027:
2370:
2246:
2079:
2034:
1999:
1964:
1922:
1891:
1813:
1700:
1630:
1273:
1265:
1013:
802:
236:
136:
113:
Aluminium friction stir weld with imprint of the tool where it entered/left the joint
2324:
2289:
1848:
892:
cargo aircraft by Advanced Joining Technologies and the cargo barrier beams for the
262:
Can operate in all positions (horizontal, vertical, etc.), as there is no weld pool.
249:
Improved safety due to the absence of toxic fumes or the spatter of molten material.
3379:
3348:
3176:
2804:
History, Principles and Advantages of FSW on Hitachi Transportation Systems Website
2709:
1840:
1067:
1056:
961:
905:
101:
93:
3019:
2483:
2216:
2151:
2116:
1644:
Krishnan, K. N. (2002). "On the Formation of Onion Rings in Friction Stir Welds".
1453:
1205:
1188:
19:
2578:
1070:, and are the most common application of FSW due to the excellent heat transfer.
794:
has friction stir welded rocket launch containers of China Friction Stir Centre.
309:
Advanced friction stir welding and processing tools by MegaStir shown upside down
97:
Two discrete metal workpieces butted together, along with the tool (with a probe)
3430:
3222:
2425:
949:
913:
897:
773:
756:
198:
aluminum alloys this region commonly exhibits the poorest mechanical properties.
167:
85:
in 1991. TWI held patents on the process, the first being the most descriptive.
39:
2181:
1991:
1714:
Nicholas, E. D. (1998). "Developments in the friction-stir welding of metals".
924:
3477:
3472:
3131:
Theory of materials processing/welding research group at Penn State University
3062:
2926:
2516:
2362:
2316:
2281:
2026:
1883:
1692:
1622:
1052:
989:
957:
953:
752:
345:
structure, properties and geometry on their performance, durability and cost.
321:
253:
121:
1805:
1535:
1308:
274:
General performance and cost benefits from switching from fusion to friction.
3467:
3462:
3374:
2878:
Video: "Electron Beam Welding and Friction Stir Welding of Copper Canisters"
2610:
2070:
1028:
965:
421:
132:
66:
1466:
Thomas, WM; Nicholas, ED; Needham, JC; Murch, MG;Temple-Smith, P;Dawes, CJ.
1414:
976:
coolers at Pierburg. Tailor welded blanks are friction stir welded for the
743:
Friction stir welding was used to prefabricate the aluminium panels of the
3087:
1500:
2710:
Fundo's FSW Wheels provide improved performance and reduced running costs
881:
877:
837:
833:
822:
403:
208:
128:
2982:"Assessment of Friction Stir Welding on Aluminium 3D Printing Materials"
135:
heat within the material, cause the stirred materials to soften without
3487:
3447:
2506:, Paper published in European Railway Review, Volume 13, Issue 1, 2007.
1187:
Li, Kun; Jarrar, Firas; Sheikh-Ahmad, Jamal; Ozturk, Fahrettin (2017).
1099:
1040:
1005:
945:
929:
841:
1300:
821:
Longitudinal and circumferential friction stir welds are used for the
1559:
1009:
885:
857:
768:
502:
have been developed using both sliding and sticking friction models:
212:
2769:"Two Metals Enter, One Leaves: The Miracle of Friction Stir Welding"
1906:
3140:
1489:
Noor Zaman Khan; Arshad Noor Siddiquee; Zahid A Khan (2017-11-01).
1085:
1077:
988:
940:
were the first automotive parts that were friction stir welded at
923:
816:
738:
365:
304:
228:
108:
100:
92:
46:
38:
26:
18:
2631:"friction stir welding – Rocketology: NASA's Space Launch System"
278:
However, some disadvantages of the process have been identified:
158:. The micro-structure can be broken up into the following zones:
1351:, Tony Reynolds, Rajiv S. Mishra, Tracy Nelson, Dwight Burford:
1119:
969:
873:
3187:
3149:
3145:
3136:
Friction Stir Welding Machines: Applications & Key Features
2915:
Friction stir welding of thick walled alumnium pressure vessels
2849:, 15./16. September, Hotel Pullman Berlin Schweizerhof, Berlin.
1000:
is friction stir welded from longitudinal aluminium extrusions
2541:
Mike Page: "Friction stir welding broadens applications base"
1094:
Façade panels and cathode sheets are friction stir welded at
1031:
trains are made at Sapa Group. Japanese commuter and express
936:
Aluminium engine cradles and suspension struts for stretched
329:
or higher-melting-point materials such as steel or titanium.
1224:"Welding process and its parameters - Friction Stir Welding"
1380:, Boeing Frontiers Online, September 2004, Vol. 3, Issue 5.
3126:
Back of the envelope calculations in friction stir welding
2832:. 23 June 2010, pp. 12–13. (PDF). Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
2482:
S. W. Kallee, J. M. Kell, W. M. Thomas und C. S. Wiesner:
252:
No consumables — A threaded pin made of conventional
146:
involving dynamic recrystallization of the base material.
3104:
Friction-stir welding research at University of Cambridge
1554:
1552:
1353:
Littoral Combat System with Improved Welding Technologies
383:
During welding, a number of forces will act on the tool:
3141:
Friction stir welding research at IIT Gandhinagar, India
1716:
ICAA-6: 6th International Conference on Aluminium Alloys
944:, who use the process also for the engine tunnel of the
2504:"Trends in the design and fabrication of rolling stock"
1047:
applies friction stir spot welding to roof panels and
771:
is the largest friction stir welded ship so far. The
246:
Good mechanical properties in the as-welded condition.
610:
511:
3408:
3367:
3279:
3221:
2968:"Apple unveils totally redesigned 27 and 21.5 imac"
2611:
Friction Stir Welding of Armor Grade Aluminum Plate
1437:
Video: "Friction stir welding of Bombardier trains"
1393:
Embraer Performs First Metal Cut for Legacy 500 Jet
268:
Can use thinner materials with same joint strength.
1024:trains at Sapa Group and side panels for Alstom's
688:
592:
1864:Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance
1372:
1370:
1368:
1289:Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering
23:Close-up view of a friction stir weld tack tool.
2336:
2334:
2228:
2226:
2823:Hitachi Class 395 Railway Strategies Live 2010
2163:
2161:
1323:"Practical use of FSW - Friction Stir Welding"
3199:
3161:
3008:Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
2170:Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
1980:Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
1829:Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
1794:Science and Technology of Welding and Joining
1534:. The Welding Institute (TWI). Archived from
1362:, Center for Friction STIR Processing (CFSP).
700:where ω is the angular velocity of the tool,
125:the joint line at the pre-set welding speed.
8:
2813:. Hitachi-rail.com. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
2588:, New Zealand Engineering News, August 2006.
2550:, Report of a EuroStir meeting, 3 Sept 2003.
848:expendable launch vehicles along with their
2729:FSW used in automotive tailor welded blanks
2386:1st International Symposium on FSW (CD ROM)
1938:2nd International Symposium on FSW (CD ROM)
1779:2nd International Symposium on FSW (CD ROM)
3206:
3192:
3184:
3168:
3154:
3146:
3043:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B
2343:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
2305:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
2262:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
2015:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
1953:Journal of Materials Processing Technology
1673:Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A
1254:Journal of Materials Processing Technology
1090:Friction stir processed knives by MegaStir
868:test article and the current model of the
2917:, Welding Journal, April 2008, pp. 40–44.
2106:
2069:
1204:
993:The high-strength low-distortion body of
825:rocket booster tank at the SpaceX factory
675:
670:
657:
652:
624:
615:
609:
579:
574:
561:
556:
525:
516:
510:
1134:Joining of aluminum 3D printing material
860:until the project was canceled in 2012,
707:is the radius of the tool shoulder, and
2655:"How Airbus uses friction stir welding"
1728:By Rajiv S. Mishra, Murray W. Mahoney:
1179:
35:are joined using friction stir welding.
2698:A Revolution makes a lot of difference
1169:Category:Friction stir welding experts
1012:. Curved side and roof panels for the
747:at Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding
282:Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn.
2903:(M.Sc. thesis). Linköping University.
2887:. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
2738:. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
2473:. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
2454:. Twi.co.uk. Retrieved on 2012-01-03.
1454:"METHOD OF WELDING METAL BY Friction"
1432:
1430:
1410:
1408:
1344:
1342:
972:pistons at Halla Climate Control and
864:which replaced the Ares, and for the
7:
2928:CDi innovative friction stir welding
1730:Friction stir welding and processing
1611:Journal of Materials Science Letters
1388:
1386:
1218:
1216:
2841:F. Ellermann, S. Pommer, G. Barth:
1905:Arbegast, William J. (March 2008).
1646:Materials Science and Engineering A
1039:trains are friction stir welded by
769:Mitsui Engineering and Shipbuilding
968:are friction stir welded at Sapa,
908:military aircraft are now made by
14:
2569:, e.nz magazine March/April 2008.
2464:Video: FSW of aerospace fuselages
2445:Video: "FSW at British Aerospace"
349:Tool rotation and traverse speeds
183:thermo-mechanically affected zone
31:The bulkhead and nosecone of the
3086:
2247:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2008.08.015
1965:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2016.11.008
1923:10.1016/j.scriptamat.2007.10.031
1443:on 27 September 2011. Twi.co.uk.
1424:, Welding Journal, October 2002.
1266:10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2018.09.033
1154:Friction hydro pillar processing
1149:Dissimilar friction stir welding
894:Boeing 747 Large Cargo Freighter
3266:Shielded metal (Stick/MMA/SMAW)
3256:Gas tungsten (Heliarc/TIG/GTAW)
2560:Richard Worrall: "Welded Bliss"
2502:S. W. Kallee and J. Davenport:
3251:Gas metal (Microwire/MIG/GMAW)
2970:. TechCrunch. 23 October 2012.
2847:Große Schweißtechnische Tagung
1841:10.1179/1362171811Y.0000000023
1532:"Friction Stir Welding at TWI"
1:
3020:10.1080/13621718.2016.1274849
2767:K.C. Colwell (May 15, 2013),
2217:10.1016/j.actamat.2010.12.001
2152:10.1016/j.actamat.2006.09.009
2117:10.1016/j.pmatsci.2008.05.001
2095:Progress in Materials Science
2062:10.1016/S1044-5803(02)00362-5
1764:10.1016/S1359-6462(01)00994-0
1658:10.1016/S0921-5093(01)01474-5
1378:"A little friction at Boeing"
1206:10.1016/j.proeng.2017.10.1023
3231:Atomic hydrogen (Athydo/AHW)
3099:Friction stir welding at TWI
2620:, Welding Journal, Dec 1999.
2408:, Chapter 5, Pages 118–163,
1530:Kallee, S. W. (2006-09-06).
1061:Wuppertal Suspension Railway
888:. The toe nails for ramp of
296:Important welding parameters
890:Boeing C-17 Globemaster III
854:Space Shuttle external tank
449:Generation and flow of heat
3525:
2748:FSW applications at Riftec
2600:, Welding Journal 03 2003.
2388:. Thousand Oaks, USA: TWI.
2182:10.1179/136217103225010952
2050:Materials Characterization
1992:10.1179/136217100101538119
1468:Friction-stir butt welding
362:Tool tilt and plunge depth
203:Advantages and limitations
3443:
3289:Electric resistance (ERW)
3183:
3063:10.1007/s11663-018-1171-5
2609:G. Campbell, T. Stotler:
2517:"Applications - StirWeld"
2363:10.1007/s11661-001-0128-4
2317:10.1007/s11661-006-1076-9
2282:10.1007/s11661-011-0672-5
2027:10.1007/s11661-001-1038-1
1884:10.1007/s11665-016-1924-8
1693:10.1007/s11661-998-0021-5
974:exhaust gas recirculation
928:The centre tunnel of the
735:Shipbuilding and offshore
271:Low environmental impact.
150:Micro-structural features
2868:, Sapa company brochure.
1806:10.1179/136217109X421300
1560:"Technologie – StirWeld"
1495:. Taylor & Francis.
1159:Friction stir processing
1109:Friction stir processing
960:and the boot lid of the
807:amphibious assault ships
777:of Nichols Bros and the
729:friction stir processing
1623:10.1023/A:1018556332357
327:metal matrix composites
217:solidification cracking
2897:Nielsen, Isak (2012).
2700:. fontainetrailer.com.
1091:
1083:
1037:British Rail Class 395
1026:British Rail Class 390
1022:Bombardier Electrostar
1001:
998:British Rail Class 395
933:
900:aircraft were made at
850:Cryogenic Upper Stages
830:United Launch Alliance
826:
757:Hydro Marine Aluminium
748:
690:
594:
371:
310:
114:
106:
98:
89:Principle of operation
55:
44:
36:
24:
3509:Friction stir welding
3483:Tools and terminology
3093:Friction stir welding
1940:. Gothenburg, Sweden.
1781:. Gothenburg, Sweden.
1501:10.1201/9781315116815
1492:Friction Stir Welding
1402:, BART International.
1089:
1081:
992:
927:
820:
785:Littoral Combat Ships
765:Super Liner Ogasawara
745:Super Liner Ogasawara
742:
691:
595:
369:
308:
112:
104:
96:
79:The Welding Institute
59:Friction stir welding
50:
42:
30:
22:
3095:at Wikimedia Commons
1732:, ASM International
1193:Procedia Engineering
1049:Sumitomo Light Metal
608:
509:
400:friction coefficient
318:thermal conductivity
3319:Friction stir (FSW)
3294:Electron-beam (EBW)
3055:2018MMTB...49..699K
2785:Sapa's Capabilities
2355:2001MMTA...32.1189F
2274:2011MMTA...42.2716M
2209:2011AcMat..59.2020A
2144:2007AcMat..55..883N
1876:2016JMEP...25.1163B
1718:. Toyohashi, Japan.
1685:1998MMTA...29.1955M
910:Pfalz Flugzeugwerke
832:applies FSW to the
792:-class missile boat
680:
662:
584:
566:
478:Pseudo steady state
3416:Heat-affected zone
3344:Oxyacetylene (OAW)
3119:2012-12-16 at the
2883:2012-05-10 at the
2864:2011-07-16 at the
2828:2012-03-28 at the
2809:2011-07-19 at the
2790:2009-06-24 at the
2753:2011-07-19 at the
2734:2011-09-27 at the
2715:2010-08-15 at the
2616:2011-07-16 at the
2584:2010-03-16 at the
2565:2010-06-02 at the
2546:2008-11-22 at the
2489:2011-09-27 at the
2469:2011-09-27 at the
2450:2011-09-27 at the
2431:2010-11-11 at the
2404:2011-07-18 at the
2235:Scripta Materialia
1911:Scripta Materialia
1752:Scripta Materialia
1420:2009-10-18 at the
1398:2011-07-07 at the
1358:2012-10-08 at the
1126:Personal computers
1092:
1084:
1020:, side panels for
1018:London Underground
1002:
934:
866:Orion Crew Vehicle
827:
749:
686:
666:
648:
590:
570:
552:
372:
311:
233:ultrasonic testing
221:liquation cracking
191:heat-affected zone
115:
107:
99:
56:
45:
37:
25:
3496:
3495:
3439:
3438:
3299:Electroslag (ESW)
3246:Flux-cored (FCAW)
3091:Media related to
2414:978-1-84569-450-0
2021:(11): 2879–2884.
1738:978-0-87170-848-9
1617:(22): 1801–1803.
1510:978-1-315-11681-5
1327:www.fswelding.com
1301:10.1115/1.4039074
1228:www.fswelding.com
938:Lincoln Town Cars
673:
655:
632:
618:
577:
559:
533:
519:
484:Post steady state
472:Transient heating
3516:
3329:Laser beam (LBW)
3236:Electrogas (EGW)
3208:
3201:
3194:
3185:
3170:
3163:
3156:
3147:
3090:
3075:
3074:
3038:
3032:
3031:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2994:
2992:
2986:
2978:
2972:
2971:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2955:
2953:
2942:
2936:
2929:
2924:
2918:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2894:
2888:
2875:
2869:
2856:
2850:
2839:
2833:
2820:
2814:
2801:
2795:
2782:
2776:
2775:
2764:
2758:
2745:
2739:
2726:
2720:
2707:
2701:
2695:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2684:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2664:
2662:
2657:. Reliable Plant
2651:
2645:
2644:
2642:
2641:
2627:
2621:
2607:
2601:
2595:
2589:
2576:
2570:
2557:
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2538:
2532:
2531:
2529:
2528:
2513:
2507:
2500:
2494:
2480:
2474:
2461:
2455:
2442:
2436:
2423:
2417:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2349:(5): 1189–1200.
2338:
2329:
2328:
2311:(4): 1247–1259.
2300:
2294:
2293:
2268:(9): 2716–2722.
2257:
2251:
2250:
2230:
2221:
2220:
2203:(5): 2020–2028.
2192:
2186:
2185:
2165:
2156:
2155:
2127:
2121:
2120:
2110:
2090:
2084:
2083:
2073:
2071:2060/20020092188
2045:
2039:
2038:
2010:
2004:
2003:
1975:
1969:
1968:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1933:
1927:
1926:
1902:
1896:
1895:
1870:(3): 1163–1171.
1859:
1853:
1852:
1824:
1818:
1817:
1789:
1783:
1782:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1747:
1741:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1711:
1705:
1704:
1679:(7): 1955–1964.
1668:
1662:
1661:
1641:
1635:
1634:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1597:
1596:
1590:
1581:
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1527:
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1520:
1518:
1517:
1486:
1480:
1477:
1471:
1464:
1458:
1457:
1450:
1444:
1439:, archived from
1434:
1425:
1412:
1403:
1390:
1381:
1374:
1363:
1346:
1337:
1336:
1334:
1333:
1319:
1313:
1312:
1284:
1278:
1277:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1230:. Archived from
1220:
1211:
1210:
1208:
1184:
1164:Friction welding
1068:Rapid Technic AG
942:Tower Automotive
902:Eclipse Aviation
695:
693:
692:
687:
685:
681:
679:
674:
671:
661:
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583:
578:
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534:
526:
521:
520:
517:
415:Flow of material
215:redistribution,
33:Orion spacecraft
3524:
3523:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3515:
3514:
3513:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3435:
3426:Residual stress
3404:
3363:
3281:Other processes
3275:
3271:Submerged (SAW)
3217:
3212:
3179:
3174:
3121:Wayback Machine
3083:
3078:
3040:
3039:
3035:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2990:
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2984:
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2944:
2943:
2939:
2927:
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2921:
2912:
2908:
2896:
2895:
2891:
2885:Wayback Machine
2876:
2872:
2866:Wayback Machine
2857:
2853:
2840:
2836:
2830:Wayback Machine
2821:
2817:
2811:Wayback Machine
2802:
2798:
2792:Wayback Machine
2783:
2779:
2766:
2765:
2761:
2755:Wayback Machine
2746:
2742:
2736:Wayback Machine
2727:
2723:
2717:Wayback Machine
2708:
2704:
2696:
2692:
2682:
2680:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2660:
2658:
2653:
2652:
2648:
2639:
2637:
2629:
2628:
2624:
2618:Wayback Machine
2608:
2604:
2596:
2592:
2586:Wayback Machine
2577:
2573:
2567:Wayback Machine
2558:
2554:
2548:Wayback Machine
2539:
2535:
2526:
2524:
2515:
2514:
2510:
2501:
2497:
2491:Wayback Machine
2481:
2477:
2471:Wayback Machine
2462:
2458:
2452:Wayback Machine
2443:
2439:
2433:Wayback Machine
2424:
2420:
2406:Wayback Machine
2397:
2393:
2383:
2382:
2378:
2340:
2339:
2332:
2302:
2301:
2297:
2259:
2258:
2254:
2232:
2231:
2224:
2197:Acta Materialia
2194:
2193:
2189:
2167:
2166:
2159:
2132:Acta Materialia
2129:
2128:
2124:
2108:10.1.1.160.7596
2101:(6): 980–1023.
2092:
2091:
2087:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2012:
2011:
2007:
1977:
1976:
1972:
1950:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1904:
1903:
1899:
1861:
1860:
1856:
1826:
1825:
1821:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1749:
1748:
1744:
1727:
1723:
1713:
1712:
1708:
1670:
1669:
1665:
1643:
1642:
1638:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1594:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1582:
1578:
1569:
1567:
1558:
1557:
1550:
1541:
1539:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1515:
1513:
1511:
1488:
1487:
1483:
1478:
1474:
1465:
1461:
1452:
1451:
1447:
1435:
1428:
1422:Wayback Machine
1413:
1406:
1400:Wayback Machine
1391:
1384:
1375:
1366:
1360:Wayback Machine
1347:
1340:
1331:
1329:
1321:
1320:
1316:
1286:
1285:
1281:
1251:
1250:
1246:
1237:
1235:
1222:
1221:
1214:
1186:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1145:
1136:
1128:
1117:
1076:
1006:DSB class SA-SD
995:Hitachi A-train
987:
922:
815:
737:
724:
713:
706:
647:
643:
611:
606:
605:
551:
547:
512:
507:
506:
501:
451:
417:
381:
364:
351:
342:titanium alloys
303:
298:
205:
156:micro-structure
152:
91:
53:TRA-C industrie
17:
12:
11:
5:
3522:
3520:
3512:
3511:
3501:
3500:
3494:
3493:
3491:
3490:
3485:
3480:
3475:
3470:
3465:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3421:Photokeratitis
3418:
3412:
3410:
3406:
3405:
3403:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3371:
3369:
3365:
3364:
3362:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3339:Magnetic pulse
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3285:
3283:
3277:
3276:
3274:
3273:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
3233:
3227:
3225:
3219:
3218:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3203:
3196:
3188:
3181:
3180:
3175:
3173:
3172:
3165:
3158:
3150:
3144:
3143:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3123:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3082:
3081:External links
3079:
3077:
3076:
3049:(2): 699–708.
3033:
3014:(7): 555–561.
2998:
2973:
2959:
2937:
2919:
2906:
2889:
2870:
2851:
2845:DVS Congress:
2834:
2815:
2796:
2777:
2773:Car and Driver
2759:
2740:
2721:
2702:
2690:
2668:
2646:
2635:blogs.nasa.gov
2622:
2602:
2590:
2571:
2552:
2533:
2508:
2495:
2475:
2456:
2437:
2418:
2391:
2376:
2330:
2295:
2252:
2222:
2187:
2176:(3): 175–183.
2157:
2138:(3): 883–895.
2122:
2085:
2040:
2005:
1986:(2): 120–124.
1970:
1943:
1928:
1917:(5): 372–376.
1897:
1854:
1835:(4): 325–342.
1819:
1800:(3): 193–196.
1784:
1769:
1742:
1721:
1706:
1663:
1652:(2): 246–251.
1636:
1601:
1576:
1548:
1522:
1509:
1481:
1472:
1459:
1445:
1426:
1404:
1382:
1364:
1338:
1314:
1279:
1244:
1212:
1178:
1176:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1144:
1141:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1124:
1116:
1113:
1075:
1072:
986:
983:
921:
918:
844:, and the new
814:
811:
736:
733:
723:
720:
711:
704:
698:
697:
684:
678:
669:
665:
660:
651:
646:
642:
639:
636:
631:
628:
623:
614:
602:
601:
588:
582:
573:
569:
564:
555:
550:
546:
543:
540:
537:
532:
529:
524:
515:
499:
488:
487:
481:
475:
469:
450:
447:
439:
438:
434:
416:
413:
408:
407:
396:
393:
389:
380:
379:Welding forces
377:
363:
360:
350:
347:
302:
299:
297:
294:
293:
292:
289:
286:
283:
276:
275:
272:
269:
266:
263:
260:
257:
250:
247:
237:fatigue cracks
204:
201:
200:
199:
186:
179:
172:
151:
148:
90:
87:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3521:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3504:
3489:
3486:
3484:
3481:
3479:
3476:
3474:
3471:
3469:
3466:
3464:
3461:
3459:
3456:
3454:
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3442:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3411:
3409:Related terms
3407:
3401:
3400:Shielding gas
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3370:
3366:
3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3324:Friction stud
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3300:
3297:
3295:
3292:
3290:
3287:
3286:
3284:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3269:
3267:
3264:
3262:
3259:
3257:
3254:
3252:
3249:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3237:
3234:
3232:
3229:
3228:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3209:
3204:
3202:
3197:
3195:
3190:
3189:
3186:
3182:
3178:
3171:
3166:
3164:
3159:
3157:
3152:
3151:
3148:
3142:
3139:
3137:
3134:
3132:
3129:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3118:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3089:
3085:
3084:
3080:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3037:
3034:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3002:
2999:
2983:
2977:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2960:
2947:
2941:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2907:
2902:
2901:
2893:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2874:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2860:
2855:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2835:
2831:
2827:
2824:
2819:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2805:
2800:
2797:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2763:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2749:
2744:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2730:
2725:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2711:
2706:
2703:
2699:
2694:
2691:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2656:
2650:
2647:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2612:
2606:
2603:
2599:
2594:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2580:
2575:
2572:
2568:
2564:
2561:
2556:
2553:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2537:
2534:
2522:
2518:
2512:
2509:
2505:
2499:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2485:
2479:
2476:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2427:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2400:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2380:
2377:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2348:
2344:
2337:
2335:
2331:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2310:
2306:
2299:
2296:
2291:
2287:
2283:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2256:
2253:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2227:
2223:
2218:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2202:
2198:
2191:
2188:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2164:
2162:
2158:
2153:
2149:
2145:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2126:
2123:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2104:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2086:
2081:
2077:
2072:
2067:
2063:
2059:
2056:(2): 95–101.
2055:
2051:
2044:
2041:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2009:
2006:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1974:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1947:
1944:
1939:
1932:
1929:
1924:
1920:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1901:
1898:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1858:
1855:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1823:
1820:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1803:
1799:
1795:
1788:
1785:
1780:
1773:
1770:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1746:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1725:
1722:
1717:
1710:
1707:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1640:
1637:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1605:
1602:
1587:
1580:
1577:
1565:
1561:
1555:
1553:
1549:
1538:on 2011-10-11
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1512:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1493:
1485:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1455:
1449:
1446:
1442:
1438:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1419:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1394:
1389:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1373:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1357:
1354:
1350:
1349:Bill Arbegast
1345:
1343:
1339:
1328:
1324:
1318:
1315:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1283:
1280:
1275:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1245:
1234:on 2020-07-22
1233:
1229:
1225:
1219:
1217:
1213:
1207:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1183:
1180:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1146:
1142:
1140:
1133:
1131:
1125:
1123:
1121:
1114:
1112:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1097:
1088:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1064:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1014:Victoria line
1011:
1007:
999:
996:
991:
984:
982:
979:
975:
971:
967:
963:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
931:
926:
919:
917:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
876:, as well as
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
835:
831:
824:
819:
812:
810:
808:
804:
803:armor plating
800:
799:
793:
791:
786:
783:
781:
776:
775:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
746:
741:
734:
732:
730:
721:
719:
715:
710:
703:
682:
676:
667:
663:
658:
649:
644:
640:
637:
634:
629:
626:
621:
612:
604:
603:
586:
580:
571:
567:
562:
553:
548:
544:
541:
538:
535:
530:
527:
522:
513:
505:
504:
503:
498:
494:
485:
482:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
464:
463:
462:
459:
455:
448:
446:
442:
435:
431:
430:
429:
425:
423:
414:
412:
405:
401:
397:
394:
390:
386:
385:
384:
378:
376:
368:
361:
359:
355:
348:
346:
343:
338:
334:
330:
328:
323:
319:
314:
307:
300:
295:
290:
287:
284:
281:
280:
279:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
251:
248:
245:
244:
243:
240:
238:
234:
230:
224:
222:
218:
214:
210:
202:
197:
193:
192:
187:
184:
180:
177:
176:flow arm zone
173:
169:
165:
161:
160:
159:
157:
149:
147:
145:
140:
138:
134:
130:
126:
123:
117:
111:
103:
95:
88:
86:
84:
81:(TWI) in the
80:
75:
73:
68:
64:
60:
54:
49:
43:Joint designs
41:
34:
29:
21:
3390:Power supply
3380:Filler metal
3334:Laser-hybrid
3318:
3261:Plasma (PAW)
3177:Metalworking
3046:
3042:
3036:
3011:
3007:
3001:
2989:. Retrieved
2976:
2962:
2950:. Retrieved
2940:
2922:
2909:
2899:
2892:
2873:
2854:
2846:
2837:
2818:
2799:
2780:
2772:
2762:
2757:, riftec.de.
2743:
2724:
2719:. twi.co.uk.
2705:
2693:
2681:. Retrieved
2671:
2659:. Retrieved
2649:
2638:. Retrieved
2634:
2625:
2605:
2593:
2574:
2555:
2536:
2525:. Retrieved
2520:
2511:
2498:
2478:
2459:
2440:
2421:
2394:
2385:
2379:
2346:
2342:
2308:
2304:
2298:
2265:
2261:
2255:
2241:(1): 13–16.
2238:
2234:
2200:
2196:
2190:
2173:
2169:
2135:
2131:
2125:
2098:
2094:
2088:
2053:
2049:
2043:
2018:
2014:
2008:
1983:
1979:
1973:
1959:(1): 86–92.
1956:
1952:
1946:
1937:
1931:
1914:
1910:
1900:
1867:
1863:
1857:
1832:
1828:
1822:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1778:
1772:
1755:
1751:
1745:
1724:
1715:
1709:
1676:
1672:
1666:
1649:
1645:
1639:
1614:
1610:
1604:
1593:. Retrieved
1579:
1568:. Retrieved
1563:
1540:. Retrieved
1536:the original
1525:
1514:. Retrieved
1491:
1484:
1475:
1467:
1462:
1448:
1441:the original
1376:Walter Polt
1330:. Retrieved
1326:
1317:
1292:
1288:
1282:
1257:
1253:
1247:
1236:. Retrieved
1232:the original
1227:
1196:
1192:
1182:
1137:
1129:
1118:
1093:
1065:
1057:Stadler Kiss
1003:
962:Toyota Prius
935:
906:Airbus A400M
862:the SLS Core
828:
797:
789:
779:
772:
764:
760:
750:
744:
725:
722:Applications
716:
708:
701:
699:
496:
492:
489:
483:
477:
471:
465:
460:
456:
452:
443:
440:
426:
418:
409:
382:
373:
356:
352:
339:
335:
331:
315:
312:
277:
241:
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196:age-hardened
189:
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76:
62:
58:
57:
51:FSW tool by
3453:Fabrication
3431:Weldability
3223:Arc welding
2523:(in French)
1566:(in French)
1260:: 402–413.
1199:: 574–579.
1074:Fabrication
950:Showa Denko
914:Airbus A380
898:Eclipse 500
884:rockets at
774:Sea Fighter
301:Tool design
144:deformation
3473:Metallurgy
3354:Ultrasonic
3349:Spot (RSW)
3304:Exothermic
2640:2022-08-27
2527:2018-01-22
1595:2009-04-14
1570:2018-01-22
1542:2009-04-14
1516:2021-05-29
1332:2017-04-22
1238:2017-04-22
1175:References
1053:Shinkansen
1016:trains of
1010:Alstom LHB
1008:trains of
958:Mazda RX-8
954:Mazda MX-5
920:Automotive
696:(sticking)
392:increased.
322:tool steel
254:tool steel
129:Frictional
122:butt joint
3468:Machining
3463:Jewellery
3375:Electrode
3368:Equipment
3071:139420827
3028:136318372
2371:137271711
2103:CiteSeerX
2080:135584450
2035:135836036
2000:137563036
1892:138343148
1814:137947326
1758:: 75–80.
1701:137071435
1631:135215434
1309:1087-1357
1274:139970404
1051:produces
1029:Pendolino
966:Volvo V70
813:Aerospace
664:−
641:ω
638:τ
635:π
600:(sliding)
568:−
545:ω
542:μ
536:π
422:extrusion
164:stir zone
133:adiabatic
72:aluminium
67:aluminium
3503:Category
3478:Smithing
3314:Friction
3117:Archived
2881:Archived
2862:Archived
2826:Archived
2807:Archived
2788:Archived
2751:Archived
2732:Archived
2713:Archived
2661:7 August
2614:Archived
2582:Archived
2563:Archived
2544:Archived
2521:StirWeld
2487:Archived
2467:Archived
2448:Archived
2429:Archived
2402:Archived
2325:85507345
2290:39468694
1849:16838735
1564:StirWeld
1418:Archived
1396:Archived
1356:Archived
1143:See also
1115:Robotics
1045:Kawasaki
1043:, while
1033:A-trains
985:Railways
882:Falcon 9
878:Falcon 1
838:Delta IV
834:Delta II
823:Falcon 9
761:The Boss
705:shoulder
654:shoulder
558:shoulder
420:in-situ
404:stiction
388:welding.
209:porosity
70:such as
3488:Welding
3458:Forming
3448:Casting
3215:Welding
3051:Bibcode
2987:. IJRTE
2952:30 July
2933:YouTube
2683:30 July
2351:Bibcode
2270:Bibcode
2205:Bibcode
2140:Bibcode
1872:Bibcode
1681:Bibcode
1100:Bizerba
1041:Hitachi
978:Audi R8
946:Ford GT
930:Ford GT
842:Atlas V
798:Rotoiti
780:Freedom
137:melting
3385:Helmet
3069:
3026:
2991:18 Dec
2948:. EADS
2679:. EADS
2412:
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2323:
2288:
2105:
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2033:
1998:
1890:
1847:
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1699:
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1591:. NASA
1507:
1307:
1272:
1035:, and
886:SpaceX
858:Ares I
856:, for
846:Vulcan
796:HMNZS
790:Houbei
782:-class
213:solute
168:grains
3395:Robot
3359:Upset
3309:Forge
3241:Flash
3067:S2CID
3024:S2CID
2985:(PDF)
2367:S2CID
2321:S2CID
2286:S2CID
2076:S2CID
2031:S2CID
1996:S2CID
1888:S2CID
1845:S2CID
1810:S2CID
1697:S2CID
1627:S2CID
1589:(PDF)
1295:(5).
1270:S2CID
870:Orion
617:total
518:total
500:total
466:Dwell
437:size.
229:X-ray
2993:2019
2954:2013
2685:2013
2663:2013
2410:ISBN
1734:ISBN
1505:ISBN
1305:ISSN
1120:KUKA
1096:AMAG
970:HVAC
880:and
874:NASA
805:for
753:Sapa
219:and
188:The
181:The
174:The
162:The
3059:doi
3016:doi
2931:on
2359:doi
2313:doi
2278:doi
2243:doi
2213:doi
2178:doi
2148:doi
2113:doi
2066:hdl
2058:doi
2023:doi
1988:doi
1961:doi
1957:241
1919:doi
1880:doi
1837:doi
1802:doi
1760:doi
1689:doi
1654:doi
1650:327
1619:doi
1497:doi
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1262:doi
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