183:
31:
173:
More recently, it has been demonstrated that the most important factor contributing to the thermal stability of double-stranded nucleic acids is actually due to the base stackings of adjacent bases rather than the number of hydrogen bonds between the bases. There is more favorable stacking energy for
133:
DNA with low GC-content is less stable than DNA with high GC-content; however, the hydrogen bonds themselves do not have a particularly significant impact on molecular stability, which is instead caused mainly by molecular interactions of base stacking. In spite of the higher
174:
GC pairs than for AT or AU pairs because of the relative positions of exocyclic groups. Additionally, there is a correlation between the order in which the bases stack and the thermal stability of the molecule as a whole.
129:
is held together by three hydrogen bonds, while AT and AU base pairs are held together by two hydrogen bonds. To emphasize this difference, the base pairings are often represented as "G≡C" versus "A=T" or "A=U".
441:
Within a long region of genomic sequence, genes are often characterised by having a higher GC-content in contrast to the background GC-content for the entire genome. There is evidence that the length of the
421:
The GC-ratio within a genome is found to be markedly variable. These variations in GC-ratio within the genomes of more complex organisms result in a mosaic-like formation with islet regions called
300:
581:
genomes are known to have many such parts, causing the problem of "missing genes" expected to be present from evolution and phenotype but never sequenced — until improved methods were used.
611:
A3(2), GC-content is 72%. With the use of more reliable, modern methods of molecular systematics, the GC-content definition of
Actinomycetota has been abolished and low-GC bacteria of this
393:
increases fairly sharply when the double-stranded DNA molecule separates into two single strands when sufficiently heated. The most commonly used protocol for determining GC-ratios uses
363:
1767:
944:
508:, it is virtually impossible for an organism to have a genome with a GC-content approaching either 0% or 100%. However, a species with an extremely low GC-content is
1948:
1942:
154:
to high temperatures, but this hypothesis was refuted in 2001. Even so, it has been shown that there is a strong correlation between the optimal growth of
429:. GC-rich isochores typically include many protein-coding genes within them, and thus determination of GC-ratios of these specific regions contributes to
811:
Galtier, N.; Lobry, J.R. (1997). "Relationships between genomic G+C content, RNA secondary structures, and optimal growth temperature in
Prokaryotes".
170:. The AU base pairs are less stable than the GC base pairs, making high-GC-content RNA structures more resistant to the effects of high temperatures.
1332:
Wuitschick JD, Karrer KM (1999). "Analysis of genomic G + C content, codon usage, initiator codon context and translation termination sites in
1778:
1577:
1562:
1547:
928:
404:, then GC-content can be accurately calculated by simple arithmetic or by using a variety of publicly available software tools, such as the
533:) have independently undergone a marked increase in the GC-content of their genes. These GC-content changes are correlated with species
1976:
1794:
Ghai R, McMahon KD, Rodriguez-Valera F (2012). "Breaking a paradigm: Cosmopolitan and abundant freshwater actinobacteria are low GC".
473:
GC content is found to be variable with different organisms, the process of which is envisaged to be contributed to by variation in
125:
with each other, whereas adenine (A) bonds specifically with thymine (T) in DNA and with uracil (U) in RNA. Quantitatively, each GC
369:
The GC-content percentages as well as GC-ratio can be measured by several means, but one of the simplest methods is to measure the
474:
484:
The average GC-content in human genomes ranges from 35% to 60% across 100-Kb fragments, with a mean of 41%. The GC-content of
948:
1384:"Contrasting GC-content dynamics across 33 mammalian genomes: Relationship with life-history traits and chromosome sizes"
227:
1441:"Integrating genomics, bioinformatics, and classical genetics to study the effects of recombination on genome evolution"
1136:
Sumner AT, de la Torre J, Stuppia L (August 1993). "The distribution of genes on chromosomes: a cytological approach".
764:"High guanine-cytosine content is not an adaptation to high temperature: a comparative analysis amongst prokaryotes"
1971:
563:
110:
567:
559:
490:
182:
78:(C). This measure indicates the proportion of G and C bases out of an implied four total bases, also including
607:
1440:
1096:
1452:
311:
1187:
Aïssani B, Bernardi G (October 1991). "CpG islands, genes and isochores in the genomes of vertebrates".
510:
150:. Because of the thermostability of GC pairs, it was once presumed that high GC-content was a necessary
1641:
Duret L, Galtier N (2009). "Biased gene conversion and the evolution of mammalian genomic landscapes".
597:
of 1987 has recommended use of GC-ratios in higher-level hierarchical classification. For example, the
514:(GC% = ~20%), and it is usually common to refer to such examples as being AT-rich instead of GC-poor.
1803:
1501:
1286:
1145:
820:
654:
500:
138:
conferred to a nucleic acid with high GC-content, it has been observed that at least some species of
1457:
454:
has a bias towards A and T nucleotides, and, thus, the shorter the sequence the higher the AT bias.
623:
GCSpeciesSorter and TopSort are software tools for classifying species based on their GC-contents.
574:
422:
143:
570:
to the template DNA. A higher GC-content level indicates a relatively higher melting temperature.
1666:
1382:
Romiguier, Jonathan; Ranwez, Vincent; Douzery, Emmanuel J. P.; Galtier, Nicolas (1 August 2010).
1361:
1169:
844:
741:
1917:
1868:
1819:
1717:
1686:"Sequencing refractory regions in bird genomes are hotspots for accelerated protein evolution"
1658:
1623:
1529:
1470:
1421:
1403:
1353:
1314:
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1204:
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1118:
1077:
1042:
1001:
924:
901:
883:
836:
793:
733:
698:
378:
59:
43:
864:"Base-stacking and base-pairing contributions into thermal stability of the DNA double helix"
669:"Base-stacking and base-pairing contributions into thermal stability of the DNA double helix"
1907:
1899:
1858:
1850:
1811:
1748:
1707:
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1304:
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1245:
1235:
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1153:
1108:
1069:
1032:
991:
983:
891:
875:
828:
783:
775:
725:
716:
Levin RE, Van Sickle C (1976). "Autolysis of high-GC isolates of
Pseudomonas putrefaciens".
688:
680:
632:
534:
405:
122:
593:
in non-eukaryotic taxonomy has led to various suggestions in classifying bacteria, and the
450:
is directly proportional to higher G+C content. This has been pointed to the fact that the
400:
In an alternative manner, if the DNA or RNA molecule under investigation has been reliably
1466:
590:
542:
135:
106:
1888:"Extensive differences in gene expression between symbiotic and aposymbiotic cnidarians"
1807:
1737:"Report of the ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematic"
1654:
1505:
1290:
1149:
824:
213:
GC-content is usually expressed as a percentage value, but sometimes as a ratio (called
1912:
1887:
1863:
1838:
1712:
1685:
1416:
1383:
1349:
1309:
1274:
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863:
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763:
693:
668:
598:
495:
394:
167:
102:
1073:
996:
971:
1960:
1815:
1275:"Both selective and neutral processes drive GC content evolution in the human genome"
1200:
1060:
Bernardi G (January 2000). "Isochores and the evolutionary genomics of vertebrates".
443:
159:
35:
1618:
1365:
1173:
848:
650:
1966:
1937:
1670:
745:
505:
430:
374:
199:
191:
163:
538:
458:
426:
370:
1702:
1594:
1753:
1736:
862:
Yakovchuk, Peter; Protozanova, Ekaterina; Frank-Kamenetskii, Maxim D. (2006).
478:
451:
386:
382:
155:
151:
97:. When it refers to a fragment, it may denote the GC-content of an individual
93:
GC-content may be given for a certain fragment of DNA or RNA or for an entire
1854:
1407:
1240:
887:
602:
401:
390:
206:
195:
187:
126:
1921:
1872:
1823:
1721:
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1533:
1474:
1425:
1357:
1318:
1299:
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1122:
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1037:
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1005:
905:
797:
779:
702:
1903:
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1399:
1208:
1165:
1046:
840:
1886:
Lehnert E, Mouchka M, Burriesci M, Gallo N, Schwarz J, Pringle J (2014).
1524:
1113:
1097:"Integration of the cytogenetic map with the draft human genome sequence"
987:
879:
684:
595:
ad hoc committee on reconciliation of approaches to bacterial systematics
522:
139:
75:
47:
1839:"Distinguishing Species Using GC Contents in Mixed DNA or RNA Sequences"
1157:
832:
737:
729:
83:
79:
71:
1021:"Measurement by flow cytometry of genomic AT/GC ratio and genome size"
541:, and might be linked to a molecular phenomenon called the GC-biased
202:), wherein GC rich regions are lighter and GC poor regions are darker.
1514:
1489:
1224:"Analytical Biases Associated with GC-Content in Molecular Evolution"
562:(PCR) experiments, the GC-content of short oligonucleotides known as
530:
526:
158:
at higher temperatures and the GC-content of structural RNAs such as
94:
87:
101:
or section of a gene (domain), a group of genes or gene clusters, a
17:
1488:
International Human Genome
Sequencing Consortium (February 2001).
612:
518:
485:
462:
181:
578:
447:
98:
30:
1943:
Taxonomic browser of bacteria based on GC ratio on NCBI website
972:"Real-time PCR-based method for the estimation of genome sizes"
461:
genes in mammals showed marked within-genome variations of the
121:
Qualitatively, guanine (G) and cytosine (C) undergo a specific
1595:"Compositional constraints in the extremely GC-poor genome of
465:
GC content, with a range from less than 30% to more than 80%.
67:
63:
34:
Nucleotide bonds showing AT and GC pairs. Arrows point to the
945:"Definition of GC-ratio on Northwestern University, IL, USA"
1593:
Musto H, Cacciò S, Rodríguez-Maseda H, Bernardi G (1997).
425:. This results in the variations in staining intensity in
27:
Percentage of guanine and cytosine in DNA or RNA molecules
667:
Yakovchuk P, Protozanova E, Frank-Kamenetskii MD (2006).
146:
more readily, thereby reducing the longevity of the cell
1273:
Pozzoli U, Menozzi G, Fumagalli M, et al. (2008).
477:, mutational bias, and biased recombination-associated
336:
318:
252:
234:
339:
321:
255:
237:
1490:"Initial sequencing and analysis of the human genome"
314:
230:
1684:
Huttener R, Thorrez L, Veld TI, et al. (2021).
295:{\displaystyle {\cfrac {G+C}{A+T+G+C}}\times 100\%}
1938:Table with GC-content of all sequenced prokaryotes
577:, have trouble reading high-GC-content sequences.
357:
294:
1741:International Journal of Systematic Bacteriology
1377:
1375:
1837:Karimi K, Wuitchik D, Oldach M, Vize P (2018).
8:
757:
755:
305:whereas the AT/GC ratio is calculated as
221:). GC-content percentage is calculated as
1911:
1862:
1752:
1711:
1701:
1617:
1523:
1513:
1456:
1415:
1308:
1298:
1249:
1239:
1112:
1036:
995:
970:Wilhelm J, Pingoud A, Hahn M (May 2003).
895:
787:
692:
340:
322:
315:
313:
256:
238:
231:
229:
923:(10th ed.). Pearson-Prentice Hall.
504:), is 36%. Because of the nature of the
29:
643:
190:of a human, showing an overview of the
601:are characterised as "high GC-content
573:Many sequencing technologies, such as
1849:(January 1, 2018): 1176934318788866.
1467:10.1093/oxfordjournals.molbev.a004176
919:Madigan,MT. and Martinko JM. (2003).
494:) is 38%, and that of another common
7:
762:Hurst LD, Merchant AR (March 2001).
142:with DNA of high GC-content undergo
1655:10.1146/annurev-genom-082908-150001
537:(e.g., body mass or longevity) and
358:{\displaystyle {\cfrac {A+T}{G+C}}}
1796:Environmental Microbiology Reports
1350:10.1111/j.1550-7408.1999.tb05120.x
289:
25:
1095:Furey TS, Haussler D (May 2003).
517:Several mammalian species (e.g.,
433:gene-rich regions of the genome.
1816:10.1111/j.1758-2229.2011.00274.x
1619:10.1590/S0074-02761997000600020
921:Brock biology of microorganisms
566:is often used to predict their
1735:Wayne LG; et al. (1987).
813:Journal of Molecular Evolution
457:Comparison of more than 1,000
397:for large numbers of samples.
1:
1074:10.1016/S0378-1119(99)00485-0
1222:Romiguier J, Roux C (2017).
1201:10.1016/0378-1119(91)90198-K
1949:GC ratio in diverse species
1439:Birdsell JA (1 July 2002).
1993:
1703:10.1186/s12862-021-01905-7
1019:Vinogradov AE (May 1994).
653:– content on CancerWeb of
204:
1977:Biological classification
1754:10.1099/00207713-37-4-463
560:polymerase chain reaction
406:free online GC calculator
70:molecule that are either
1855:10.1177/1176934318788866
1768:Taxonomy browser on NCBI
1643:Annu Rev Genom Hum Genet
1550:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
1241:10.3389/fgene.2017.00016
491:Saccharomyces cerevisiae
56:guanine-cytosine content
1781:Streptomyces coelicolor
1606:Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz
1334:Tetrahymena thermophila
718:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
608:Streptomyces coelicolor
417:Within-genome variation
86:in DNA and adenine and
58:) is the percentage of
1338:J. Eukaryot. Microbiol
1300:10.1186/1471-2148-8-99
1038:10.1002/cyto.990160106
868:Nucleic Acids Research
780:10.1098/rspb.2000.1397
469:Among-genome variation
359:
296:
210:
39:
1904:10.1534/g3.113.009084
1843:Evol Bioinform Online
1779:Whole genome data of
1597:Plasmodium falciparum
1580:Plasmodium falciparum
1578:Whole genome data of
1563:Whole genome data of
1548:Whole genome data of
1400:10.1101/gr.104372.109
568:annealing temperature
511:Plasmodium falciparum
360:
297:
205:Further information:
185:
33:
1565:Arabidopsis thaliana
655:Newcastle University
501:Arabidopsis thaliana
463:third-codon position
312:
228:
1808:2012EnvMR...4...29G
1506:2001Natur.409..860L
1291:2008BMCEE...8...99P
1150:1993JMolE..37..117S
825:1997JMolE..44..632G
575:Illumina sequencing
535:life-history traits
371:melting temperature
338:
320:
254:
236:
1158:10.1007/BF02407346
1114:10.1093/hmg/ddg113
988:10.1093/nar/gng056
880:10.1093/nar/gkj454
833:10.1007/PL00006186
730:10.1007/BF00399459
685:10.1093/nar/gkj454
355:
351:
333:
292:
279:
249:
211:
40:
1972:Molecular biology
1500:(6822): 860–921.
976:Nucleic Acids Res
930:978-84-205-3679-8
673:Nucleic Acids Res
615:have been found.
554:Molecular biology
379:spectrophotometry
353:
337:
319:
281:
253:
235:
166:, and many other
105:, or a synthetic
103:non-coding region
60:nitrogenous bases
44:molecular biology
16:(Redirected from
1984:
1926:
1925:
1915:
1883:
1877:
1876:
1866:
1834:
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1827:
1791:
1785:
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1603:
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1584:
1575:
1569:
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1537:
1527:
1517:
1515:10.1038/35057062
1485:
1479:
1478:
1460:
1436:
1430:
1429:
1419:
1394:(8): 1001–1009.
1379:
1370:
1369:
1329:
1323:
1322:
1312:
1302:
1270:
1264:
1263:
1253:
1243:
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1116:
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1057:
1051:
1050:
1040:
1016:
1010:
1009:
999:
967:
961:
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958:
956:
947:. Archived from
941:
935:
934:
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909:
899:
859:
853:
852:
808:
802:
801:
791:
759:
750:
749:
713:
707:
706:
696:
664:
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651:Definition of GC
648:
633:Codon usage bias
437:Coding sequences
364:
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350:
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198:(which includes
123:hydrogen bonding
21:
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1458:10.1.1.337.1535
1445:Mol. Biol. Evol
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1437:
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1388:Genome Research
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1101:Hum. Mol. Genet
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969:
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951:on 20 June 2010
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860:
856:
810:
809:
805:
774:(1466): 493–7.
768:Proc. Biol. Sci
761:
760:
753:
724:(1–2): 145–55.
715:
714:
710:
666:
665:
661:
649:
645:
641:
629:
621:
591:species problem
587:
556:
551:
543:gene conversion
498:, thale cress (
471:
439:
419:
414:
412:Genomic content
335:
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310:
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251:
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226:
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200:Giemsa-staining
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168:non-coding RNAs
136:thermostability
119:
107:oligonucleotide
28:
23:
22:
15:
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11:
5:
1990:
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1932:External links
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1451:(7): 1181–97.
1431:
1371:
1324:
1279:BMC Evol. Biol
1265:
1214:
1179:
1128:
1107:(9): 1037–44.
1087:
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936:
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874:(2): 564–574.
854:
819:(6): 632–636.
803:
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619:Software tools
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36:hydrogen bonds
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1783:A3(2) on NCBI
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1612:(6): 835–41.
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1344:(3): 239–47.
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1195:(2): 185–95.
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1167:
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1147:
1144:(2): 117–22.
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1120:
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679:(2): 564–74.
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444:coding region
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178:Determination
177:
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160:ribosomal RNA
157:
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1138:J. Mol. Evol
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1028:
1024:
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953:. Retrieved
949:the original
939:
920:
914:
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506:genetic code
499:
489:
483:
472:
456:
440:
420:
399:
385:of DNA at a
375:double helix
368:
304:
218:
214:
212:
192:human genome
172:
164:transfer RNA
147:
132:
120:
92:
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41:
1649:: 285–311.
1228:Front Genet
1068:(1): 3–17.
982:(10): e56.
585:Systematics
539:genome size
459:orthologous
427:chromosomes
373:of the DNA
156:prokaryotes
1961:Categories
1538:(page 876)
639:References
479:DNA repair
452:stop codon
387:wavelength
383:absorbance
186:Schematic
152:adaptation
109:such as a
52:GC-content
1453:CiteSeerX
1408:1088-9051
1285:(1): 99.
1025:Cytometry
888:0305-1048
475:selection
423:isochores
402:sequenced
290:%
284:×
215:G+C ratio
207:Karyotype
196:G banding
188:karyogram
144:autolysis
127:base pair
117:Structure
1922:24368779
1873:30038485
1824:23757226
1722:34537008
1663:19630562
1534:11237011
1475:12082137
1426:20530252
1366:28836138
1358:10377985
1319:18371205
1260:28261263
1174:24677431
1123:12700172
1082:10607893
1006:12736322
906:16449200
849:19054315
798:11296861
703:16449200
627:See also
603:bacteria
523:microbat
219:GC-ratio
140:bacteria
90:in RNA.
76:cytosine
48:genetics
1913:3931562
1864:6052495
1804:Bibcode
1713:8449477
1671:9126286
1628:9566216
1582:on NCBI
1567:on NCBI
1552:on NCBI
1502:Bibcode
1417:2909565
1310:2292697
1287:Bibcode
1251:5309256
1209:1937049
1166:8411200
1146:Bibcode
1047:7518377
955:11 June
897:1360284
841:9169555
821:Bibcode
789:1088632
746:9960732
694:1360284
564:primers
431:mapping
389:of 260
84:thymine
80:adenine
74:(G) or
72:guanine
1920:
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1871:
1861:
1822:
1720:
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1494:Nature
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605:". In
531:rabbit
527:tenrec
381:. The
377:using
148:per se
111:primer
95:genome
88:uracil
1667:S2CID
1602:(PDF)
1362:S2CID
1170:S2CID
845:S2CID
742:S2CID
613:clade
519:shrew
486:Yeast
446:of a
62:in a
1918:PMID
1869:PMID
1820:PMID
1718:PMID
1659:PMID
1624:PMID
1530:PMID
1471:PMID
1422:PMID
1404:ISSN
1354:PMID
1315:PMID
1256:PMID
1205:PMID
1189:Gene
1162:PMID
1119:PMID
1078:PMID
1062:Gene
1043:PMID
1002:PMID
957:2007
925:ISBN
902:PMID
884:ISSN
837:PMID
794:PMID
738:7999
734:PMID
699:PMID
589:The
579:Bird
448:gene
99:gene
82:and
54:(or
46:and
1967:DNA
1908:PMC
1900:doi
1859:PMC
1851:doi
1812:doi
1749:doi
1708:PMC
1698:doi
1651:doi
1614:doi
1520:hdl
1510:doi
1498:409
1463:doi
1412:PMC
1396:doi
1346:doi
1336:".
1305:PMC
1295:doi
1246:PMC
1236:doi
1197:doi
1193:106
1154:doi
1109:doi
1070:doi
1066:241
1033:doi
992:PMC
984:doi
892:PMC
876:doi
829:doi
784:PMC
776:doi
772:268
726:doi
689:PMC
681:doi
657:,UK
558:In
287:100
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194:on
68:RNA
66:or
64:DNA
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