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maternally inherited. Research done on plants has shown that hermaphroditic plants are in constant battles against organelle genes trying to kill their male parts. In over 140 plant species, these “male killer” genes have been observed. Male sterility genes cause plants to grow anthers that are stunted or withered and as a result, do not produce pollen. In most plants, there are nuclear fertility restoring genes that counteract the work of the male sterility genes, maintaining the hermaphroditic state of the plant. However, in some species of plants, the male sterility genes win the battle over the nuclear fertility restoring genes, and gynodioecy occurs.
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182:. Research has shown that a species can be either gynodioecious or self-incompatible, but very rarely is there a co-occurrence between the two. Therefore, gynodioecy and self-incompatibility tend to prevent each other's maintenance. Self-incompatibility of plants helps maintain androdioecy in plants, since males are in competition with only hermaphrodites to fertilize ovules. Self-incompatibility leads to a loss in gynodioecy, since neither hermaphrodites nor females have to deal with
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farmers take advantage of gynodioecy to produce favorable hybrid maize seeds. The farmers deliberately make use of the gynodioecy that develops in the maize, resulting in a population of male-sterile and female-fertile individuals. They then introduce a new strain of male-sterile individuals and the
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Two scenarios have been proposed to explain the evolutionary dynamics of the maintenance of gynodioecy. The first scenario, known as the balancing selection theory, considers the genetic factors that control gynodioecy over long evolutionary time scales. The balancing selection leads to cycles that
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Gynodioecy occurs as a result of a genetic mutation that inhibits a hermaphroditic plant from producing pollen, while keeping the female reproductive parts intact. Gynodioecy is extremely rare, with fewer than 1% of angiosperm species exhibiting the breeding system. Some notable taxa that exhibit a
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Theoretically, hermaphrodites should have the evolutionary and reproductive advantage over females in a population because they naturally can produce more offspring. Hermaphrodites can transmit their genes through both pollen and ovules, whereas females can only transmit genes via ovules. Thus, in
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explain the normal sex ratios in gynodioecious populations. The second scenario, known as epidemic dynamics, involves the arrival and loss of new cytoplasmic male sterility genes in new populations. These are the same genes that invade hermaphrodite populations and eventually result in gynodioecy.
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Sakai AK, Weller SG, Chen ML, Chou SY, Tasanont C. Evolution of gynodioecy and maintenance of females: The role of inbreeding depression, outcrossing rates, and resource allocation in
Schiedea adamantis (Caryophyllaceae). Evolution. 1997 Jun;51(3):724-736. doi: 10.1111/j.1558-5646.1997.tb03656.x.
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It would appear that gynodioecy should not persist. In order for it to be maintained, the females need to have some sort of a reproductive advantage over the hermaphroditic population, known as female compensation or female advantage. Female advantage includes an increase in saved energy from not
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Cytoplasmic male sterility genes, usually found in the mitochondrial genome, show up and are established when female fertility is just slightly more than the hermaphroditic fertility. The female only needs to make slightly more or better seeds than hermaphrodites since the mitochondrial genome is
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when compared with woody lineages. Herbaceous growth form is also associated with a reduced pollen limitation and increased self-fertilization. A reduced pollen limitation may decrease seed quantity and quality. Woody growth form
Lamiaceae are more pollen-limited and thus produce fewer seeds and
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Gynodioecy is a rare, but widely distributed sexual system in angiosperm species. Gynodioecy is found in at least 81 different angiosperm families but less than 1% of the angiosperms species on Earth are gynodioecious. One likely explanation for its rarity is due to its limited evolution. Since
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Gynodioecy is determined as a result of a genetic mutation that stops a plant from producing pollen, but still allows normal female reproductive features. In plants, nuclear genes are inherited from both parents, but all the cytoplasmic genes come from the mother. This allows male gametes to be
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Gynodioecy can evolve from hermaphroditism due to certain environmental factors. If enough resources in a population are allocated to the female functions in a hermaphroditic species, gynodioecy will ensue. On the other hand, if more of those resources favor a hermaphrodite's male functions,
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The reason for this variation in the rarity of gynodioecy stems from certain phenotypic traits or ecological factors that promote and favor the presence of female plants in a population. For example, a herbaceous growth form is much more highly favored in gynodioecious species of
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females are at a disadvantage when compared with hermaphrodites, they will never be able to evolve as quickly. In addition, gynodioecy is rare because the mechanisms that favor females and cause gynodioecy in some populations only operate in some plant lineages, but not others.
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producing pollen and making seedlings of higher quality, since hermaphrodite seedlings are susceptible to homozygous deleterious alleles. Additional advantages include more flowers, higher fruit set, higher total seed production, heavier seeds, and better germination rates.
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Gynodioecy is often referred to as the evolutionary intermediate state between hermaphroditism and dioecy, however there is no evidence it is an intermediate state in animals. Gynodioecy has been investigated by biologists dating as far back as to
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in a population facilitates the maintenance of gynodioecy by increasing the inbreeding costs for hermaphrodites. Thus, as the rate of inbreeding increases in a population, the more likely gynodioecy is to occur.
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seeds of lower quality, thus favoring the female herbaceous growth form. Gynodioecy is rare because some sexual systems are more evolutionarily liable to change in certain lineages in comparison with others.
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smaller and more motile while female gametes are larger. It makes sense for most plants to be hermaphrodites, since they are sessile and unable to find mates as easily as animals can.
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that is found in certain flowering plant species in which female and hermaphroditic plants coexist within a population. Gynodioecy is the evolutionary intermediate between
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Van de Paer C, Saumitou-Laprade P, Vernet P, Billiard S (April 2015). "The joint evolution and maintenance of self-incompatibility with gynodioecy or androdioecy".
1045:"Potential Ecological Constraints on the Evolution of Gynodioecy in Mimulus guttatus: Relative Fecundity and Pollinator Behavior in a Mixed-Sex Population"
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Sinclair JP, Kameyama Y, Shibata A, Kudo G (September 2016). "Male-biased hermaphrodites in a gynodioecious shrub, Daphne jezoensis".
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552:"Where do monomorphic sexual systems fit in the evolution of dioecy? Insights from the largest family of angiosperms"
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order for females to remain viable in a population, they would have to be twice as successful as hermaphrodites.
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Delph LF, Touzet P, Bailey MF (January 2007). "Merging theory and mechanism in studies of gynodioecy".
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The following species and higher taxa have been observed to exhibit a gynodioecious breeding system:
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was found to be an important factor in the maintenance of gynodioecy in an endemic
Hawaiian shrub
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occurring in a single population in
Diamond Head Crater Oahu. Inbreeding depression, due to
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Hermaphroditic plants may be able to reproduce on their own but in many species they are
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Embryology of
Flowering Plants: Terminology and Concepts, Vol. 3: Reproductive Systems
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628:"Williams' paradox and the role of phenotypic plasticity in sexual systems"
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738:"Molecular mechanism of self-recognition in Brassica self-incompatibility"
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breeders are able to collect the more favorable hybrid seeds.
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is an example of a species with a gynodioecious mating system.
73:. It is also considered a dimorphic sexual system alongside
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Coexistence of female and hermaphrodite within a population
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Torices, Rubén; Méndez, Marcos; Gómez, José María (2011).
605:. CRC Press. pp. On chapter of Pollination Systems.
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It has been estimated that gynodioecy occurs in 13.3% of
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Casimiro-Soriguer I, Buide ML, Narbona E (April 2015).
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399:, was considered to be caused by the presence of many
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The red queen: sex and the evolution of human nature
674:"Mitochondrial genome evolution and gynodioecy"
58:(having two distinct morphs: male and female).
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54:(exhibiting both female and male parts) and
940:Rivkin LR, Case AL, Caruso CM (July 2016).
529:. Cambridge University Press. p. 134.
814:"The evolution of gynodioecy on a lattice"
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357:Learn how and when to remove this message
268:Learn how and when to remove this message
329:Relevant discussion may be found on the
240:Relevant discussion may be found on the
1049:International Journal of Plant Sciences
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341:to additional sources at this section.
252:to additional sources at this section.
736:Takayama S, Isogai A (January 2003).
61:Gynodioecy is sometimes considered a
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135:(house). The term was first used by
85:gynodioecious mating system include
632:Integrative and Comparative Biology
812:Preece T, Mao Y (September 2010).
322:relies largely or entirely upon a
233:relies largely or entirely upon a
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902:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
523:Fusco G, Minelli A (2019-10-10).
569:10.1111/j.1469-8137.2010.03609.x
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153:Evolution of sexual reproduction
676:. In Marechal-Drouard L (ed.).
821:Journal of Theoretical Biology
779:Journal of Theoretical Biology
742:Journal of Experimental Botany
678:Mitochondrial genome evolution
599:Batygina, T. B. (2019-04-23).
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1043:Wise M, Vu J, Carr D (2011).
879:. Penguin. pp. 91–128.
170:will result. A high rate of
626:Leonard JL (October 2013).
526:The Biology of Reproduction
139:in 1877 when writing about
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131:(twice or double), and
459:Cucurbita foetidissima
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999:10.1093/aobpla/plv037
383:Inbreeding depression
378:Inbreeding depression
184:inbreeding depression
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335:improve this article
246:improve this article
214:Species distribution
63:mixed mating systems
946:The New Phytologist
833:2010JThBi.266..219P
504:Erythranthe guttata
497:Reynoutria japonica
452:Fragaria virginiana
426:Lobelia siphilitica
417:Fuchsia excorticata
94:Lobelia siphilitica
36:Lobelia siphilitica
755:10.1093/jxb/erg007
645:10.1093/icb/ict088
388:Schiedea adamantis
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959:10.1111/nph.13926
875:Ridley M (1993).
715:10.1111/plb.12463
672:Touzet P (2012).
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785:: 90–101.
511:References
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117:gynodioecy
46:is a rare
44:Gynodioecy
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401:mutations
347:June 2021
339:citations
331:talk page
299:species.
287:Lamiaceae
258:June 2021
250:citations
242:talk page
194:Mechanism
147:Evolution
127:(woman),
115:The word
111:Etymology
105:Lamiaceae
1094:See also
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407:Examples
1122:Monoicy
1107:Trioecy
1082:24 June
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817:(PDF)
207:Maize
133:okios
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607:ISBN
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125:gyne
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