256:
for the courts today. Politicians, state legislatures, and courts grapple with a multitude of legal issues surrounding families created using fertility treatments in view of divergent moral, political, and legal discourse throughout the United States. For example, in
Illinois, the courts employ at least two clear approaches to determining how embryos are allocated in the event of a divorce or separation of the parties. Specifically, the courts seek to enforce any contractual language surrounding the allocation of the embryos, and they also employ a balancing test of the parties’ interests alongside the contractual approach or simply as an alternative approach if no contract exists. State courts are often left to decide these issues as statutory resources are not well-developed across the states. For example, in Illinois, the Illinois Parentage Act of 2015 has contemplated situations in which parties, represented by independent legal counsel, enter into contractual agreements regarding the allocation of embryos, but no uniform statutory answer exists for situations in which parties failed to enter into such written agreements regarding allocation.
247:
well as surrogates. Prior to successful attempts to effectively freeze embryos for later use, individuals were limited in their assisted reproductive technology options to in vitro fertilization (IVF), whereby sperm and egg were combined in a lab to create the embryos, all of which then had to be immediately implanted into the mother. Cryopreservation enables the embryos to be safely stored for extensive periods of time. Individuals are then able choose the proper time to use the embryos as well as elect to use only one embryo at a time while saving the others for later use. Doing so reduces the possibility of conceiving twins or triplets, thus allowing parents to exercise greater control over their vision for their families. Additionally, embryos may be tested and manipulated to eliminate genetic diseases.
222:
successfully survived in cryopreservation extensively longer periods of time, spanning even decades. The long-term implications of freezing embryos are demonstrated in the case of Molly
Everette Gibson, the child born from the viable pregnancy of her mother who used an embryo, which had been stored in a cryogenic freezer for twenty-seven years. The first twins derived from frozen embryos were born in February 1985. Since then and up to 2008 it is estimated that between 350,000 and half a million IVF babies have been born from embryos frozen at a controlled rate and then stored in liquid nitrogen; additionally a few hundred births have been born from vitrified oocytes but firm figures are hard to come by.
221:
The cryopreservation of embryos was first successfully attempted in 1984 in the case of Zoe
Leyland, the first baby to be born from a frozen embryo. In Zoe's case, the embryo had been frozen for two months, but since the inception of the practice of cryopreservation after successful IVF, embryos have
246:
The practice of cryopreservation of embryos has increased in recent years. While the original purpose of freezing embryos was to help heterosexual couples who struggled with infertility, the practice has become an increasingly common avenue to start a family for homosexual couples, single women, as
193:
Pregnancies have been reported from embryos stored for 27 years. A study of more than 11,000 cryopreserved human embryos showed no significant effect of storage time on post-thaw survival for IVF or oocyte donation cycles, or for embryos frozen at the pronuclear or cleavage stages. In addition, the
255:
While the cryopreservation of embryos has been characterized by great scientific developments over the years, the treatment of allocation of embryos in the event of a divorce or separation of the parties is a broadening and still less developed area of the law which continues to present challenges
136:
Direct Frozen Embryo
Transfer: Embryos can be frozen by SPF in ethylene glycol freeze media and transfer directly to recipients immediately after water thawing without laboratory thawing process. The world's first crossbred bovine embryo transfer calf under tropical conditions was produced by such
237:
reported the successful cryopreservation of an eight cell embryo, storing it for 53 days, thawing and replacing it into the mother's womb, resulting in a successful and live birth as early as 1978- a full five years before
Trounson and Mohr had done so. A small publication of Mukherjee in 1978
157:, early embryos having undergone cryopreservation implant at the same rate as equivalent fresh counterparts. The outcome from using cryopreserved embryos has uniformly been positive with no increase in birth defects or development abnormalities, also between fresh versus frozen eggs used for
132:
than slow freezing. Vitrification prevent ice crystals in gametes. It is so fast (-23000 °C/min) that these crystals do not appear. Still, the amount of cryoprotectant used in the vitrification is crucial: too much is toxic for the embryo; but too little could cause the appearance of
186:
than those born from non-frozen blastocysts. For early cleavage embryos, frozen ones appear to have at least as good obstetric outcome, measured as preterm birth and low birthweight for children born after cryopreservation as compared with children born after fresh cycles.
65:, as patients who fail to conceive may become pregnant using such embryos without having to go through a full IVF cycle. Or, if pregnancy occurred, they could return later for another pregnancy. Spare oocytes or embryos resulting from fertility treatments may be used for
238:
clearly shows that
Mukherjee was on the right line of thinking much before anyone else had demonstrated the successful outcome of a pregnancy following the transfer of a 8-cell frozen-thawed embryo into human subjects transferring 8-cell cryopreserved embryos.
181:
following ovarian hyperstimulation, and therefore frozen embryo transfer avails for a separate cycle to focus on optimizing the chances of successful implantation. Children born from vitrified blastocysts have significantly higher
711:
Courbiere, B.; Decanter, C.; Bringer-Deutsch, S.; Rives, N.; Mirallie, S.; Pech, J. C.; De
Ziegler, D.; Carre-Pigeon, F.; May-Panloup, P.; Sifer, C.; Amice, V.; Schweitzer, T.; Porcu-Buisson, G.; Poirot, C. (2013).
273:
Youssef, Mohamed AFM; Van der Veen, Fulco; Al-Inany, Hesham G; Mochtar, Monique H; Griesinger, Georg; Nagi
Mohesen, Mohamed; Aboulfoutouh, Ismail; van Wely, Madelon; Youssef, Mohamed AFM (2014).
201:
agents to females caused a delay of treatment in 34% of cases, and a live birth in 27% of surviving cases who wanted to become pregnant, with the follow-up time varying between 1 and 13 years.
1044:
450:
Cryopreservation of
Embryos in Ethylene Glycol Freeze Media and Direct Transfer in Crossbred Cattle in the Tropics,9th International Congress on Biotechnology in Animal Reproduction, 2002,
1399:
1001:
933:
468:
A. Nyboe
Andersen, L. Gianaroli, R. Felberbaum, J. de Mouzon and K.G. Nygren. Results generated from European registers by ESHRE Assisted reproductive technology in Europe, 2001
145:
World usage data is hard to come by but it was reported in a study of 23 countries that almost 42,000 frozen human embryo transfers were performed during 2001 in Europe.
1425:
128:(SPF). Studies indicate that vitrification is superior or equal to SPF in terms of survival and implantation rates. Vitrification appears to result in decreased risk of
978:
975:
1037:
275:"Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonist versus HCG for oocyte triggering in antagonist-assisted reproductive technology"
194:
duration of storage had no significant effect on clinical pregnancy, miscarriage, implantation, or live birth rate, whether from IVF or oocyte donation cycles.
210:
853:
884:
1446:
1030:
854:"Kumar A. Architect of India's first test tube baby: Dr Subhas Mukerji (16 January 1931 to 19 July 1981). Current Science, 1997, V.72. N7. P. 526-531"
73:
to another woman or couple, and embryos may be created, frozen and stored specifically for transfer and donation by using donor eggs and sperm.
1139:
321:
Edgar, D. H.; Gook, D. A. (2012). "A critical appraisal of cryopreservation (slow cooling versus vitrification) of human oocytes and embryos".
1217:
948:
410:"Vitrification: the pioneering past to current trends and perspectives of cryopreserving human embryos, gametes and reproductive tissue"
170:
86:
361:"The effect of cryopreservation on the genome of gametes and embryos: principles of cryobiology and critical appraisal of the evidence"
1227:
121:
110:
507:
Wennerholm, U. -B.; Soderstrom-Anttila, V.; Bergh, C.; Aittomaki, K.; Hazekamp, J.; Nygren, K. -G.; Selbing, A.; Loft, A. (2009).
1207:
1182:
1053:
691:
226:
158:
1278:
1290:
1237:
800:
1394:
1232:
1222:
478:
102:
775:
1156:
1134:
652:"Does storage time influence postthaw survival and pregnancy outcome? An analysis of 11,768 cryopreserved human embryos"
752:
178:
197:
A study in France between 1999 and 2011 came to the result that embryo freezing before administration of gonadotoxic
125:
1451:
409:
860:
1273:
1253:
1099:
106:
1404:
1338:
1283:
1177:
1166:
166:
82:
62:
885:
Dhawale A.J. Dr Subhas Mukherjee and India's first test tube baby. PharmaTutor. 2014. V.2 N.12. P.99-106.
190:
Oocyte age, survival proportion, and number of transferred embryos are predictors of pregnancy outcome.
901:
557:"Fresh versus frozen embryo transfer: backing clinical decisions with scientific and clinical evidence"
1295:
1187:
1109:
209:
From 1 October 2009, human embryos are allowed to be stored for 10 years in the UK, according to the
137:
technique on 23 June 1996 by Dr. Binoy S Vettical of Kerala Livestock Development Board, Mattupatti
1307:
1258:
1202:
1197:
1122:
1117:
714:"Emergency IVF for embryo freezing to preserve female fertility: A French multicentre cohort study"
1333:
1300:
1069:
509:"Children born after cryopreservation of embryos or oocytes: A systematic review of outcome data"
1384:
1094:
1089:
1079:
832:
808:
735:
673:
627:
586:
578:
530:
390:
382:
338:
300:
169:, and perinatal outcomes are less affected, compared to embryo transfer in the same cycle as
1358:
1263:
1212:
1084:
1074:
725:
663:
617:
568:
520:
424:
372:
330:
290:
282:
154:
34:
1389:
1348:
1192:
934:"Legal Issues Surrounding Embryos and Gametes: What Family Law Practitioners Need to Know"
552:
551:
Evans, J.; Hannan, N. J.; Edgell, T. A.; Vollenhoven, B. J.; Lutjen, P. J.; Osianlis, T.;
114:
94:
70:
66:
295:
274:
1353:
162:
117:(in contrast to fresh cycles where usage of GnRH agonist has a lower live birth rate).
1440:
1409:
1312:
668:
651:
90:
46:
42:
1343:
1144:
1022:
482:
286:
198:
98:
801:"Meet Molly, the baby who came from an embryo frozen when her mom was a year old"
650:
Riggs R; Mayer J; Dowling-Lacey D; Chi TF; Jones E; Oehninger S (November 2008).
133:
crystallised water, regardless of the speed at which the process is carried out.
1061:
183:
174:
1363:
1149:
129:
50:
812:
582:
386:
17:
1317:
1127:
730:
713:
622:
605:
573:
556:
525:
508:
377:
360:
334:
843:
Mukerji S., Mukherjee S., Bhattacharya, S.K. Indian J. Cryog., 1978, 3, 80.
739:
677:
631:
590:
534:
394:
342:
304:
1368:
696:
429:
902:"Same-sex couples and singles use of fertility treatment hits UK record"
61:
Embryo cryopreservation is useful for leftover embryos after a cycle of
230:
38:
234:
81:
Embryo cryopreservation is generally performed as a component of
1026:
97:). The ovarian hyperstimulation is preferably done by using a
776:"A 26-Year-Old Gave Birth From an Embryo Frozen for 24 Years"
604:
Wikland M, Hardarson T, Hillensjö T, et al. (May 2010).
606:"Obstetric outcomes after transfer of vitrified blastocysts"
120:
The main techniques used for embryo cryopreservation are
692:"Baby born from 27-year-old donated embryo sets record"
45:
stage corresponding to pre-implantation, that is, from
941:
Journal of the American Academy of Matrimonial Lawyers
354:
352:
459:
Deepika Malayalam daily Newspaper dated 23 June 1996.
417:
Journal of Biorepository Science for Applied Medicine
1418:
1377:
1326:
1246:
1165:
1108:
1060:
546:
544:
1426:Reproduction and pregnancy in speculative fiction
502:
500:
359:Kopeika, J.; Thornhill, A.; Khalaf, Y. (2014).
1038:
1002:"750 ILCS 46/ Illinois Parentage Act of 2015"
177:is believed to not be optimally prepared for
27:Preserving an embryo at sub-zero temperatures
8:
755:Google News. Retrieved on 11 September 2009
316:
314:
211:Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act 2008
1045:
1031:
1023:
983:, vol. 34, 12 June 2015, p. 1132
41:at sub-zero temperatures, generally at an
729:
667:
621:
572:
524:
428:
376:
294:
645:
643:
641:
408:C Schiewe, Mitchel (6 September 2017).
265:
769:
767:
765:
763:
761:
971:
969:
927:
925:
923:
896:
894:
892:
7:
113:with no evidence of a difference in
932:Debele, Gary (24 September 2018).
753:Extension given for embryo storage
149:Pregnancy outcome and determinants
25:
1228:Preimplantation genetic diagnosis
774:Zhang, Sarah (21 December 2017).
111:ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome
109:, since it decreases the risk of
1447:Assisted reproductive technology
1208:Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
1183:Autologous endometrial coculture
1054:Assisted reproductive technology
669:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2008.09.084
159:intracytoplasmic sperm injection
85:(which generally also includes
1291:Gamete intrafallopian transfer
1238:Zygote intrafallopian transfer
479:"Genetics & IVF Institute"
287:10.1002/14651858.CD008046.pub4
1:
1395:Genetic diagnosis of intersex
1223:Partner-assisted reproduction
555:; Rombauts, L. J. F. (2014).
103:human chorionic gonadotrophin
1233:Transvaginal ovum retrieval
31:Cryopreservation of embryos
1468:
481:. Givf.com. Archived from
126:slow programmable freezing
1400:Religious response to ART
561:Human Reproduction Update
365:Human Reproduction Update
323:Human Reproduction Update
1218:Ovarian hyperstimulation
171:ovarian hyperstimulation
165:are increased following
87:ovarian hyperstimulation
1254:Artificial insemination
1100:Male infertility crisis
107:final oocyte maturation
1405:Mitochondrial donation
1339:Donor Sibling Registry
1178:Assisted zona hatching
1167:In vitro fertilisation
833:AP News, February 1985
167:frozen embryo transfer
83:in vitro fertilization
63:in vitro fertilisation
980:Szafranski v. Dunston
731:10.1093/humrep/det268
623:10.1093/humrep/deq117
574:10.1093/humupd/dmu027
526:10.1093/humrep/dep125
378:10.1093/humupd/dmu063
335:10.1093/humupd/dms016
225:It may be noted that
1296:Reproductive surgery
1188:Cytoplasmic transfer
1118:Estrogen antagonists
1110:Fertility medication
947:: 68. Archived from
430:10.2147/BSAM.S139376
1308:Selective reduction
1259:Ovulation induction
1203:In vitro maturation
1198:Gestational carrier
1123:aromatase inhibitor
173:was performed. The
1334:Donor registration
1301:Vasectomy reversal
954:on 24 October 2021
718:Human Reproduction
700:. 3 December 2020.
513:Human Reproduction
485:on 6 December 2012
251:Legal implications
227:Subash Mukhopadyay
33:is the process of
1434:
1433:
1385:Accidental incest
1095:Fertility tourism
1090:Fertility testing
553:Salamonsen, L. A.
161:(ICSI). In fact,
16:(Redirected from
1459:
1452:Cryopreservation
1359:Semen collection
1264:Cryopreservation
1213:Oocyte selection
1085:Fertility clinic
1047:
1040:
1033:
1024:
1017:
1016:
1014:
1012:
998:
992:
991:
990:
988:
973:
964:
963:
961:
959:
953:
938:
929:
918:
917:
915:
913:
898:
887:
882:
876:
875:
873:
871:
865:
859:. Archived from
858:
850:
844:
841:
835:
830:
824:
823:
821:
819:
797:
791:
790:
788:
786:
771:
756:
750:
744:
743:
733:
708:
702:
701:
688:
682:
681:
671:
647:
636:
635:
625:
601:
595:
594:
576:
548:
539:
538:
528:
519:(9): 2158–2172.
504:
495:
494:
492:
490:
475:
469:
466:
460:
457:
451:
448:
442:
441:
439:
437:
432:
414:
405:
399:
398:
380:
356:
347:
346:
318:
309:
308:
298:
281:(10): CD008046.
270:
155:state of the art
21:
1467:
1466:
1462:
1461:
1460:
1458:
1457:
1456:
1437:
1436:
1435:
1430:
1414:
1390:Fertility fraud
1373:
1322:
1242:
1193:Embryo transfer
1170:
1161:
1104:
1056:
1051:
1021:
1020:
1010:
1008:
1000:
999:
995:
986:
984:
977:
974:
967:
957:
955:
951:
936:
931:
930:
921:
911:
909:
900:
899:
890:
883:
879:
869:
867:
863:
856:
852:
851:
847:
842:
838:
831:
827:
817:
815:
805:Washington Post
799:
798:
794:
784:
782:
773:
772:
759:
751:
747:
710:
709:
705:
690:
689:
685:
649:
648:
639:
616:(7): 1699–707.
603:
602:
598:
550:
549:
542:
506:
505:
498:
488:
486:
477:
476:
472:
467:
463:
458:
454:
449:
445:
435:
433:
412:
407:
406:
402:
358:
357:
350:
320:
319:
312:
272:
271:
267:
262:
253:
244:
219:
207:
163:pregnancy rates
151:
143:
115:live birth rate
95:embryo transfer
79:
71:embryo donation
67:oocyte donation
59:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
1465:
1463:
1455:
1454:
1449:
1439:
1438:
1432:
1431:
1429:
1428:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1415:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1402:
1397:
1392:
1387:
1381:
1379:
1375:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1361:
1356:
1351:
1346:
1341:
1336:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1321:
1320:
1315:
1310:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1288:
1287:
1286:
1281:
1279:ovarian tissue
1276:
1271:
1261:
1256:
1250:
1248:
1244:
1243:
1241:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1200:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1174:
1172:
1171:and expansions
1163:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1142:
1137:
1132:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1114:
1112:
1106:
1105:
1103:
1102:
1097:
1092:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1072:
1066:
1064:
1058:
1057:
1052:
1050:
1049:
1042:
1035:
1027:
1019:
1018:
993:
965:
919:
888:
877:
866:on 8 June 2020
845:
836:
825:
792:
757:
745:
703:
683:
656:Fertil. Steril
637:
596:
567:(6): 808–821.
540:
496:
470:
461:
452:
443:
400:
371:(2): 209–227.
348:
329:(5): 536–554.
310:
264:
263:
261:
258:
252:
249:
243:
240:
218:
215:
206:
203:
150:
147:
142:
139:
78:
75:
58:
55:
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1464:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1427:
1424:
1423:
1421:
1417:
1411:
1410:Sex selection
1408:
1406:
1403:
1401:
1398:
1396:
1393:
1391:
1388:
1386:
1383:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1357:
1355:
1352:
1350:
1347:
1345:
1342:
1340:
1337:
1335:
1332:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1316:
1314:
1313:Sex selection
1311:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1280:
1277:
1275:
1272:
1270:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1255:
1252:
1251:
1249:
1247:Other methods
1245:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1214:
1211:
1209:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1199:
1196:
1194:
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1175:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1158:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1147:
1146:
1145:Gonadotropins
1143:
1141:
1140:GnRH agonists
1138:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1124:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1116:
1115:
1113:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1093:
1091:
1088:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1078:
1076:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1063:
1059:
1055:
1048:
1043:
1041:
1036:
1034:
1029:
1028:
1025:
1007:
1003:
997:
994:
982:
981:
976:
972:
970:
966:
950:
946:
942:
935:
928:
926:
924:
920:
907:
903:
897:
895:
893:
889:
886:
881:
878:
862:
855:
849:
846:
840:
837:
834:
829:
826:
814:
810:
806:
802:
796:
793:
781:
777:
770:
768:
766:
764:
762:
758:
754:
749:
746:
741:
737:
732:
727:
724:(9): 2381–8.
723:
719:
715:
707:
704:
699:
698:
693:
687:
684:
679:
675:
670:
665:
662:(1): 109–15.
661:
657:
653:
646:
644:
642:
638:
633:
629:
624:
619:
615:
611:
607:
600:
597:
592:
588:
584:
580:
575:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
547:
545:
541:
536:
532:
527:
522:
518:
514:
510:
503:
501:
497:
484:
480:
474:
471:
465:
462:
456:
453:
447:
444:
431:
426:
422:
418:
411:
404:
401:
396:
392:
388:
384:
379:
374:
370:
366:
362:
355:
353:
349:
344:
340:
336:
332:
328:
324:
317:
315:
311:
306:
302:
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43:embryogenesis
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18:Frozen embryo
1344:Egg donation
1268:
1009:. Retrieved
1006:www.ilga.gov
1005:
996:
985:, retrieved
979:
956:. Retrieved
949:the original
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910:. Retrieved
908:. 9 May 2019
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861:the original
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780:The Atlantic
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242:Implications
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179:implantation
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101:rather than
99:GnRH agonist
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1150:menotropins
1062:Infertility
205:Legislation
184:birthweight
175:endometrium
153:In current
57:Indications
1441:Categories
1364:Sperm bank
1011:21 October
987:21 October
958:4 November
912:14 October
818:14 October
785:14 October
610:Hum Reprod
260:References
141:Prevalence
130:DNA damage
105:(hCG) for
51:blastocyst
35:preserving
1318:Surrogacy
1128:clomifene
813:0190-8286
583:1355-4786
436:9 January
387:1355-4786
1369:Ova bank
1327:Donation
740:23832792
697:NBC News
678:19027110
632:20472913
591:24916455
535:19458318
395:25519143
343:22537859
305:25358904
296:10767297
1419:Related
1269:embryos
906:Reuters
489:27 July
279:Reviews
231:Kolkata
217:History
124:versus
53:stage.
49:to the
1378:Ethics
1349:Embryo
1274:oocyte
1070:Female
870:14 May
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39:embryo
1354:Sperm
1284:semen
1169:(IVF)
952:(PDF)
937:(PDF)
864:(PDF)
857:(PDF)
413:(PDF)
235:India
229:from
1080:LGBT
1075:Male
1013:2021
989:2021
960:2021
914:2021
872:2020
820:2021
809:ISSN
787:2021
736:PMID
674:PMID
628:PMID
587:PMID
579:ISSN
531:PMID
491:2009
438:2022
421:2017
391:PMID
383:ISSN
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1157:hCG
1135:FSH
726:doi
664:doi
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569:doi
521:doi
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