630:, expressed in international dollars. These national poverty lines are converted to international currency and the global line is converted back to local currency using the PPP exchange rates from the ICP. PPP exchange rates include data from the sales of high end non-poverty related items which skews the value of food items and necessary goods which is 70 percent of poor peoples' consumption. Angus Deaton argues that PPP indices need to be reweighted for use in poverty measurement; they need to be redefined to reflect local poverty measures, not global measures, weighing local food items and excluding luxury items that are not prevalent or are not of equal value in all localities.
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instability in the peaceful time (and that is what the abandoning of the gold standard during the war was blamed for). Gustav Cassel was among those who supported the idea of restoring the gold standard, although with some alterations. The question, which Gustav Cassel tried to answer in his works written during that period, was not how exchange rates are determined in the free market, but rather how to determine the appropriate level at which exchange rates were to be fixed during the restoration of the system of fixed exchange rates.
540:, falling into the second category, and drifting from the PPP exchange rate to the currency exchange rate. Even if the PPP "value" of the Ethiopian currency is three times stronger than the currency exchange rate, it will not buy three times as much of internationally traded goods like steel, cars and microchips, but non-traded goods like housing, services ("haircuts"), and domestically produced crops. The relative price differential between tradables and non-tradables from high-income to low-income countries is a consequence of the
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costs increase, the larger the range of exchange rate fluctuations. The same is true for official trade restrictions because the customs fees affect importers' profits in the same way as shipping fees. According to
Krugman and Obstfeld, "Either type of trade impediment weakens the basis of PPP by allowing the purchasing power of a given currency to differ more widely from country to country." They cite the example that a dollar in London should purchase the same goods as a dollar in Chicago, which is certainly not the case.
1470:
108:, that is, many goods with different quantities. PPP then computes an inflation and exchange rate as the ratio of the price of the basket in one location to the price of the basket in the other location. For example, if a basket consisting of 1 computer, 1 ton of rice, and half a ton of steel was 1000 US dollars in New York and the same goods cost 6000 HK dollars in Hong Kong, the PPP exchange rate would be 6 HK dollars for every 1 US dollar.
650:. While Gustav Cassel's use of PPP concept has been traditionally interpreted as his attempt to formulate a positive theory of exchange rate determination, the policy and theoretical context in which Cassel wrote about exchange rates suggests different interpretation. In the years immediately preceding the end of WWI and following it economists and politicians were involved in discussions on possible ways of restoring the
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countries have more labor relative to capital, so marginal productivity of labor is greater in rich countries than in poor countries. Nontradables tend to be labor-intensive; therefore, because labor is less expensive in poor countries and is used mostly for nontradables, nontradables are cheaper in poor countries. Wages are high in rich countries, so nontradables are relatively more expensive.
1415:
1615:, however, each iPad is produced in the same place (except for the model sold in Brazil) and all iPads (within the same model) have identical performance characteristics. Price differences are therefore a function of transportation costs, taxes, and the prices that may be realized in individual markets. In 2013, an iPad cost about twice as much in Argentina as in the United States.
2049:
1339:
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market exchange rate is artificially weak. In such cases, a PPP exchange rate is likely the most realistic basis for economic comparison. Similarly, when exchange rates deviate significantly from their long term equilibrium due to speculative attacks or carry trade, a PPP exchange rate offers a better alternative for comparison.
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exchange rate is 3.58 HK$ per US$ . The difference between this and the actual exchange rate of 7.83 suggests that the Hong Kong dollar is 54.2% undervalued. That is, it is cheaper to convert US dollars into Hong Kong dollars and buy a Big Mac in Hong Kong than it is to buy a Big Mac directly in US dollars.
462:"bridging" methods, which do not fully take into account differing quality between goods, it may serve to overstate the PPP basis of poorer countries, because the price indexing on which PPP is based will assign to poorer countries the greater weight of goods consumed in greater shares in richer countries.
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1529:
uses The Big Mac Index to identify overvalued and undervalued currencies. That is, ones where the Big Mac is expensive or cheap, when measured using current exchange rates. The
January 2019 article states that a Big Mac costs HK$ 20.00 in Hong Kong and US$ 5.58 in the United States. The implied PPP
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The corporate cost advantage is nothing more sophisticated than access to cheaper workers, but because the pay of those workers goes farther in low-income countries than high, the relative pay differentials (inter-country) can be sustained for longer than would be the case otherwise. (This is another
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Linking regions presents another methodological difficulty. In the 2005 ICP round, regions were compared by using a list of some 1,000 identical items for which a price could be found for 18 countries, selected so that at least two countries would be in each region. While this was superior to earlier
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There are some problems with the Big Mac Index. A Big Mac is perishable and not easily transported. That means the law of one price is not likely to keep prices the same in different locations. McDonald's restaurants are not present in every country, which limits the index's usage. Moreover, Big
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His recommendation was to fix exchange rates at the level corresponding to the PPP, as he believed that this would prevent trade imbalances between trading nations. Thus, PPP doctrine proposed by Cassel was not really a positive (descriptive) theory of exchange rate determination (as Cassel was
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of the exchange rates computed for individual goods. The EKS-S method (by Éltető, Köves, Szulc, and
Sergeev) uses two different baskets, one for each country, and then averages the result. While these methods work for 2 countries, the exchange rates may be inconsistent if applied to 3 countries, so
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Measurement of price levels differ from country to country. Inflation data from different countries are based on different commodity baskets; therefore, exchange rate changes do not offset official measures of inflation differences. Because it makes predictions about price changes rather than price
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The IMF considers that GDP in purchase-power-parity (PPP) terms is not the most appropriate measure for comparing the relative size of countries to the global economy, because PPP price levels are influenced by nontraded services, which are more relevant domestically than globally. The IMF believes
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assumes that the exchange rate between two currencies actually observed in the different international markets is the one that is used in the purchasing power parity comparisons, so that the same amount of goods could actually be purchased in either currency with the same beginning amount of funds.
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measured in dollars will also halve. However, this exchange rate results from international trade and financial markets. It does not necessarily mean that
Mexicans are poorer by a half; if incomes and prices measured in pesos stay the same, they will be no worse off assuming that imported goods are
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Nontradables are primarily services and the output of the construction industry. Nontradables also lead to deviations in PPP because the prices of nontradables are not linked internationally. The prices are determined by domestic supply and demand, and shifts in those curves lead to changes in the
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The law of one price is weakened by transport costs and governmental trade restrictions, which make it expensive to move goods between markets located in different countries. Transport costs sever the link between exchange rates and the prices of goods implied by the law of one price. As transport
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The
Bhagwati–Kravis–Lipsey view provides a somewhat different explanation from the Balassa–Samuelson theory. This view states that price levels for nontradables are lower in poorer countries because of differences in endowment of labor and capital, not because of lower levels of productivity. Poor
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Thus, it is necessary to make adjustments for differences in the quality of goods and services. Furthermore, the basket of goods representative of one economy will vary from that of another: Americans eat more bread; Chinese more rice. Hence a PPP calculated using the US consumption as a base will
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In the white paper, "Burgernomics", the authors computed a correlation of 0.73 between the Big Mac Index's prices and prices calculated using the Penn World Tables. This single-good index captures most, but not all, of the effects captured by more professional (and more complex) PPP measurement.
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For example, in 2005 the price of a gallon of gasoline in Saudi Arabia was US$ 0.91, and in Norway the price was US$ 6.27. The significant differences in price would not contribute to accuracy in a PPP analysis, despite all of the variables that contribute to the significant differences in price.
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for a particular good, then the price for that good should be the same at every location. Ideally, a computer in New York and in Hong Kong should have the same price. If its price is 500 US dollars in New York and the same computer costs 2,000 HK dollars in Hong Kong, PPP theory says the exchange
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PPP exchange rates are especially useful when official exchange rates are artificially manipulated by governments. Countries with strong government control of the economy sometimes enforce official exchange rates that make their own currency artificially strong. By contrast, the currency's black
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The stability of exchange rates was widely believed to be crucial for restoring the international trade and for its further stable and balanced growth. Nobody then was mentally prepared for the idea that flexible exchange rates determined by market forces do not necessarily cause chaos and
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If one country's GDP is converted into the other country's currency using PPP exchange rates instead of observed market exchange rates, the false inference will not occur. Essentially GDP measured at PPP controls for the different costs of living and price levels, usually relative to the United
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Linkages between national price levels are also weakened when trade barriers and imperfectly competitive market structures occur together. Pricing to market occurs when a firm sells the same product for different prices in different markets. This is a reflection of inter-country differences in
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The value of the PPP exchange rate is very dependent on the basket of goods chosen. In general, goods are chosen that might closely obey the law of one price. Thus, one attempts to select goods which are traded easily and are commonly available in both locations. Organizations that compute PPP
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Measuring income in different countries using PPP exchange rates helps to avoid this problem, as the metrics give an understanding of relative wealth regarding local goods and services at domestic markets. On the other hand, it is poor for measuring the relative cost of goods and services in
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The Big Mac has the value of being a relatively standardized consumer product that includes input costs from a wide range of sectors in the local economy, such as agricultural commodities (beef, bread, lettuce, cheese), labor (blue and white collar), advertising, rent and real estate costs,
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international markets. The reason is it does not take into account how much US$ 1 stands for in a respective country. Using the above-mentioned example: in an international market, Mexicans can buy less than
Americans after the fall of their currency, though their GDP PPP changed a little.
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According to the table, an
American living or travelling in Switzerland on an income denominated in US dollars would find that country to be the most expensive of the group, having to spend 27% more US dollars to maintain a standard of living comparable to the US in terms of
454:, because teff is not commercially available in Thailand and rice is not in Ethiopia, so the price of rice in Ethiopia or teff in Thailand cannot be determined. As a general rule, the more similar the price structure between countries, the more valid the PPP comparison.
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may be greater than the difference in housing prices, while also less than the difference in entertainment prices. People in different countries typically consume different baskets of goods. It is necessary to compare the cost of baskets of goods and services using a
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For example, the average price of KFC's
Original 12 pc. Bucket in the United States in January 2016 was $ 20.50; while in Namibia it was only $ 13.40 at market exchange rates. Therefore, the index states the Namibian dollar was undervalued by 33% at that time.
365:. Theories that invoke purchasing power parity assume that in some circumstances a fall in either currency's purchasing power (a rise in its price level) would lead to a proportional decrease in that currency's valuation on the foreign exchange market.
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and consumption and other places where the prices of non-traded goods are considered important. (Market exchange rates are used for individual goods that are traded). PPP rates are more stable over time and can be used when that attribute is important.
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Since global PPP estimates—such as those provided by the ICP—are not calculated annually, but for a single year, PPP exchange rates for years other than the benchmark year need to be extrapolated. One way of doing this is by using the country's
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perfectly aware of numerous factors that prevent exchange rates from stabilizing at PPP level if allowed to float), but rather a normative (prescriptive) policy advice, formulated in the context of discussions on returning to the gold standard.
341:
PPP exchange rates are never valued because market exchange rates tend to move in their general direction, over a period of years. There is some value to knowing in which direction the exchange rate is more likely to shift over the long run.
443:(ICP), which PPP estimates are based on, require the disaggregation of national accounts into production, expenditure or (in some cases) income, and not all participating countries routinely disaggregate their data into such categories.
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there is no way to reduce complexity to a single number that is equally satisfying for all purposes. Nevertheless, PPPs are typically robust in the face of the many problems that arise in using market exchange rates to make comparisons.
1334:{\displaystyle {\textrm {PPPrate}}_{X,i}={\frac {{\textrm {PPPrate}}_{X,b}\cdot {\frac {{\textrm {GDPdef}}_{X,i}}{{\textrm {GDPdef}}_{X,b}}}}{{\textrm {PPPrate}}_{U,b}\cdot {\frac {{\textrm {GDPdef}}_{U,i}}{{\textrm {GDPdef}}_{U,b}}}}}}
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to exchange rates. The OECD table below indicates the number of US dollars needed in each of the countries listed to buy the same representative basket of consumer goods and services that would cost US$ 100 in the United States.
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way of saying that the wage rate is based on average local productivity and that this is below the per capita productivity that factories selling tradable goods to international markets can achieve.) An equivalent
141:
are more stable and are less affected by tariffs, they are used for many international comparisons, such as comparing countries' GDPs or other national income statistics. These numbers often come with the label
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PPP levels will also vary based on the formula used to calculate price matrices. Possible formulas include GEKS-Fisher, Geary-Khamis, IDB, and the superlative method. Each has advantages and disadvantages.
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fluctuate substantially, when the GDP of one country measured in its own currency is converted to the other country's currency using market exchange rates, one country might be inferred to have higher
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Poverty, tariffs, transportation, and other frictions prevent the trading and purchasing of various goods, so measuring a single good can cause a large error. The PPP term accounts for this by using a
417:
differ from that calculated using China as a base. Additional statistical difficulties arise with multilateral comparisons when (as is usually the case) more than two countries are to be compared.
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Original 12/15 pc. bucket. The Big Mac Index cannot be used for most countries in Africa because most do not have a McDonald's restaurant. Thus, the KFC Index was created by Sagaci
Research (a
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Various ways of averaging bilateral PPPs can provide a more stable multilateral comparison, but at the cost of distorting bilateral ones. These are all general issues of indexing; as with other
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in United States. The implied exchange rate is 0.71. The difference between this and the actual exchange rate, 0.93 as of Mid
November 2021, suggests the CHF is -22.8% undervalued to the USD.
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among countries. The same product, for instance, can have a different level of quality and even safety in different countries, and may be subject to different taxes and transport costs. Since
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levels, relative PPP is still a useful concept. However, change in the relative prices of basket components can cause relative PPP to fail tests that are based on official price indexes.
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market basket of some goods relative to the foreign price of the same basket. If the prices of nontradables rise, the purchasing power of any given currency will fall in that country.
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Relative PPP is a weaker statement based on the law of one price, covering changes in the exchange rate and inflation rates. It seems to mirror the exchange rate closer than PPP does.
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by purchasing power parity—considerably different from the nominal exchange rate. This discrepancy has large implications; for instance, when converted via the nominal exchange rates,
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provides an overview of methodological issues in calculating PPP and in designing the ICP under which the main PPP tables (Maddison, Penn World Tables, and World Bank WDI) are based.
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and segmented markets results in violations of the law of one price and absolute PPP. Over time, shifts in market structure and demand will occur, which may invalidate relative PPP.
601:, whether the existing market for a prospective entrant's product features few suppliers or instead is already near-saturated). According to Krugman and Obstfeld, this occurrence of
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that contains a "final product list covers around 3,000 consumer goods and services, 30 occupations in government, 200 types of equipment goods and about 15 construction projects".
691:
439:
In addition to methodological issues presented by the selection of a basket of goods, PPP estimates can also vary based on the statistical capacity of participating countries. The
560:
benefit comes from non-traded goods that can be sourced locally (nearer the PPP-exchange rate than the nominal exchange rate in which receipts are paid). These act as a cheaper
2856:
2187:
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PPP calculations tend to overemphasise the primary sectoral contribution, and underemphasise the industrial and service sectoral contributions to the economy of a nation.
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countries in contrast to non-traded goods, that is, goods produced for home-country use. Also, currencies are traded for purposes other than trade in goods and services,
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There can be marked differences between purchasing power adjusted incomes and those converted via market exchange rates. A well-known purchasing power adjustment is the
2033:(CPI) and purchasing power parity (PPP) conversion factors share conceptual similarities. The CPI measures differences in levels of prices of goods and services over
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Some aspects of PPP comparison are theoretically impossible or unclear. For example, there is no basis for comparison between the Ethiopian labourer who lives on
173:
3996:
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Kadochnikov, Denis (2013). "Gustav Cassel's purchasing power parity doctrine in the context of his views on international economic policy coordination".
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2067:
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2078:
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than is available to factories in richer countries. It is difficult by GDP PPP to consider the different quality of goods among the countries.
1157:. To calculate a country's PPP exchange rate in Geary–Khamis dollars for a particular year, the calculation proceeds in the following manner:
2628:
2485:
1584:. Its advantage compared to the Big Mac Index is that Nespresso capsules are sold in higher numbers compared to a single Big Mac hamburger.
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at one location divided by the price of the basket of goods at a different location. The PPP inflation and exchange rate may differ from the
2689:
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529:, moving towards the PPP exchange rate. Conversely, category 2 products tend to trade close to the currency exchange rate. (See also
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further adjustment may be necessary so that the rate from currency A to B times the rate from B to C equals the rate from A to C.
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68:(GDP), labour productivity and actual individual consumption, and in some cases to analyse price convergence and to compare the
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than the other country in one year but lower in the other. Both of these inferences would fail to reflect the reality of their
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Index measures PPP with a basket that contains a single product: An Arpeggio flavored coffee pod produced and retailed by the
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Good report on purchasing power containing a Big Mac index as well as for staples such as bread and rice for 71 world cities.
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134:) can contribute to longer-term differences between the two rates. One use of PPP is to predict longer-term exchange rates.
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413:. This is a difficult task because purchasing patterns and even the goods available to purchase differ across countries.
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2350:"China's rise, America's demise | beyondbrics | News and views on emerging markets from the Financial Times – FT.com"
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694:(OECD) measures the differences in price levels between its member countries by calculating the ratios of PPPs for
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because it reacts to changes in demand at each location. Also, tariffs and differences in the price of labour (see
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Estimation of purchasing power parity is complicated by the fact that countries do not simply differ in a uniform
4021:
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There are variations in calculating PPP. The EKS method (developed by Ö. Éltető, P. Köves and B. Szulc) uses the
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and gives a big cost advantage to labour-intensive production of tradable goods in low income countries (like
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626:, referred to as the dollar-a-day line. This line represents an average of the national poverty lines of the
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37:) is a measure of the price of specific goods in different countries and is used to compare the absolute
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within a country, whereas PPPs measure the change in levels of prices across regions within a country.
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says, "Our reference basket of goods is based on European consumer habits and includes 122 positions".
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comes from the idea that, with the right exchange rate, consumers in every location will have the same
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Local, non-tradable goods and services (like electric power) that are produced and sold domestically.
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The PPP exchange-rate calculation is controversial because of the difficulties of finding comparable
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When PPP comparisons are to be made over some interval of time, proper account needs to be made of
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Price indexes, inequality, and the measurement of world poverty Angus Deaton, Princeton University
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The goods that the currency has the "power" to purchase are a basket of goods of different types:
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nominal GDP per capita is around US$ 53,242, but its PPP figure is US$ 46,602, in line with other
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2804:. Joint World Bank – OECD Seminar on Purchasing Power Parities. Agenda item n° 4. Archived from
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The more that a product falls into category 1, the further its price will be from the currency
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More comparisons have to be made and used as variables in the overall formulation of the PPP.
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Depending on the particular theory, purchasing power parity is assumed to hold either in the
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firm focusing solely on Africa) to identify over- and under-valued currencies in Africa.
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Purchasing power parities updated by Organisation of Cooperation and Development (OECD)
2476:. In Reinert, Kenneth A.; Rajan, Ramkishen S.; Glass, Amy Jocelyn; et al. (eds.).
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in 1986 as a way to teach economics and to identify over- and under-valued currencies.
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The global poverty line is a worldwide count of people who live below an international
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The PPP method is used as an alternative to correct for possible statistical bias. The
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The purchasing power parity indicator can be used to compare economies regarding their
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The PPP exchange rate may not match the market exchange rate. The market rate is more
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can influence the purchasing power parity of a country in the international markets.
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exchange rates use different baskets of goods and can come up with different values.
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between places. The calculation of the PPP, according to the OECD, is made through a
50:
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2795:"Integration of CPI and PPP: Methodological Issues, Feasibility and Recommendations"
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States dollar, enabling a more accurate estimate of a nation's level of production.
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2005 World Development Indicators: Table 5.7 | Relative prices and exchange rates
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The bank UBS produces its "Prices and Earnings" report every three years. The
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There are a number of reasons that different measures do not perfectly reflect
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Purchasing power parities as example of international statistical cooperation
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is a simple implementation of PPP where the basket contains a single good: a
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estimated that in 2003, one Geary–Khamis dollar was equivalent to about 1.8
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1,965 while on a PPP basis, it is about US$ 7,197. At the other extreme,
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To teach PPP, the basket of goods is often simplified to a single good.
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1439: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
597:, virtually no demand for pork in Islamic states) and the supply side (
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is the PPP exchange rate of country X for the benchmark year, PPPrate
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whose prices vary more than those of physical goods. Also, different
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term for measuring prices at different locations. It is based on the
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2602:"Chapter 18: Extrapolating PPPs and Comparing ICP Benchmark Results"
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2480:. Vol. I. Princeton: Princeton University Press. p. 942.
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spokeperson, Webber, Jude (2011). China's rise, America's demise.
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is a widely cited source of PPP adjustments, and the associated
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but exclude profits and above all do not consider the different
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2504:
2128:"Purchasing Power Parities - Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs)"
1367:
is the GDP deflator of country X for the benchmark year, GDPdef
2121:
2119:
2117:
1553:
1408:
2757:
642:
in the 16th century, and was developed in its modern form by
232:
Purchasing power parity exchange rate is used when comparing
2913:
1611:) compares an item's price in various locations. Unlike the
2746:
23rd Sep 2013, CommSec Economic Insight: CommSec iPad Index
1552:
measures PPP with a basket that contains a single item: a
2199:
List of countries by future GDP (PPP) per capita estimates
1347:
is the PPP exchange rate of country X for year i, PPPrate
2661:"Our Big Mac index shows how burger prices are changing"
1501:
restaurants. The index was created and popularized by
536:
More processed and expensive products are likely to be
484:
that GDP at market rates is a more relevant comparison.
383:
identify manipulation of inflation numbers by Argentina
2865:
provides PPP estimates for a large number of countries
1375:
is the GDP deflator of the US for the benchmark year.
692:
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
329:
not essential to the quality of life of individuals.
1165:
2875:"Understanding PPPs and PPP based national accounts"
2403:
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs
1371:
is the GDP deflator of the US for year i, and GDPdef
313:
in using exchange rates to outputs among countries.
3931:
3573:
3307:
3056:
3021:
2951:
2515:
European Journal of the History of Economic Thought
1363:
is the GDP deflator of country X for year i, GDPdef
517:that can be sold on the international market (like
101:rate should be 4 HK dollars for every 1 US dollar.
2580:"Purchasing power parities – measurement and uses"
2188:List of countries by past and future GDP (nominal)
2146:
1333:
654:, which would automatically restore the system of
267:The exchange rate reflects transaction values for
2728:"Is the Aussie too expensive? iPad index says no"
2399:"Policy Innovations Digital Magazine (2006–2016)"
1587:For example, 1 basic Nespresso Capsule costs 0.5
45:. PPP is effectively the ratio of the price of a
2902:Purchasing power parity Converter (PPP Converter
2578:Paul Schreyer; Francette Koechlin (March 2002).
2435:"Abnormal Deviations in International Exchanges"
1359:(US) for the benchmark year (equal to 1), GDPdef
2776:"Here's How Much An iPad Costs In 46 Countries"
2478:The Princeton Encyclopedia of the World Economy
481:
2297:Taylor and Taylor, Alan and Mark (Fall 2004).
2233:
2231:
397:to compare purchasing power across countries.
2929:
8:
2881:List of Countries by Purchasing Power Parity
2844:Explanations from the U. of British Columbia
2145:Daneshkhu, Scheherazade (18 December 2007).
2863:World Bank International Comparison Project
2802:Recent Advances in Methods and Applications
2387:. Pearson Education, Inc. pp. 394–395.
2936:
2922:
2914:
2378:
2376:
2374:
2372:
2370:
2101:
2099:
2075:, Includes IMF ranked PPP of 186 countries
1617:
709:
648:The Present Situation of the Foreign Trade
548:), as against high income countries (like
2068:List of countries by GDP (PPP) per capita
1455:Learn how and when to remove this message
1314:
1308:
1307:
1294:
1288:
1287:
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1263:
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1239:
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1218:
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1200:
1194:
1193:
1189:
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1168:
1167:
1164:
2853:(also provides daily updated PPP charts)
27:Measure of prices in different countries
2869:UBS's "Prices and Earnings" Report 2006
2095:
1515:Macs are not sold at every McDonald's (
2148:"China, India economies '40% smaller'"
2079:Measures of national income and output
609:Differences in price level measurement
513:Tradable goods such as non-perishable
696:private final consumption expenditure
7:
2859:from Eurostat – Statistics Explained
2629:"Prices and Earnings (Edition 2012)"
2299:"The Purchasing Power Parity Debate"
1437:adding citations to reliable sources
593:conditions on both the demand side (
450:with the Thai labourer who lives on
2073:List of IMF ranked countries by GDP
1519:), which limits its usage further.
92:, which says that, if there are no
2782:from the original on Oct 23, 2023.
2565:"Monthly comparative price levels"
2550:"Monthly comparative price levels"
25:
2726:Glenda Kwek (23 September 2013).
316:For example, if the value of the
166:World Development Indicators 2005
3459:neoclassical–Keynesian synthesis
2610:International Comparison Program
2433:Cassel, Gustav (December 1918).
2306:Journal of Economic Perspectives
2159:from the original on 2022-12-10.
2084:Relative purchasing power parity
2047:
1607:, the iPad index (elaborated by
1413:
1355:is the PPP exchange rate of the
681:List of countries by price level
588:Departures from free competition
441:International Comparison Program
215:Relative purchasing power parity
1424:needs additional citations for
575:Trade barriers and nontradables
2778:. Business Insider Australia.
2774:Liz Tay (September 23, 2013).
2247:St. Louis Federal Reserve Bank
2063:List of countries by GDP (PPP)
469:. In 2011, interviewed by the
354:purchasing power parity theory
320:falls by half compared to the
84:Purchasing power parity is an
1:
3395:Critique of political economy
2383:Krugman and Obstfeld (2009).
2267:Politi, Daniel (2011-11-24).
2106:Krugman and Obstfeld (2009).
2055:Business and economics portal
686:OECD comparative price levels
658:among participating nations.
638:The idea originated with the
258:relative levels of production
2667:. 2023-08-03. Archived from
2527:10.1080/09672567.2013.824999
2352:. 2011-05-29. Archived from
2269:"Argentina's Big Mac Attack"
404:; rather, the difference in
490:International Monetary Fund
4063:
3533:Real business-cycle theory
1537:
1402:
678:
502:Range and quality of goods
361:or, more strongly, in the
212:
3973:
2474:"purchasing power parity"
2472:Cheung, Yin-Wong (2009).
2110:. Pearson Education, Inc.
628:world's poorest countries
475:, a spokesperson for the
132:Balassa–Samuelson theorem
2895:Purchasing power parity
2318:10.1257/0895330042632744
1483:, are similar worldwide.
542:Balassa–Samuelson effect
369:Identifying manipulation
337:Exchange rate prediction
240:PPP exchange rates help
4032:International economics
3173:Industrial organization
3003:Computational economics
2761:Commonwealth Securities
2385:International Economics
2108:International Economics
1591:in Switzerland and 0.7
1148:Extrapolating PPP rates
603:product differentiation
113:purchasing power parity
31:Purchasing power parity
4027:Gross domestic product
3378:Modern monetary theory
3043:Experimental economics
3013:Pluralism in economics
2998:Mathematical economics
2552:. OECD. 14 April 2015.
2213:. OECD. Archived from
2008:United States (no tax)
1484:
1335:
499:
326:gross domestic product
66:gross domestic product
2634:. UBS. Archived from
1511:transportation, etc.
1479:, like this one from
1472:
1336:
250:market exchange rates
3252:Social choice theory
3008:Behavioral economics
2439:The Economic Journal
2031:Consumer price index
1433:improve this article
1163:
656:fixed exchange rates
562:factor of production
294:or interventions by
159:international dollar
51:market exchange rate
3336:American (National)
3036:Economic statistics
2690:"The Big Mac index"
2332:"Global gas prices"
640:School of Salamanca
618:Global poverty line
234:national production
151:Geary–Khamis dollar
2907:2023-07-12 at the
2897:Definition, Unesco
2849:2019-08-11 at the
2831:2017-10-20 at the
2562:as of 25 May 2024
2547:as of 14 Apr 2015
2175:2007-02-23 at the
1485:
1331:
467:standard of living
41:of the countries'
4009:
4008:
3540:New institutional
2891:The Big Mac Index
2764:23 September 2013
2641:on 26 August 2019
2567:. OECD. May 2024.
2487:978-0-691-12812-2
2023:
2022:
1680:Canada (Montréal)
1621:Country or region
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1464:
1457:
1329:
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1257:
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721:Price level 2024
716:Price level 2015
190:developed nations
94:transaction costs
59:transaction costs
16:(Redirected from
4054:
4022:Purchasing power
3213:Natural resource
3048:Economic history
2986:Mechanism design
2938:
2931:
2924:
2915:
2826:Penn World Table
2813:
2812:
2811:on Aug 12, 2022.
2810:
2799:
2793:D., Rao (2001).
2790:
2784:
2783:
2771:
2765:
2755:
2749:
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2736:
2735:
2723:
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2704:. Archived from
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2648:
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2587:Statistics Brief
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2553:
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2538:
2521:(6): 1101–1121.
2510:
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2445:(112): 413–415.
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2338:. 23 March 2005.
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2287:
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2275:. Archived from
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2255:
2253:
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2238:Pakko, Michael.
2235:
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2222:
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2057:
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1618:
1517:notably in India
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710:
690:Each month, the
497:
395:baskets of goods
309:reflects such a
303:Penn World Table
246:quality of goods
117:purchasing power
90:law of one price
39:purchasing power
21:
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4002:Business portal
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3341:Ancient thought
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2981:Contract theory
2966:Decision theory
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2909:Wayback Machine
2851:Wayback Machine
2833:Wayback Machine
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2097:
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2000:US (California)
1688:Canada (no tax)
1627:
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1570:
1568:Nespresso Index
1558:market research
1544:Similar to the
1542:
1536:
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494:Financial Times
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472:Financial Times
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350:economic theory
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311:systematic bias
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106:basket of goods
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74:basket of goods
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3405:Disequilibrium
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3218:Organizational
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2993:Macroeconomics
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2961:Microeconomics
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2841:
2840:from OECD data
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2820:External links
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2718:
2696:. 2019-01-10.
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2312:(4): 135–158.
2289:
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2240:"Burgernomics"
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916:
912:
911:
908:
905:
901:
900:
897:
894:
890:
889:
886:
883:
879:
878:
875:
872:
868:
867:
864:
861:
857:
856:
853:
850:
846:
845:
842:
839:
835:
834:
831:
828:
824:
823:
820:
817:
813:
812:
809:
806:
805:Czech Republic
802:
801:
798:
795:
791:
790:
787:
784:
780:
779:
776:
773:
769:
768:
765:
762:
758:
757:
754:
751:
747:
746:
743:
740:
736:
735:
732:
729:
725:
724:
719:
714:
687:
684:
676:
673:
671:
668:
635:
632:
619:
616:
610:
607:
589:
586:
576:
573:
523:
522:
511:
503:
500:
486:
390:
387:
370:
367:
338:
335:
324:, the Mexican
284:interest rates
280:capital assets
229:
226:
224:
221:
213:Main article:
210:
207:
202:geometric mean
197:
194:
174:GDP per capita
139:exchange rates
98:trade barriers
81:
78:
70:cost of living
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4059:
4048:
4045:
4043:
4040:
4038:
4035:
4033:
4030:
4028:
4025:
4023:
4020:
4019:
4017:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3993:
3990:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3964:
3961:
3958:
3954:
3951:
3949:
3946:
3944:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3934:
3930:
3924:
3923:
3919:
3917:
3914:
3912:
3909:
3907:
3904:
3902:
3899:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3874:
3872:
3869:
3867:
3864:
3862:
3859:
3857:
3854:
3852:
3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3722:
3719:
3717:
3714:
3712:
3709:
3707:
3704:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3586:de Mandeville
3584:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3572:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3534:
3531:
3530:
3529:
3528:New classical
3526:
3522:
3519:
3518:
3517:
3514:
3512:
3509:
3507:
3504:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3485:
3484:Malthusianism
3482:
3476:
3473:
3472:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3445:Institutional
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3421:
3418:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3408:
3406:
3403:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3375:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3323:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3306:
3298:
3295:
3293:
3290:
3288:
3285:
3283:
3280:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3248:Public choice
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3223:Participation
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3194:
3191:
3189:
3186:
3184:
3183:Institutional
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3133:Expeditionary
3131:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3123:Environmental
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3104:
3101:
3099:
3096:
3094:
3091:
3089:
3086:
3084:
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3065:
3061:
3059:
3055:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3037:
3034:
3033:
3032:
3029:
3028:
3026:
3024:
3020:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2974:
2972:
2969:
2967:
2964:
2963:
2962:
2959:
2958:
2956:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2939:
2934:
2932:
2927:
2925:
2920:
2919:
2916:
2910:
2906:
2903:
2900:
2898:
2894:
2892:
2889:
2886:
2882:
2879:
2876:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2848:
2845:
2842:
2839:
2836:
2834:
2830:
2827:
2824:
2823:
2819:
2807:
2803:
2796:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2770:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2758:
2754:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2741:
2738:
2733:
2729:
2722:
2719:
2708:on 2019-07-01
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2694:The Economist
2691:
2685:
2682:
2671:on 2023-10-16
2670:
2666:
2665:The Economist
2662:
2656:
2653:
2637:
2630:
2624:
2621:
2617:. p. 29.
2616:
2612:
2611:
2603:
2596:
2593:
2588:
2581:
2574:
2571:
2566:
2559:
2556:
2551:
2544:
2541:
2536:
2532:
2528:
2524:
2520:
2516:
2509:
2507:
2505:
2501:
2489:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2468:
2465:
2460:
2456:
2452:
2448:
2444:
2440:
2436:
2429:
2426:
2423:
2418:
2415:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2386:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2356:on 2011-05-29
2355:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2327:
2324:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2307:
2300:
2293:
2290:
2279:on 2019-10-23
2278:
2274:
2270:
2263:
2260:
2248:
2241:
2234:
2232:
2228:
2217:on 2019-06-24
2216:
2212:
2206:
2203:
2200:
2195:
2192:
2189:
2184:
2181:
2178:
2174:
2171:
2166:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2149:
2141:
2138:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2102:
2100:
2096:
2089:
2085:
2082:
2080:
2077:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2060:
2056:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2014:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2002:
1999:
1998:
1994:
1991:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1982:
1978:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1967:
1966:
1962:
1959:
1958:
1954:
1951:
1950:
1946:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1926:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1914:
1911:
1910:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1898:
1895:
1894:
1890:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1879:
1878:
1874:
1871:
1870:
1866:
1863:
1862:
1858:
1855:
1854:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1838:
1834:
1831:
1830:
1826:
1823:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1814:
1810:
1807:
1806:
1802:
1799:
1798:
1794:
1791:
1790:
1786:
1783:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1770:
1767:
1766:
1762:
1759:
1758:
1754:
1751:
1750:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1738:
1735:
1734:
1730:
1727:
1726:
1722:
1719:
1718:
1714:
1711:
1710:
1706:
1703:
1702:
1698:
1695:
1694:
1690:
1687:
1686:
1682:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1671:
1670:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1642:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1631:
1630:
1623:
1620:
1619:
1616:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1605:Big Mac Index
1598:
1596:
1594:
1590:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1574:Big Mac Index
1567:
1565:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1547:
1546:Big Mac Index
1541:
1533:
1531:
1528:
1527:The Economist
1524:
1520:
1518:
1512:
1508:
1506:
1505:
1504:The Economist
1500:
1496:
1492:
1491:Big Mac Index
1482:
1478:
1475:
1471:
1459:
1456:
1448:
1438:
1434:
1428:
1427:
1422:This section
1420:
1416:
1411:
1410:
1406:
1405:Big Mac Index
1399:Big Mac Index
1398:
1396:
1390:
1388:
1386:
1378:
1376:
1358:
1357:United States
1343:Where PPPrate
1341:
1321:
1318:
1315:
1301:
1298:
1295:
1281:
1276:
1273:
1270:
1252:
1249:
1246:
1232:
1229:
1226:
1212:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1186:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1158:
1156:
1147:
1140:
1137:
1135:United States
1134:
1133:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1122:
1118:
1115:
1112:
1111:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1090:
1089:
1085:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1063:
1060:
1057:
1056:
1052:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1012:
1008:
1005:
1002:
1001:
997:
994:
991:
990:
986:
983:
980:
979:
975:
972:
969:
968:
964:
961:
958:
957:
953:
950:
947:
946:
942:
939:
936:
935:
931:
928:
925:
924:
920:
917:
914:
913:
909:
906:
903:
902:
898:
895:
892:
891:
887:
884:
881:
880:
876:
873:
870:
869:
865:
862:
859:
858:
854:
851:
848:
847:
843:
840:
837:
836:
832:
829:
826:
825:
821:
818:
815:
814:
810:
807:
804:
803:
799:
796:
793:
792:
788:
785:
782:
781:
777:
774:
771:
770:
766:
763:
760:
759:
755:
752:
749:
748:
744:
741:
738:
737:
733:
730:
727:
726:
720:
715:
712:
711:
708:
706:
700:
697:
693:
685:
682:
674:
669:
667:
663:
659:
657:
653:
652:gold standard
649:
645:
644:Gustav Cassel
641:
633:
631:
629:
625:
617:
615:
608:
606:
604:
600:
596:
587:
585:
581:
574:
572:
569:
565:
563:
559:
553:
551:
547:
543:
539:
534:
532:
528:
527:exchange rate
520:
516:
512:
509:
508:
507:
501:
495:
491:
485:
480:
478:
474:
473:
468:
463:
459:
455:
453:
449:
444:
442:
437:
435:
430:
426:
423:
422:price indices
418:
414:
412:
407:
403:
398:
396:
388:
386:
384:
380:
379:Big Mac Index
377:In 2011, the
375:
368:
366:
364:
360:
355:
351:
348:
343:
336:
334:
330:
327:
323:
319:
314:
312:
308:
304:
299:
297:
296:central banks
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
270:
265:
261:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
238:
235:
227:
222:
220:
216:
208:
206:
203:
195:
193:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
164:
160:
156:
152:
147:
145:
140:
135:
133:
129:
124:
120:
118:
114:
109:
107:
102:
99:
95:
91:
87:
79:
77:
75:
71:
67:
62:
60:
56:
52:
48:
47:market basket
44:
40:
36:
32:
19:
4037:Inequalities
3997:Publications
3953:Publications
3920:
3516:Neoclassical
3506:Mercantilism
3415:Evolutionary
3277:Sociological
3250: /
3148:Geographical
3128:Evolutionary
3103:Digitization
3068:Agricultural
3031:Econometrics
2971:Price theory
2883:since 1990 (
2806:the original
2801:
2788:
2769:
2759:
2753:
2745:
2740:
2731:
2721:
2710:. Retrieved
2706:the original
2693:
2684:
2673:. Retrieved
2669:the original
2664:
2655:
2643:. Retrieved
2636:the original
2623:
2608:
2595:
2586:
2573:
2558:
2543:
2518:
2514:
2491:. Retrieved
2477:
2467:
2442:
2438:
2428:
2417:
2406:. Retrieved
2402:
2393:
2384:
2358:. Retrieved
2354:the original
2344:
2335:
2326:
2309:
2305:
2292:
2281:. Retrieved
2277:the original
2272:
2262:
2250:. Retrieved
2246:
2219:. Retrieved
2215:the original
2211:"EKS Method"
2205:
2194:
2183:
2165:
2152:
2140:
2131:
2107:
2034:
2029:
1920:South Africa
1626:(US dollars)
1602:
1586:
1582:Nestlé Group
1571:
1562:
1543:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1497:burger from
1488:
1451:
1445:October 2023
1442:
1431:Please help
1426:verification
1423:
1394:
1382:
1342:
1159:
1155:GDP deflator
1151:
701:
689:
675:Professional
664:
660:
647:
646:in 1916, in
637:
624:poverty line
621:
612:
598:
594:
591:
582:
578:
570:
566:
554:
535:
524:
505:
482:
470:
464:
460:
456:
445:
438:
434:inflationary
431:
427:
419:
415:
399:
392:
381:was used to
376:
372:
353:
347:neoclassical
344:
340:
331:
318:Mexican peso
315:
300:
275:
271:
269:traded goods
266:
262:
257:
239:
231:
218:
209:Relative PPP
199:
170:Chinese yuan
165:
163:World Bank's
158:
154:
148:
144:PPP-adjusted
143:
137:Because PPP
136:
125:
121:
112:
110:
103:
83:
73:
63:
57:, and other
34:
30:
29:
3791:von Neumann
3560:Supply-side
3545:Physiocracy
3489:Marginalism
3178:Information
3118:Engineering
3098:Development
3093:Demographic
2976:Game theory
2953:Theoretical
2026:PPP vs. CPI
1952:Switzerland
1928:South Korea
1856:Philippines
1840:New Zealand
1832:Netherlands
1635:$ 1,094.11
1391:Educational
1385:2012 report
1102:Switzerland
1014:New Zealand
1003:Netherlands
948:South Korea
794:Costa Rica
723:(US = 100)
718:(US = 100)
705:consumption
550:Switzerland
531:Penn effect
515:commodities
479:declared:
411:price index
406:food prices
402:price level
307:Penn effect
288:speculation
53:because of
4016:Categories
3948:Economists
3821:Schumacher
3726:Schumpeter
3696:von Wieser
3616:von ThĂĽnen
3576:Economists
3475:Circuitism
3440:Humanistic
3435:Historical
3410:Ecological
3400:Democratic
3373:Chartalism
3363:Behavioral
3326:Mainstream
3287:Statistics
3282:Solidarity
3203:Managerial
3168:Humanistic
3163:Historical
3108:Ecological
3073:Behavioral
2885:World Bank
2712:2019-07-02
2675:2023-10-17
2615:World Bank
2589:(3). OECD.
2408:2019-09-27
2360:2023-03-22
2283:2019-10-23
2221:2019-08-26
2090:References
1808:Luxembourg
1599:iPad Index
1499:McDonald's
1477:hamburgers
981:Luxembourg
970:Lithuania
679:See also:
228:Conversion
196:Variations
43:currencies
3866:Greenspan
3831:Samuelson
3811:Galbraith
3781:Tinbergen
3721:von Mises
3716:Heckscher
3676:Edgeworth
3555:Stockholm
3550:Socialist
3450:Keynesian
3430:Happiness
3390:Classical
3351:Mutualism
3346:Anarchist
3331:Heterodox
3228:Personnel
3188:Knowledge
3153:Happiness
3143:Financial
3113:Education
3088:Democracy
3023:Empirical
2945:Economics
2702:0013-0613
2645:26 August
2535:154383662
2493:2 October
2336:CNN/Money
2252:24 August
2019:$ 554.08
2011:$ 499.00
2003:$ 546.91
1995:$ 638.81
1987:$ 544.32
1979:$ 656.96
1971:$ 530.72
1963:$ 538.34
1955:$ 617.58
1947:$ 706.87
1939:$ 674.96
1931:$ 576.20
1923:$ 559.38
1915:$ 674.96
1907:$ 674.96
1899:$ 525.98
1896:Singapore
1891:$ 596.08
1883:$ 688.49
1875:$ 704.51
1867:$ 550.00
1859:$ 556.42
1851:$ 655.92
1843:$ 610.45
1835:$ 683.08
1827:$ 591.62
1819:$ 473.77
1811:$ 641.50
1803:$ 501.56
1795:$ 674.96
1787:$ 630.73
1779:$ 512.61
1771:$ 679.64
1763:$ 501.52
1760:Hong Kong
1755:$ 715.54
1747:$ 618.34
1739:$ 688.49
1731:$ 695.25
1723:$ 725.32
1715:$ 676.69
1707:$ 602.52
1699:$ 602.13
1691:$ 467.36
1683:$ 557.18
1675:$ 525.52
1667:$ 791.40
1659:$ 618.34
1651:$ 674.96
1643:$ 506.66
1640:Australia
1632:Argentina
1603:Like the
1578:Nespresso
1572:Like the
1550:KFC Index
1540:KFC Index
1534:KFC Index
1282:⋅
1213:⋅
797:*No Data
786:*No Data
783:Colombia
728:Australia
436:effects.
363:short run
322:US dollar
278:, to buy
186:Denmark's
180:is about
155:GK dollar
111:The name
4047:Currency
3977:Category
3957:journals
3943:Glossary
3896:Stiglitz
3861:Rothbard
3841:Buchanan
3826:Friedman
3816:Koopmans
3806:Leontief
3786:Robinson
3671:Marshall
3521:Lausanne
3425:Georgism
3420:Feminist
3368:Buddhist
3358:Austrian
3257:Regional
3233:Planning
3208:Monetary
3138:Feminist
3083:Cultural
3078:Business
2905:Archived
2847:Archived
2829:Archived
2780:Archived
2273:Latitude
2173:Archived
2157:Archived
2041:See also
1968:Thailand
1912:Slovenia
1904:Slovakia
1880:Portugal
1864:Pakistan
1816:Malaysia
1069:Slovenia
1058:Slovakia
1047:Portugal
973:No Data
962:No Data
713:Country
670:Examples
546:Ethiopia
538:tradable
519:diamonds
487:—
359:long run
254:real GDP
128:volatile
86:economic
3992:Outline
3963:Schools
3955: (
3916:Piketty
3911:Krugman
3776:Kuznets
3766:Kalecki
3741:Polanyi
3631:Cournot
3626:Bastiat
3611:Ricardo
3601:Malthus
3591:Quesnay
3494:Marxian
3385:Chicago
3315:history
3310:Schools
3297:Welfare
3267:Service
3058:Applied
2732:The Age
2459:2223329
2016:Vietnam
1784:Ireland
1768:Hungary
1744:Germany
1728:Finland
1720:Denmark
1656:Belgium
1648:Austria
1613:Big Mac
1609:CommSec
1495:Big Mac
1474:Big Mac
1265:PPPrate
1196:PPPrate
1170:PPPrate
959:Latvia
904:Ireland
893:Iceland
882:Hungary
860:Germany
838:Finland
827:Estonia
816:Denmark
750:Belgium
739:Austria
634:History
292:hedging
272:between
242:costing
161:). The
80:Concept
55:tariffs
18:GDP PPP
3901:Thaler
3881:Ostrom
3876:Becker
3871:Sowell
3851:Baumol
3756:Myrdal
3751:Sraffa
3746:Frisch
3736:Knight
3731:Keynes
3706:Fisher
3701:Veblen
3686:Pareto
3666:Menger
3661:George
3656:Jevons
3651:Walras
3641:Gossen
3565:Thermo
3243:Public
3238:Policy
3193:Labour
3158:Health
2700:
2533:
2484:
2457:
2126:OECD.
1976:Turkey
1960:Taiwan
1944:Sweden
1888:Russia
1872:Poland
1848:Norway
1824:Mexico
1752:Greece
1736:France
1672:Brunei
1664:Brazil
1576:, the
1548:, the
1310:GDPdef
1290:GDPdef
1241:GDPdef
1221:GDPdef
1113:Turkey
1091:Sweden
1036:Poland
1025:Norway
992:Mexico
915:Israel
871:Greece
849:France
761:Canada
389:Issues
352:, the
4042:Trade
3987:Lists
3982:Index
3933:Lists
3906:Hoppe
3891:Lucas
3856:Solow
3846:Arrow
3836:Simon
3801:Lange
3796:Hicks
3771:Röpke
3761:Hayek
3711:Pigou
3681:Clark
3596:Smith
3511:Mixed
3470:Post-
3292:Urban
3272:Socio
3262:Rural
2809:(PDF)
2798:(PDF)
2639:(PDF)
2632:(PDF)
2605:(PDF)
2583:(PDF)
2531:S2CID
2455:JSTOR
2302:(PDF)
2243:(PDF)
1936:Spain
1800:Japan
1792:Italy
1776:India
1704:China
1696:Chile
1624:Price
1481:Japan
1080:Spain
937:Japan
926:Italy
772:Chile
223:Usage
178:India
153:(the
3922:more
3646:Marx
3636:Mill
3621:List
3499:Neo-
3455:Neo-
2698:ISSN
2647:2019
2495:2011
2482:ISBN
2254:2019
2132:OECD
2035:time
1489:The
1141:100
1138:100
1127:121
1108:127
1105:162
1094:109
1028:134
1017:118
1006:102
984:112
921:105
918:109
910:104
907:109
899:119
896:111
852:100
841:113
822:105
819:128
764:105
753:101
731:123
599:e.g.
595:e.g.
558:cost
452:rice
448:teff
276:e.g.
182:US$
96:nor
3886:Sen
3606:Say
3465:New
3198:Law
2523:doi
2447:doi
2314:doi
1984:UAE
1593:USD
1589:CHF
1554:KFC
1435:by
1379:UBS
1373:U,b
1369:U,i
1365:X,b
1361:X,i
1353:U,b
1349:X,b
1345:X,i
1130:95
1119:31
1116:61
1097:87
1086:69
1083:84
1075:66
1072:75
1064:66
1061:63
1053:64
1050:73
1042:51
1039:51
1031:92
1020:93
1009:84
998:65
995:66
987:98
976:59
965:64
954:69
951:84
943:69
940:96
932:73
929:94
888:55
885:52
877:63
874:78
866:80
863:94
855:80
844:92
833:74
830:71
811:63
808:59
800:67
789:44
778:52
775:67
767:90
756:84
745:82
742:99
734:96
552:).
533:).
477:IMF
345:In
260:.
176:in
157:or
35:PPP
4018::
2800:.
2730:.
2692:.
2663:.
2613:.
2607:.
2585:.
2529:.
2519:20
2517:.
2503:^
2453:.
2443:28
2441:.
2437:.
2401:.
2369:^
2334:.
2310:18
2308:.
2304:.
2271:.
2245:.
2230:^
2155:.
2151:.
2130:.
2116:^
2098:^
707:.
521:).
385:.
290:,
286:,
192:.
146:.
119:.
61:.
3959:)
3461:)
3457:(
3317:)
3313:(
2937:e
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2887:)
2734:.
2715:.
2678:.
2649:.
2537:.
2525::
2497:.
2461:.
2449::
2411:.
2363:.
2320:.
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2286:.
2256:.
2224:.
2134:.
1458:)
1452:(
1447:)
1443:(
1429:.
1322:b
1319:,
1316:U
1302:i
1299:,
1296:U
1277:b
1274:,
1271:U
1253:b
1250:,
1247:X
1233:i
1230:,
1227:X
1208:b
1205:,
1202:X
1187:=
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1179:,
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