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of aggression. The system is made up of and follows from the amygdala to the hypothalamus and finally to the periaqueductal gray matter (PAG) In greater detail, research suggests that when one is threatened or frustrated by some stimuli, parts of our frontal cortex, that is our orbital, medial and ventrolateral frontal cortex, is activated which works in tandem with our threat response system, the amygdala-hypothalamus-PAG. More simply put, threatening events generate more action potentials in the frontal cortex regions which then relay onto the amygdala-hypothalamus-PAG. It is in this basic threat response system where the decision on which response should take hold based on the information received from the frontal cortex regions. As mentioned, there are varying degrees and responses that could take hold within an animal in the presence of a frustrating event. This has not shown to interfere with the basic circuitry at the neuronal level and simply implies that certain stimuli generate more action potentials than others, and thus stronger responses than others respectively. In the face of this, animals portray a response hierarchy at the onset of a frustrating event. For example, when low levels of danger are perceived, the threat response system induces freezing in the animal; closer subjects of threat generate the act of fleeing from their surroundings and finally, where the source of the threat is so close that escape is no longer an option, the threat circuitry system will induce reactive aggression in the animal. What this means is that the closer a frustrating stimulus is presented to us, the greater the chances our basic response systems will be activated and thus will give rise to certain behaviors accordingly. Furthermore, some research has shown that "individuals with elevated susceptibility for frustration greater activity within these regions in response to frustrating events relative to those with less susceptibility". What this research suggests is that people who get frustrated more easily than others show greater activity in the frontal cortex in connection with the amygdala-hypothalamus-PAG, the system that makes us act, given a strong enough stimulus, aggressively with reference to the studies at hand.
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accurately as possible. In all conditions, the experimenter started presenting the instructions in a deliberately fast manner. The conditions differed on how the experimenter responded to the confederate's request to slow down. In the non-frustration control condition, the experimenter apologized and slowed down. In the unjustified frustration condition, the experimenter revealed his desire to leave as quickly as possible for personal reasons. In the justified frustration condition, the experimenter revealed a need to clear the room as fast as possible due to the supervisor demand. The subjects were then given questionnaires on their levels of aggression as well as questionnaires about the competence of the research staff. They were told that these questionnaires would determine whether the research staff would receive financial aid, or verbal reprimands and a reduction in financial awards. The questions presented on the questionnaire were designed to reflect the research staff's competence and likability. Dill and
Anderson found that participants in the unjustified frustration condition rated the research staff as less able and less likable, knowing this would affect their financial situation as graduate students. The justified frustration group rated the staff as less likable and less competent than the control group, but higher on both rating scales than the unjustified condition participants. The authors concluded that unjustified frustration leads to greater level of aggression, compared to justified frustration, which, in turn, results in higher levels of aggression compared to the non-frustration situations.
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lasted 45 minutes and was in a large group setting. During this phase participants were asked to complete a series of questionnaires that assessed their video game playing habits and aggression. The second phase was a one-on-one session with each participant. During this phase participants played video games and were assigned to one of four conditions: 1) video game with violent content in low/nonfrustrating mode, 2) video game with violent content in frustrating mode, 3) video game with nonviolent content in low/nonfrustrating mode, and 4) video game with nonviolent content in frustration mode. As part of the frustrating conditions, participants were informed that their scores would be compared to other participants and that higher performance would be rewarded with a $ 100 gift card. Afterwards, participants completed a questionnaire similar to phase one. Ultimately, this study found that exposure to violent content influenced participants' aggressive responses when playing video games. He also found that frustration with gameplay was just as impactful, if not greater, on participants' aggressive responses. Participants who were exposed to violent content and presented frustration with game-play reported the highest scores in trait hostility.
255:(ERPs). After this task, parents and children participated in a semistructured dyadic interaction, which involved the researchers assessment of child-directed parental hostility during a 10-minute interaction. Families then returned to the laboratory between 2 and 20 days for the second session of the experiment. The second session asked children to participate in a provocation task, which was designed to evoke a reactive aggression response. All families were paid $ 50 for their participation and were debriefed. The authors reported that physically maltreated children displayed greater negative affect and aggressive behavior compared to children that were not physically maltreated. This relationship was mediated by the children's attention to angry faces, as measured by the ERP. Ultimately, these findings suggest that physical maltreatment of children leads to child dysregulation of their negative affect and aggression.
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or not aggression will be following frustration. In 1955, he published results of a study he conducted, which included 60 female students, that showed that people were less likely to demonstrate aggression when social standards were stressed. Moreover, he built on what Doob and Sears' study previously claimed, which is that demonstration of aggressive behavior will depend on the anticipation of punishment. Indeed, Cohen's result showed that people were less likely to demonstrate aggression towards the frustration agent if the latter was an authoritative figure. He also investigated
Nicholas Pastore's statement that aggression was more likely to follow in a context of an arbitrary context when compared to a non-arbitrary one, and reached the same conclusions.
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lead readers to think that frustration could only have aggression as a consequence, and it did not allow the possibility that other responses could arise and override the aggression response. The Yale group thus reformulated the hypothesis as following: "frustration produces instigation to a number of different types of response, one of which is aggression". With this new formulation, the researchers left more place for the idea that aggressive impulses are not the only kinds that can emerge when an individual feels frustration. Other impulses, such as fear of punishment, can outweigh or even attenuate aggression instigations until it disappears, which would explain situations where frustration does not lead to outright aggression.
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extremely angry subject will show aggression even if the aggression cue is absent. The most provocative theory introduced by
Berkowitz is his "aggressive cues" hypothesis, stating that for young children, previous exposure to any objects or events such as military weapon toys showing destruction effects will work as aggressive cues to increase the chances of aggression behaviors. The modification of frustration/aggression hypothesis by Berkowitz discussed that the aggressive behavior originates from internal forces such as anger, aggressive habits and external stimuli. These theories help explain the reasons why aggression is evoked, but did not explain well the procedure of aggressive habits developments into aggressive stimuli.
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of frustration (legitimate and illegitimate), compared to the control group which finished the task successfully, the internal reaction measured by heart rate and rating of three 21-step bipolar scales shows great level. Nevertheless, there is no significant difference of internal reaction between legitimate and illegitimate groups. For the second part of the experiment, when previous two groups experiencing legitimate and illegitimate frustration, encounter an innocent partner in order to perform an unrelated task, the group with previous illegitimate frustration shows greater external reaction which is openly punitive actions towards the innocent partner than the group experiencing previous legitimate frustration does.
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situations decrease the aggressiveness of response. In this study, participants from a sample of 131 college students were presented with the verbal description of two types of situations, arbitrary and non-arbitrary. One of the arbitrary situation examples was being intentionally passed by the bus driver, while waiting at the correct bus stops. A non-arbitrary situation was described in one of the examples as being passed by the bus, while it was specifically marked as heading for a garage. The study results suggested that arbitrariness of the situation is an important factor in eliciting aggressive behavior in frustrating situations, with arbitrary situations inducing more aggression.
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are social norms and the relationship with the frustrating agent. In his study, 60 volunteer participants were rating 14 statements on the levels of predicted aggressiveness. Cohen found that people tend to respond less aggressively if the frustrating agent is an authority figure, rather than a friend and that people respond to frustration with less aggression if the socially accepted norms require to do so. Berkowitz addressed this criticism in his 1989 article and proposed that frustration, and ultimately aggression, is induced when individuals think they have been deliberately and wrongly kept from their goal.
70:. It attempts to give an explanation as to the cause of violence. According to Dollard and colleagues, frustration is the "condition which exists when a goal-response suffers interference", while aggression is defined as "an act whose goal-response is injury to an organism (or an organism surrogate)". The theory says that frustration causes aggression, but when the source of the frustration cannot be challenged, the aggression gets displaced onto an innocent target. For example, if a man is disrespected and
283:, by observing apes and children, placed reasons for the breaking out of a fight into three different categories. While one of the categories was frustration, the other two were classified as possession disputes and resentment of a stranger intrusion. Addressing this criticism, Berkowitz suggested that the controversy around the frustration–aggression hypothesis has its roots in the lack of a common definition for frustration. He advocated that if frustration is defined as a reaction to a blocking of a
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resistance to attain a certain goal, frustration can be conceptualized as arising from an inconsistency between a perceived situation and a desired, or expected, situation; that is, the availability of the preconditions required to be able to complete some internal response sequence. In this approach, aggressive behavior functions to forcefully manipulate the perception into matching the expected situation. Furthermore, this approach puts aggression in the broader context of
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tends to deindividuate them. For instance, individuals may behave aggressively when they are with their friends or in a big crowd (e.g. while watching a hockey game), but might not behave aggressively when they are by themselves (e.g. watching the game alone at home). When individuals are in a crowd, they are more likely to become desensitised of their own actions and less likely to take responsibility. This phenomenon is known as
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aggressive behaviors. The study collected data from 50 boys through the
Madison, Wisconsin Public Schools. Within this sample, 17 children had a history of physical maltreatment. Families attended two separate sessions in the laboratory. The first session involved the children completing an emotional oddball task while having their neural responses recorded via
136:, which addressed the inconsistency of empirical studies aiming to test the hypothesis, as well as its criticism. He proposed a modification to the hypothesis that would take into an account negative affect and individual attributions. More recently, Breuer and Elson published a comprehensive overview of the
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Indeed, the hypothesis does not take into consideration the individuality of human beings. According to Dixon and
Johnson, two people can respond differently to the same frustration stimuli. For instance, some could respond aggressively while driving on the highway after being cut off by another car,
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Some sources suggest that there is little empirical support for it, even though researchers have studied it for more than sixty years. Also, this theory suggests frustrated, prejudiced individuals should act more aggressively towards out-groups they are prejudiced against, but studies have shown that
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Later research was focused more on refining the hypothesis, rather than on denying its correctness. In one of the earlier studies, following the publication of
Dollard et al.'s book, Pastore argued that the hypothesis should distinguish between arbitrary and non-arbitrary situations, as non-arbitrary
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Some studies have shown that frustrating and equally threatening events may generate feelings of aggression. This is based on the account that one of our neural systems is responsible for executing the basic responses to threat. It so happens that one of these basic responses from this system is that
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culture. Indeed, Balinese children are taught to take pleasure, satisfaction, in the steps that lead to their goals, without waiting for satisfaction climaxes by completion of such goals. Following the same line of thoughts, Arthur R. Cohen considered social norms to be an important factor in whether
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observed the frustration–aggression hypothesis under a cultural angle. According to him, culture was implicitly involved in the hypothesis itself, as it was dealing with human behaviour, which is always formed and influenced by the environment, be it social or cultural. He stated that it is easier to
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Building on
Pastore's work, in his 1955 empirical study, Cohen confirmed that the arbitrariness of a situation affects the level of aggressiveness. However, the study also supported his hypothesis that two more factors need to be accounted for in the frustration–aggression hypothesis. Those factors
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In his article published in 1980, Leonard
Berkowitz further discussed the relationship between the frustration and the level of aggression by adding the differentiation between the internal and external reaction to the frustration. In his first part of experiment, he found that for both of the types
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In 1964, Leonard
Berkowitz stated that it is necessary to have an aggression stimulus to make aggression take place. Then in 1974 and 1993, he remodified the frustration/aggression hypothesis into a theory that removed the importance of aggressive cues to the aggressive behavior. Which is to say, an
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The authors stated that despite an ample amount of empirical research that examines the link between frustration and aggressive behaviors, there is a decline in the number of studies that specifically refers to the frustration–aggression hypothesis. Breuer and Elson propose that there is utility in
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One study by
Williams examined the impact of violent content and frustration with game-play and assessed how these factors are related to aggressive personality (i.e., trait hostility). His study collected data from 150 male college undergraduates. The study consisted of two phases. The first phase
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In 1941, the Yale group clarified their original statement which was "that the occurrence of aggressive behavior always presuppose the existence of frustration and, contrariwise, that the existence of frustration always lead to some form of aggression". As it was, the second part of this hypothesis
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are two of the papers that published articles on the subject. Many social scientists disclaimed the rather strict definition of frustration reactions as well as how the frustration concept is defined in itself. By 1941, the Yale group modified their theory following the multiple critics and studies
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The Yale group's hypothesis does not explain why aggressive behavior could be manifested in different social environments without previous provocation or feeling of frustration. However, according to Gross and Osterman, people may lose their sense of uniqueness in mass societal contexts because it
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bird. The experimental procedure comprised an instruction phase and a folding phase. During the instruction phase, a participant paired with a confederate was shown how to fold a bird only one time. The folding phase was timed and each subject was required to make the bird alone as quickly and as
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The frustration–aggression hypothesis emerged in 1939 through the form of a monograph published by the Yale University Institute of Human Relations. The Yale psychologists behind the monograph were John Dollard, Leonard Doob, Neal Miller, O. H Mowrer, and Robert Sears. The book is based on many
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Another study by Shackman and Pollak tested the impact of physical maltreatment of children on their reactive aggression. The authors tested the relationships between individual differences in social information processing, history of physical maltreatment, and child negative affect and their
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The frustration–aggression hypothesis implies that aggression is followed or triggered by a feeling of frustration as proposed by the Yale group. Yet, other studies support contradictory claims. Certain subjects in some studies have shown to not respond aggressively to frustration given their
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always precedes aggression, and aggression is the sure consequence of frustration. Two years later, however, Miller and Sears re-formulated the hypothesis to suggest that while frustration creates a need to respond, some form of aggression is one possible outcome. Therefore, the re-formulated
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theories assume that "when two or more simultaneously active cognitive structures are logically inconsistent, arousal is increased, which activates processes with the expected consequence of increasing consistency and decreasing arousal." By defining frustration as arising from the perceived
120:, was soon having repercussions on the explanation of aggressive behavior theories. Their theory applied to human beings, but also to animals. The book created controversy on the subject which led to more than seven articles critiquing the new theory. The
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conducted a study investigating whether hostile aggression differs in justified vs. unjustified frustration conditions—compared to the control condition which would not induce frustration. The study task required participants to learn and make an
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and frustration out on his family. This theory is also used to explain riots and revolutions, which both are believed to be caused by poorer and more deprived sections of society who may express their bottled up frustration and anger through violence.
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While some researchers criticized the hypothesis and proposed moderating factors between frustration and aggression, several empirical studies were able to confirm it as is. In 1989, Berkowitz expanded on the hypothesis by suggesting that
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hypothesis stated that while frustration prompts a behavior that may or may not be aggressive, any aggressive behavior is the result of frustration, making frustration not sufficient, but a necessary condition for aggression.
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whereas others with a different temperament could not react to it. However, the theory assumes that if two different people receive the same frustration stimuli, they will react similarly or equally aggressively.
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using the frustration–aggression hypothesis as a theoretical foundation for aggression literature and that this theory may have novel applications for other areas such as media psychology.
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fit the hypothesis in people whose culture portray life as series of neutral or frustrating events that lead to satisfying ends. This would be the case for European culture and for
225:. Indeed, depending on the size of the inconsistency and the specific context, frustration has been suggested to also be one of the causing factors in both fear and curiosity, and
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exemplified this technique that essentially denounces the principles of the frustration–aggression theory in that he restrained himself from feeling these innate desires.
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Siegrist, J; Menrath, I; Stocker, T; Klein, M; Kellermann, T; Shah, N.J; et al. (2005). "Differential brain activation according to social reward frustration".
275:. For example, Seward, who studied rat behavior, suggested that aggression can also be caused by dominance struggles, which for him were different from frustration.
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Cohen, Arthur R. (1955). "Social norms, arbitrariness of frustration, and status of the agent of frustration in the frustration-aggression hypothesis".
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Cohen, Arthur R. (1955). "Social norms, arbitrariness of frustration, and status of the agent of frustration in the frustration-aggression hypothesis".
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Berkowitz, Leonard (1981). "On the difference between internal and external reactions to legitimate and illegitimate frustrations: A demonstration".
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published by other psychologists. From there, many pioneers in the social science world modified and brought their knowledge to the original theory.
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Blanchard, Robert J.; Blanchard, D.Caroline; Takahashi, Toshiaki; Kelley, Michael J. (1977). "Attack and defensive behaviour in the albino rat".
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Leonard, Berkowitz (1974). "Some determinants of impulsive aggression: Role of mediated associations with reinforcements for aggression".
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or an interruption of some internal response sequence, those various reasons for aggression actually fall under the frustration umbrella.
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in 1989. The theory says that aggression is the result of blocking, or frustrating, a person's efforts to attain a goal.
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The frustration–aggression theory has been studied since 1939, and there have been modifications. Dill and
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Dill, Jody C.; Anderson, Craig A. (1995). "Effects of frustration justification on hostile aggression".
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and personal attributions play a major role in whether frustration instigates aggressive behavior.
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at his work, but cannot respond to this for fear of losing his job, he may go home and take his
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Dollard, John; Miller, Neal E.; Doob, Leonard W.; Mowrer, Orval H.; Sears, Robert R. (1939).
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personal, moral and educational backgrounds. For instance, the Indian culture uses the
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Seward, J. P. (1945). "Aggressive behavior in the rat. III. The role of frustration".
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Bateson, Gregory (1941). "IV. The frustration-aggression hypothesis and culture".
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Buss, Arnold (1963). "Physical aggression in relation to different frustrations".
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Snyder, C. R.; Fromkin, Howard L. (1980). "Deindividuation: Loss of Uniqueness".
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studies conducted by the group that touched a variety of disciplines including
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1584:. Perspectives in Social Psychology. Springer, Boston, MA. pp. 177–193.
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229:(1987; p. 205) even concluded that “fear and frustration are the same”.
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10.1002/1098-2337(1995)21:5<359::AID-AB2480210505>3.0.CO;2-6
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10.1002/1098-2337(1981)7:2<83::aid-ab2480070202>3.0.co;2-h
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1551:. Trichur: Sri Narayana Institute of Social and Cultural Development.
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were used by the Yale group throughout their research. Their work,
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453:"Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation"
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gave rise to criticism from several scientists, including animal
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culture. However, it is harder to apply the hypothesis to the
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in 1939, and further developed by Neal Miller in 1941 and
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Jost, John (2017). "Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis".
307:, which means "non-violent resistance" to a trigger.
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478:Friedman, Howard S.; Schustack, Miriam W. (2014).
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58:When first formulated, the hypothesis stated that
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482:(5 ed.). Boston: Pearson. pp. 204–207.
1032:. United States: Wadsworth. pp. 290, 291.
1445:Shackman, Jessica E.; Pollak, Seth D. (2014).
549:The psychology of prejudice and discrimination
66:The hypothesis attempts to explain why people
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551:(2nd ed.). Belmont, CA, USA: Wadsworth.
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350:– measure of aggressive behaviour in humans
299:they are more aggressive towards everyone.
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132:In 1989 Berkowitz published an article,
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418:"The frustration-aggression hypothesis"
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415:Miller, Neal E.; et al. (1941).
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1974:Social determinants of mental health
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1030:Social and Personality Development
192:Reformulation by Leonard Berkowitz
156:In his article published in 1941,
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2021:Frustration–aggression hypothesis
1504:Journal of Comparative Psychology
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21:frustration–aggression hypothesis
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1183:Perspectives in Ethology (Vol.2)
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2201:Fundamental attribution error
1549:Vaikkam satyagraha and Gandhi
1295:10.1016/S0278-5846(00)00150-0
1248:British Journal of Psychology
138:Frustration–Aggression Theory
1847:Elaboration likelihood model
1768:Social dominance orientation
1590:10.1007/978-1-4684-3659-4_10
1338:10.1016/0003-3472(77)90113-0
1165:The Organisation of Behavior
1107:10.1016/j.beproc.2018.12.013
205:Cognitive-consistency theory
126:Reading in Social Psychology
2054:Negative-state relief model
1964:Diffusion of responsibility
1830:Asch conformity experiments
1649:Interpersonal relationships
1141:Berkowitz, Leonard (1962).
451:Berkowitz, Leonard (1989).
2248:
2179:Observer-expectancy effect
1813:Door-in-the-face technique
1808:Foot-in-the-door technique
1791:Stanford prison experiment
766:10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59
465:10.1037/0033-2909.106.1.59
381:Frustration and Aggression
348:Taylor Aggression Paradigm
265:Frustration and Aggression
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1682:Triangular theory of love
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2189:Representative heuristic
1969:Social comparison theory
1260:10.1348/000712609X418480
529:Hostility and Aggression
253:event-related potentials
2164:Counterfactual thinking
1677:Physical attractiveness
800:Encyclopedia Britannica
527:Zillmann, Dolf (1979).
343:Robert Richardson Sears
233:Neurobiological factors
215:inconsistency reduction
2232:Psychological theories
2194:Availability heuristic
2139:Choice-supportive bias
1959:False-consensus effect
1919:Social identity theory
1753:Minimal group paradigm
1167:. New York, NY: Wiley.
754:Psychological Bulletin
457:Psychological Bulletin
1854:Pluralistic ignorance
1536:. New York: Columbia.
1095:Behavioural Processes
271:, psychologists, and
210:Cognitive-consistency
112:, psychoanalysis and
2134:Cognitive dissonance
1736:Outgroup homogeneity
1667:Mere-exposure effect
1213:Psychological Review
903:Psychological Review
873:Psychological Review
499:Psychological Review
423:Psychological Review
333:Cognitive dissonance
174:Justification factor
122:Psychological Review
23:, also known as the
16:Theory of aggression
2099:Cultural relativism
2049:Reciprocal altruism
1954:In-group favoritism
1924:Social facilitation
1457:(4pt1): 1021–1033.
1196:Gray, J.A. (1987).
1163:Hebb, D.O. (1949).
1055:Aggressive Behavior
1002:Aggressive Behavior
576:"Cause of Violence"
263:The publication of
2071:Prisoner's dilemma
2044:Prosocial behavior
1944:Group polarization
1864:Milgram experiment
1825:Autokinetic effect
1566:. Brooks/Cole Pub.
459:. pp. 59–73.
2214:
2213:
2206:Self-serving bias
2174:Confirmation bias
2159:Explanatory style
1939:Group development
1741:Stereotype threat
1657:Attachment theory
1641:Social psychology
1375:(17): 1899–1903.
1039:978-0-495-60038-1
391:10.1037/10022-000
242:Empirical studies
217:, also involving
53:Leonard Berkowitz
27:, is a theory of
2239:
2129:Spotlight effect
2059:Empathy-altruism
2039:Bystander effect
1984:Frog pond effect
1979:Self-enhancement
1876:Self-concealment
1778:Social influence
1711:
1634:
1627:
1620:
1611:
1604:
1603:
1577:
1568:
1567:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1544:
1538:
1537:
1529:
1523:
1519:
1516:10.1037/h0054548
1499:
1493:
1492:
1482:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1407:
1401:
1400:
1364:
1358:
1357:
1326:Animal Behaviour
1321:
1315:
1314:
1278:
1272:
1271:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1225:10.1037/h0036094
1208:
1202:
1201:
1193:
1187:
1186:
1178:
1169:
1168:
1160:
1151:
1150:
1148:
1138:
1127:
1126:
1090:
1079:
1078:
1050:
1044:
1043:
1025:
1019:
1017:
997:
988:
987:
984:10.1037/h0059513
967:
961:
960:
949:10.1037/h0039947
932:
919:
918:
915:10.1037/h0055948
898:
889:
888:
885:10.1037/h0055861
868:
859:
858:
828:
819:
818:
810:
804:
803:
795:
789:
785:
749:
738:
734:
723:10.1037/h0044667
706:
700:
696:
685:10.1037/h0040505
668:
662:
658:
647:10.1037/h0039947
630:
621:
617:
606:10.1037/h0060884
589:
580:
579:
572:
563:
562:
544:
533:
532:
524:
518:
514:
511:10.1037/h0059717
490:
484:
483:
475:
469:
468:
448:
442:
438:
435:10.1037/h0055861
420:
412:
403:
402:
384:
374:
2247:
2246:
2242:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2237:
2236:
2217:
2216:
2215:
2210:
2145:
2115:
2075:
2025:
2009:Deindividuation
1990:
1934:Social cohesion
1900:
1772:
1712:
1703:
1689:Parenting style
1662:Falling in love
1643:
1638:
1608:
1607:
1600:
1579:
1578:
1571:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1546:
1545:
1541:
1531:
1530:
1526:
1501:
1500:
1496:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1409:
1408:
1404:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1323:
1322:
1318:
1280:
1279:
1275:
1245:
1244:
1240:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1195:
1194:
1190:
1180:
1179:
1172:
1162:
1161:
1154:
1140:
1139:
1130:
1092:
1091:
1082:
1052:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1027:
1026:
1022:
999:
998:
991:
969:
968:
964:
934:
933:
922:
900:
899:
892:
870:
869:
862:
855:
830:
829:
822:
812:
811:
807:
797:
796:
792:
751:
750:
741:
708:
707:
703:
670:
669:
665:
632:
631:
624:
591:
590:
583:
574:
573:
566:
559:
546:
545:
536:
526:
525:
521:
492:
491:
487:
477:
476:
472:
450:
449:
445:
414:
413:
406:
376:
375:
362:
357:
329:
321:deindividuation
261:
244:
235:
207:
194:
176:
158:Gregory Bateson
150:
93:
85:negative affect
17:
12:
11:
5:
2245:
2243:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2219:
2218:
2212:
2211:
2209:
2208:
2203:
2198:
2197:
2196:
2191:
2181:
2176:
2171:
2169:Framing effect
2166:
2161:
2155:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2142:
2141:
2131:
2125:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2102:
2101:
2096:
2085:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2073:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2061:
2056:
2051:
2041:
2035:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2024:
2023:
2018:
2017:
2016:
2006:
2000:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1987:
1986:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1951:
1946:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1929:Social loafing
1926:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1908:
1906:Group dynamics
1902:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1883:
1881:Social anxiety
1878:
1873:
1868:
1867:
1866:
1856:
1851:
1850:
1849:
1839:
1834:
1833:
1832:
1827:
1817:
1816:
1815:
1810:
1800:
1799:
1798:
1793:
1782:
1780:
1774:
1773:
1771:
1770:
1765:
1763:Discrimination
1760:
1755:
1750:
1749:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1728:
1722:
1720:
1714:
1713:
1706:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1674:
1669:
1659:
1653:
1651:
1645:
1644:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1629:
1622:
1614:
1606:
1605:
1598:
1569:
1554:
1539:
1524:
1510:(4): 225–238.
1494:
1437:
1418:(3): 291–310.
1402:
1359:
1332:(3): 622–634.
1316:
1273:
1254:(3): 383–399.
1238:
1219:(2): 165–176.
1203:
1188:
1170:
1152:
1128:
1080:
1045:
1038:
1020:
1008:(5): 359–369.
989:
978:(3): 293–313.
962:
943:(2): 222–226.
920:
909:(4): 350–355.
890:
879:(4): 337–342.
860:
853:
820:
805:
790:
739:
717:(1): 183–187.
701:
663:
641:(2): 222–226.
622:
600:(3): 728–731.
581:
564:
558:978-0495811282
557:
534:
519:
505:(4): 343–346.
485:
470:
443:
429:(4): 337–342.
404:
359:
358:
356:
353:
352:
351:
345:
340:
335:
328:
325:
309:Mahatma Gandhi
260:
257:
243:
240:
234:
231:
206:
203:
193:
190:
175:
172:
149:
146:
92:
89:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2244:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2224:
2222:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2186:
2185:
2182:
2180:
2177:
2175:
2172:
2170:
2167:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2154:
2152:
2148:
2140:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2132:
2130:
2127:
2126:
2124:
2122:
2118:
2112:
2109:
2107:
2106:Individualism
2104:
2100:
2097:
2095:
2094:Culture shock
2092:
2091:
2090:
2089:Enculturation
2087:
2086:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2072:
2069:
2067:
2064:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2050:
2047:
2046:
2045:
2042:
2040:
2037:
2036:
2034:
2032:
2028:
2022:
2019:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1993:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1955:
1952:
1950:
1947:
1945:
1942:
1940:
1937:
1935:
1932:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1915:
1914:Belongingness
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1896:Social stress
1894:
1892:
1889:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1865:
1862:
1861:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1848:
1845:
1844:
1843:
1840:
1838:
1835:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1821:
1818:
1814:
1811:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1797:
1794:
1792:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1781:
1779:
1775:
1769:
1766:
1764:
1761:
1759:
1756:
1754:
1751:
1747:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1733:
1732:
1729:
1727:
1724:
1723:
1721:
1719:
1715:
1710:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1664:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1652:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1635:
1630:
1628:
1623:
1621:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1601:
1599:9781468436617
1595:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1574:
1570:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1543:
1540:
1535:
1528:
1525:
1522:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1498:
1495:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1476:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1370:
1363:
1360:
1355:
1351:
1347:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1317:
1312:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1289:(1): 91–140.
1288:
1284:
1277:
1274:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1242:
1239:
1234:
1230:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1204:
1199:
1192:
1189:
1184:
1177:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1159:
1157:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1116:
1112:
1108:
1104:
1100:
1096:
1089:
1087:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1046:
1041:
1035:
1031:
1024:
1021:
1015:
1011:
1007:
1003:
996:
994:
990:
985:
981:
977:
973:
966:
963:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
931:
929:
927:
925:
921:
916:
912:
908:
904:
897:
895:
891:
886:
882:
878:
874:
867:
865:
861:
856:
854:9781119057550
850:
846:
842:
838:
834:
827:
825:
821:
816:
809:
806:
801:
794:
791:
788:
783:
779:
775:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
748:
746:
744:
740:
737:
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
705:
702:
699:
694:
690:
686:
682:
678:
674:
667:
664:
661:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
636:
629:
627:
623:
620:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
595:
588:
586:
582:
578:. 2012-05-21.
577:
571:
569:
565:
560:
554:
550:
543:
541:
539:
535:
530:
523:
520:
517:
512:
508:
504:
500:
496:
489:
486:
481:
474:
471:
466:
462:
458:
454:
447:
444:
441:
436:
432:
428:
424:
419:
411:
409:
405:
400:
396:
392:
388:
383:
382:
373:
371:
369:
367:
365:
361:
354:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
330:
326:
324:
322:
316:
312:
310:
306:
300:
296:
292:
288:
286:
282:
278:
274:
273:psychiatrists
270:
266:
258:
256:
254:
248:
241:
239:
232:
230:
228:
224:
220:
216:
211:
204:
202:
198:
191:
189:
186:
181:
173:
171:
168:
164:
159:
154:
147:
145:
142:
139:
135:
130:
127:
123:
119:
115:
111:
107:
103:
99:
90:
88:
86:
80:
77:
73:
69:
64:
61:
56:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
34:
30:
26:
22:
2121:Self-concept
2111:Collectivism
2020:
1891:Social proof
1581:
1563:
1557:
1548:
1542:
1533:
1527:
1507:
1503:
1497:
1454:
1450:
1440:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1372:
1368:
1362:
1329:
1325:
1319:
1286:
1282:
1276:
1251:
1247:
1241:
1216:
1212:
1206:
1197:
1191:
1182:
1164:
1144:
1098:
1094:
1061:(2): 83–96.
1058:
1054:
1048:
1029:
1023:
1005:
1001:
975:
971:
965:
940:
936:
906:
902:
876:
872:
836:
814:
808:
799:
793:
760:(1): 59–73.
757:
753:
714:
710:
704:
676:
672:
666:
638:
634:
597:
593:
548:
528:
522:
502:
498:
488:
479:
473:
456:
446:
426:
422:
380:
338:Going postal
317:
313:
301:
297:
293:
289:
269:behaviorists
264:
262:
249:
245:
236:
208:
199:
195:
177:
155:
151:
140:
137:
133:
131:
125:
121:
117:
102:anthropology
94:
81:
65:
57:
49:Robert Sears
45:Orval Mowrer
41:Leonard Doob
33:John Dollard
31:proposed by
24:
20:
18:
2151:Attribution
2066:Cooperation
1871:Reciprocity
1369:NeuroReport
114:behaviorism
60:frustration
37:Neal Miller
2227:Aggression
2221:Categories
1996:Aggression
1949:Groupthink
1842:Persuasion
1820:Conformity
1803:Compliance
1731:Stereotype
1672:Similarity
1582:Uniqueness
679:(1): 1–7.
355:References
305:Satyagraha
98:psychology
72:humiliated
29:aggression
2184:Heuristic
2014:Anonymity
1859:Obedience
1786:Authority
1726:Prejudice
1471:0954-5794
1432:145426017
1101:: 42–54.
1075:1098-2337
259:Criticism
223:curiosity
106:sociology
68:scapegoat
2031:Altruism
2004:Violence
1718:Conflict
1699:Adoption
1489:24914736
1397:46427838
1389:16272875
1354:38208898
1311:24497860
1303:11263761
1268:19321035
1123:56478466
1115:30562561
957:13263033
782:14314447
731:14459520
693:14017319
655:13263033
614:12980780
327:See also
180:Anderson
167:Balinese
124:and the
2081:Culture
1837:Passing
1796:Honesty
1694:Divorce
1480:4608022
1233:4594043
774:2667009
185:origami
110:Marxism
91:History
1596:
1487:
1477:
1469:
1430:
1395:
1387:
1352:
1346:562631
1344:
1309:
1301:
1266:
1231:
1121:
1113:
1073:
1036:
955:
851:
780:
772:
729:
691:
653:
612:
555:
399:256003
397:
281:Bowlby
277:Durbin
163:Iatmul
47:, and
1428:S2CID
1393:S2CID
1350:S2CID
1307:S2CID
1119:S2CID
817:: 11.
778:S2CID
285:drive
76:anger
1594:ISBN
1485:PMID
1467:ISSN
1385:PMID
1342:PMID
1299:PMID
1264:PMID
1229:PMID
1111:PMID
1071:ISSN
1034:ISBN
953:PMID
849:ISBN
770:PMID
727:PMID
689:PMID
651:PMID
610:PMID
553:ISBN
395:OCLC
279:and
227:Gray
221:and
219:fear
104:and
19:The
1586:doi
1521:APA
1512:doi
1475:PMC
1459:doi
1420:doi
1377:doi
1334:doi
1291:doi
1256:doi
1252:101
1221:doi
1103:doi
1099:159
1063:doi
1010:doi
980:doi
945:doi
911:doi
881:doi
841:doi
787:APA
762:doi
758:106
736:APA
719:doi
698:APA
681:doi
660:APA
643:doi
619:APA
602:doi
516:APA
507:doi
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