493:
the case for the audiovisual images produced by the Game Genie. The court also considered the doctrine of fair use, emphasizing the fourth factor of the fair use test where the court analyzes the effect of the alleged infringement on the value of the original work. The court stated that even if the Game Genie did allow players to create a derivative work, those players were doing this as a nonprofit activity, and
Nintendo failed to show any economic harm from use of the Game Genie. The Game Genie did not supplant demand for Nintendo's games, as consumers would need to purchase the original game in order to use the add-on. The court concluded that Galoob had not directly infringed Nintendo's copyright, nor contributed to any infringing activity from Game Genie users. After the verdict, Nintendo tried to appeal the $ 15 million award in damages, but on February 17, 1994, the Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court's decision once again.
42:
345:, a device that attached to NES game cartridges to modify each game. The device functioned by intercepting data from a Nintendo game cartridge, and replacing it with new data based on player input, before projecting the final result onto a TV screen. In most cases, players could use the device to make an NES game easier to win. For example, a player could give themself unlimited lives, or make themselves invincible, or start at a later level, but the device also allowed more creative modifications, such as changing the player character into another sprite, or even accessing unused or unfinished parts of the game.
502:
1589:
431:
480:
conceded that this would be allowed under copyright. In determining that use of the Game Genie was non-infringing, Smith wrote that "having paid
Nintendo a fair return, the consumer may experiment with the product and create new variations of play, for personal enjoyment, without creating a derivative work". She also ruled in the alternative, that it would still fall under
264:
760:
492:
affirmed the lower court's decision on May 21, 1992. The appeals court ruled that the changes created by the Game Genie were not "fixed" in any permanent way, and thus no derivative work was created. A derivative work must incorporate a protected work in some concrete or permanent form, which is not
295:
first released in Japan in 1983, followed by its North
American debut in 1985. By the early 1990s, the system had become so popular that the market for Nintendo cartridges was larger than that for all home computer software. The console had over 500 games created by more than 60 companies, each with
484:
and was not infringing. The decision lifted the injunction on Galoob that had been in place for just over a year. Months later in
December, a hearing was held to determine how much of the $ 15 million bond would be awarded to Galoob to compensate for losses during the approximately one-year period
453:, preventing Galoob from selling the Game Genie until the dispute was fully resolved. It also ordered Nintendo to post a bond (initially $ 100,000, later increased to $ 15 million), in order to ensure Galoob be compensated for sales lost during the injunction, should Galoob win the case. Galoob
479:
ruled that Galoob had not violated
Nintendo's copyrights. In her ruling, Smith compared usage of the Game Genie to "skipping portions of a book" or fast-forwarding through a purchased movie. She also compared use of the Game Genie to altering a copyrighted board game for personal use; Nintendo
364:
jump higher. Galoob agreed to distribute the Game Genie in North
America, and Codemasters acquired every NES game available, so that they could discover and document the various "codes" that would alter the game's output. The Game Genie was announced in May 1990, and was set to launch in July.
422:, the judge concluded that Artic's speed-up kit incorporated copyrighted material from the game, and supplanted demand for Midway's game. By contrast, although the Game Genie altered the game's output and player experience, it did not alter the original cartridge in any way.
323:
in Las Vegas, Codemasters founder David
Darling tried to approach Nintendo's representatives, but they would not engage without an official appointment. Darling interpreted this as a "cold shoulder", and the company became determined to create an unauthorized
485:
they were prohibited from selling the Game Genie. Partly using extrapolated sales data from Canada, the court found that because Galoob's losses actually exceeded $ 15 million, it was entitled to the entire amount, plus legal fees.
666:
cases, arguing that it is not inherently copyright infringement to modify a game, unless that modification is saved as a copy and distributed to the public. Since modern mods are distributed to the public in a permanent form, the
142:
Manufacturer of product that allowed users to alter codes transmitted between video gaming console and game cartridge did not infringe console manufacturer's exclusive right, under federal copyright law, to create derivative
404:
games. Nintendo also alleged that Galoob contributed to infringement by encouraging their customers to make unauthorized derivative works using the Game Genie. Nintendo's reasoning relied heavily on the decision in
948:"Add-On Infringements: When Computer Add-Ons and Peripherals Should (and Should Not) Be Considered Infringing Derivative Works under Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc., and Other Recent Decisions"
374:
2581:
528:
The Game Genie was considered non-infringing for two major reasons: that it did not create a new permanent work, and that
Nintendo did not prove they experienced any present or potential market harm. In the
735:(1998), which limited people from creating technology that is "primarily designed or produced for the purpose of circumventing a technological measure that effectively controls access" to a protected work.
2453:
1593:
212:. Knowing that Nintendo did not authorize this, Galoob pre-emptively sued Nintendo in May 1990 to prevent them from blocking sales of the Game Genie, and Nintendo responded by suing for a preliminary
563:
reacted to both cases, comparing the court's interpretations of both derivative works and fair use, and concluded that courts were shifting to allow more interoperability between technologies.
220:
the Game Genie from being sold, Galoob ultimately succeeded when the case went to trial, also winning $ 15 million in damages. Nintendo tried to appeal the decision, but was unsuccessful.
2395:
583:(1984), concluding that a new technology shouldn't trigger copyright liability as long as it doesn't undermine a copyright owner's ability to earn a fair return for their works.
578:
559:
407:
533:, the author Patrick J. Flinn argued that Nintendo failed to take into account a fair use analysis, and that there was no real evidence that the Game Genie hurt their business.
458:
439:
159:
52:
190:
of their games, because the Game Genie did not create a new permanent work. The court also found that the alterations produced by the Game Genie qualified as non-commercial
2469:
435:
2072:
593:
court for following fair use doctrine and refining the definition of a derivative work, allowing new innovations without jeopardizing the incentive to innovate. The
2364:
727:
continue to guide the law around game modifications, that a permanent modification is likely copyright infringement, where an impermanent modification is not. The
525:, but only after Codemasters privately issued an ultimatum and promised to "open floodgates" through a lawsuit, according to Codemasters developer Richard Alpin.
2355:
2530:
2493:
2310:
2321:
1326:
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The question of whether a modification creates a new derivative work arose outside of the game industry in 2001, when television networks and studios sued
1371:
1047:
882:
597:
decision continues to influence legal discussions of fair use of copyrighted video game content, such as how to apply the principle of permanency to a
2571:
2192:
1418:
2561:
2077:
1198:
2586:
696:. However, SONICblue filed for bankruptcy, and its new ownership agreed to remove the commercial-skipping feature before courts could decide how
1487:"Mod Money, Mod Problems: A Critique of Copyright Restrictions on Video Game Modifications and an Evaluation of Associated Monetization Regimes"
373:
Knowing that
Nintendo would be unhappy with the Game Genie, Codemasters and Galoob initiated a lawsuit on May 17, 1990, against Nintendo in the
328:
for the NES, starting by reverse engineering the console and cracking
Nintendo's security measures. This allowed Codemasters to port their game
2576:
947:
709:
276:
1560:
392:
against Galoob, asking for an injunction of their own to prohibit sales of the Game Genie. Nintendo argued that the Game Genie violated their
2485:
1924:
1275:
839:
296:
a legal license to produce compatible game cartridges. By design, these cartridges were difficult for unauthorized third-parties to alter or
1537:
Gansheimer, Sara (2006). "The Family Entertainment and Copyright Act and Its Consequences and Implications for the Movie-Editing Industry".
1456:
1447:
2108:
1798:
731:
precedent has led courts to permit the use of third-party software to manipulate and cheat at other games. This was later addressed in the
585:
565:
1953:
2461:
2387:
2348:
2064:
1620:
912:
241:
is fair use. The case has also been cited for establishing the rights of users to modify copyrighted works for their own use, but the
2477:
2158:
1292:
769:
41:
2509:
732:
712:, which expressly permitted digital filtering, without changing the application of copyright law to cut-and-splice film edits.
2501:
1419:"Copyright, Derivative Works and Fixation: Is Galoob a Mirage, or Does the Form(GEN) of the Alleged Derivative Work Matter?"
2341:
2167:
2101:
791:
284:
272:
175:
1090:"Fair Use for Computer Programs and Other Copyrightable Works in Digital Form: the Implications of Sony, Galoob and Sega"
1061:
2601:
2187:
1975:
1970:
1965:
669:
517:
After the dispute, Codemasters became confident of the commercial potential of the Game Genie, as well as its legality.
1327:"Reverse Engineering and the Rise of Electronic Vigilantism: Intellectual Property Implications of "Lock-Out" Programs"
1089:
2596:
983:
539:
signaled a change in the legality of third party game products of all kinds. In the same year, the case was cited in
1486:
2591:
2419:
2136:
2115:
1441:
638:
309:
251:
1345:
2403:
2182:
2172:
1938:
792:"Galoob v. Nintendo: Derivative Works, Fair Use & Section 117 in the Realm of Computer Programs Enhancements"
505:
Codemasters became confident that the Game Genie did not infringe copyright, and began selling a version for the
320:
255:(1998), finding copyright infringement when making permanent modifications and distributing them to the public.
2445:
2379:
465:
325:
1513:"Legal Realism in Action: Indirect Copyright Liability's Continuing Tort Framework and Sony's De Facto Demise"
334:(1989) to the NES, and also allowed them to engineer a knob on the cartridge that could adjust the number of
1996:
761:
The Ultimate History of Video Games: The Story Behind the Craze that Touched our Lives and Changed the World
469:
308:
chip that prevented unauthorized games from booting on the Nintendo system. This was designed to discourage
646:
distinguished the infringement of Micro Star's compilation from the non-infringing Game Genie, because the
2054:
1613:
1177:
689:
618:
461:
affirmed the lower court's decision on February 7, 1991, and the dispute would proceed to trial in April.
450:
446:
224:
163:
1213:
1958:
1004:
393:
330:
1346:"Let's Play: A Walkthrough of Quarter-Century-Old Copyright Precedent as Applied to Modern Video Games"
1062:"Softright: A Legislative Solution to the Problem of Users' and Producers' Rights in Computer Software"
708:
technology that performed this filtering in real-time. The dispute became moot with the passage of the
2303:
2229:
1858:
472:'s Trial Division in February 1991. The court's Appeal Division upheld the decision on May 24, 1991.
378:
198:
171:
125:
2521:
2281:
1709:
297:
238:
205:
1111:
650:
compilation was a permanent derivative work, and it was misappropriating profits from a potential
2293:
2286:
1460:
1451:
609:
546:
335:
292:
228:
98:
1512:
2566:
2245:
2219:
2094:
1914:
1763:
1703:
1680:
1674:
1650:
1606:
1300:
1271:
835:
765:
464:
A similar lawsuit launched by Nintendo in November 1990 against Camerica in Canada seeking an
381:
that the Game Genie did not violate Nintendo's copyrights. Galoob also asked the court for an
360:'s son first encountered the device, he became fascinated by the Game Genie's ability to make
829:
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2436:
2298:
2044:
2031:
1894:
1813:
1758:
1743:
1662:
608:
By deterring companies from being overly litigious, the case was essential to the future of
541:
301:
233:
129:
81:
412:, where the court stopped Artic from selling hardware that could speed up the arcade game,
2261:
2177:
1899:
1889:
1828:
1803:
1773:
1753:
1372:"Modding: Amateur Authorship and How the Video Game Industry is Actually Getting It Right"
678:
489:
397:
204:
created the Game Genie to capitalize on the success of the Nintendo Entertainment System,
187:
626:. As third parties began to sell compilations of user-created levels, Micro Star created
521:
also came to an agreement with Codemasters to sell an official Game Genie device for the
2129:
2122:
2026:
1919:
1868:
1833:
1823:
1808:
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1788:
1778:
1768:
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755:
701:
246:
2555:
2039:
2006:
1843:
1838:
1239:
1144:
643:
632:
602:
598:
476:
242:
209:
1909:
1904:
1884:
1783:
1668:
883:"The Story Of The Game Genie, The Cheat Device Nintendo Tried (And Failed) To Kill"
636:, provoking a copyright dispute with the game's developers. In the ensuing lawsuit
550:
522:
506:
389:
357:
101:
1283 (N.D. Cal. 1991) (granting judgment for Galoob following two-week bench trial)
1394:
501:
17:
1265:
2153:
2049:
1991:
1863:
1853:
1848:
1818:
1715:
623:
316:
201:
430:
2431:
2224:
2001:
1748:
1588:
616:, video game mods became more widespread, particularly with the popularity of
382:
342:
268:
213:
167:
155:
1304:
488:
Nintendo appealed the verdict to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals, but the
705:
685:
401:
263:
194:, and none of the alterations were supplanting demand for Nintendo's games.
2333:
231:. The case was cited in another copyright dispute from the same time, with
2315:
1629:
1116:
693:
481:
414:
349:
288:
217:
191:
183:
831:
Women and Video Game Modding: Essays on Gender and the Digital Community
1199:"Video Games, Fair Use and the Internet: the Plight of the Let's Play"
454:
353:
179:
375:
United States District Court for the Northern District of California
208:
the hardware to produce a device that could attach to Nintendo game
1350:
Fordham Intellectual Property, Media and Entertainment Law Journal
1005:"Embattled Galoob Toys Wins Infringement Suit Brought by Nintendo"
500:
429:
361:
305:
1112:"When Nintendo fought a device that gave Mario 'new superpowers'"
545:(1992), which held that there was no copyright infringement when
2454:
Atari, Inc. v. North American Philips Consumer Electronics Corp.
612:
in the United States and globally. Soon after the court decided
554:
518:
510:
223:
The Game Genie sold millions of units, and the product line was
2337:
1602:
385:
to stop Nintendo from interfering with the Game Genie's sales.
828:
Whelan, Bridget; Kapell, Matthew Wilhelm (January 24, 2020).
1598:
1506:
1504:
2582:
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit cases
1037:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1029:
1027:
1025:
823:
821:
819:
817:
815:
813:
811:
809:
1167:
1165:
700:
applied. This issue also arose with the proliferation of
112:, 507 U.S. 985, 113 S. Ct. 1582, 123 L. Ed. 2d 149 (1993)
973:
971:
969:
967:
965:
560:
The Hastings Communication and Entertainment Law Journal
941:
939:
937:
935:
933:
319:
became interested in producing games for the NES. At a
1539:
Tulane Journal of Technology and Intellectual Property
63:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
2396:
Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International, Inc.
1267:
Handbook of Intellectual Property Claims and Remedies
1173:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc., v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
952:
Hastings Communications and Entertainment Law Journal
913:"Game Genie Was More Than The Sum of its Cheat Codes"
531:
Handbook of Intellectual Property Claims and Remedies
2412:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
1594:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
1043:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
440:
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
160:
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
151:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
53:
United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
35:
Lewis Galoob Toys, Inc. v. Nintendo of America, Inc.
2520:
2430:
2371:
2274:
2254:
2238:
2212:
2205:
2146:
2086:
2063:
2019:
1984:
1946:
1937:
1877:
1736:
1729:
1690:
1643:
1636:
1561:"Cheating In Gaming: Will Copyright Laws Level Up?"
136:
121:
116:
105:
93:
88:
76:
68:
58:
48:
34:
2470:Universal City Studios, Inc. v. Nintendo Co., Ltd.
1293:"Nintendo Loses Court Case On Video-Game Enhancer"
750:
748:
436:Richard H. Chambers United States Court of Appeals
1480:
1478:
1083:
1081:
1079:
1247:International Journal of Recent Research Aspects
979:Nintendo of America Inc v. Lewis Galoob Toys Inc
877:
875:
873:
871:
704:of films, particularly a 2003 dispute involving
1365:
1363:
1238:Mehfooz, Huma; Bhalla, Gaurav (December 2016).
869:
867:
865:
863:
861:
859:
857:
855:
853:
851:
580:Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios
408:Midway Manufacturing Co. v. Artic International
352:, Codemasters also presented the Game Genie to
1554:
1552:
1192:
1190:
1188:
1186:
710:Family Entertainment and Copyright Act of 2005
688:over the commercial-skipping feature of their
630:, a compilation of 300 custom made levels for
622:and the permissive attitude of its developer,
396:, infringing on their exclusive right to make
348:After securing distribution in Canada through
2531:Atari Games Corp. v. Nintendo of America Inc.
2349:
1614:
1412:
1410:
1408:
785:
783:
781:
174:that could alter the output of games for the
8:
2494:Tetris Holding, LLC v. Xio Interactive, Inc.
1450: (9th Cir. 1999), archived from
906:
904:
1050: (Dist. Court, ND California 1991).
946:Black, Edward G.; Page, Michael H. (1993).
764:. Roseville, California: Prima Publishing.
656:The Santa Clara High Technology Law Journal
2356:
2342:
2334:
2209:
1943:
1733:
1640:
1621:
1607:
1599:
998:
996:
994:
992:
341:These discoveries led them to develop the
40:
31:
1156:
315:In the late 1980s, a UK developer called
2073:Entertainment Planning & Development
1511:Menell, Peter S.; Nimmer, David (2007).
566:The Journal of Intellectual Property Law
262:
2322:Symphonic Legends – Music from Nintendo
1423:Santa Clara High Technology Law Journal
1206:Journal of Law, Technology & Policy
790:Kesler, Christopher A. (October 1993).
744:
300:. Each cartridge was manufactured with
1559:Rothberg, Joseph (September 1, 2016).
1491:William & Mary Business Law Review
670:William & Mary Business Law Review
577:cases to the earlier fair use case in
2486:Capcom U.S.A. Inc. v. Data East Corp.
1264:Flinn, Patrick J. (January 1, 2000).
586:The Golden Gate University Law Review
553:to publish third party games without
356:, an American toy manufacturer. When
27:1992 American court case on copyright
7:
1291:Fisher, Lawrence M. (July 6, 1991).
1094:Journal of Intellectual Property Law
279:to intercept and transform its data.
2462:Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman
2388:Stern Electronics, Inc. v. Kaufman
1370:Wallace, Ryan (January 27, 2014).
1088:Samuelson, Pamela (October 1993).
25:
2478:Data East USA, Inc. v. Epyx, Inc.
1393:Rowe, Garrett (October 5, 1996).
1240:"Copyrightability of Video Games"
796:Golden Gate University Law Review
475:On July 12, 1991, District Judge
237:(1992) further establishing that
2572:United States copyright case law
2510:Stardock Systems, Inc. v. Reiche
2311:Intellectual property protection
1587:
1060:Jensen, Mary Brandt (May 1984).
733:Digital Millennium Copyright Act
445:On July 2, 1990, District Judge
2562:United States computer case law
2078:Platform Technology Development
1003:Groves, Martha (July 6, 1991).
986: (9th Cir. 1993-12-14).
911:McGee, Maxwell (May 30, 2014).
2587:1992 in United States case law
2502:Spry Fox, LLC v. Lolapps, Inc.
1485:Lindstrom, Carl (April 2020).
1140:Nintendo of Am v Camerica Corp
459:Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals
182:'s Game Genie did not violate
1:
2577:Video game copyright case law
2102:Nintendo La Rivista Ufficiale
834:. McFarland. pp. 12–13.
285:Nintendo Entertainment System
176:Nintendo Entertainment System
2188:Nintendo World Championships
178:. The court determined that
162:concluded that there was no
186:'s exclusive right to make
2618:
2420:Micro Star v. FormGen Inc.
2137:Official Nintendo Magazine
1442:Micro Star v. FormGen Inc.
388:Nintendo responded with a
338:for the player character.
252:Micro Star v. FormGen Inc.
2404:Atari Games Corp. v. Oman
2372:Eligibility and ownership
2173:Nintendo Campus Challenge
2036:Nintendo Network Services
1048:780 F. Supp. 1283
321:Consumer Electronics Show
141:
39:
2446:Atari v. Amusement World
2380:Atari v. Amusement World
2365:Video game copyright law
2109:Nintendo Magazine System
466:interlocutory injunction
457:the injunction, but the
227:with versions for other
2116:Nintendo Player's Guide
1997:Nintendo Tumbler Puzzle
715:The copyright cases of
549:reverse engineered the
470:Federal Court of Canada
426:Injunction and decision
271:could be attached to a
2183:Nintendo PowerFest '94
2055:Nintendo Switch Online
514:
451:preliminary injunction
447:Robert Howard Schnacke
442:
304:hardware, including a
280:
216:. Although the courts
164:copyright infringement
2168:Iwata Asks interviews
1448:154 F.3d 1107
1417:Ochoa, Tyler (2004).
1344:Coogan, Kyle (2018).
1325:Cohen, Julie (1995).
1212:: 250. Archived from
1197:Taylor, Ivan (2015).
639:Micro Star v. FormGen
504:
468:was dismissed by the
433:
394:intellectual property
331:Treasure Island Dizzy
266:
132:, and David V. Kenyon
2304:Nintendo Space World
2230:Super Nintendo World
1859:Hidemaro Fujibayashi
1178:964 F.2d 965
1147: (FCA 1991).
1145:127 N.R. 232
1066:Louisiana Law Review
509:, after threatening
379:declaratory judgment
199:video game developer
172:video game accessory
2602:Nintendo litigation
2522:Reverse engineering
1691:Nintendo of America
1120:. November 18, 2020
984:16 F3d 1032
889:. December 26, 2021
449:granted Nintendo a
438:, which houses the
239:reverse engineering
206:reverse engineering
2597:Video game modding
2163:World Championship
2065:Software divisions
1644:Nintendo Co., Ltd.
1297:The New York Times
1270:. Wolters Kluwer.
1219:on August 26, 2022
610:video game modding
569:compared both the
557:'s authorization.
515:
443:
281:
106:Subsequent actions
18:Galoob v. Nintendo
2592:Fair use case law
2549:
2548:
2331:
2330:
2270:
2269:
2246:Nintendo MĂ©gadĂ´me
2220:Nintendo New York
2095:Nintendo Fun Club
2015:
2014:
1933:
1932:
1915:Hirokazu Yasuhara
1764:Yasuhisa Yamamura
1725:
1724:
1704:Tatsumi Kimishima
1681:Shuntaro Furukawa
1675:Tatsumi Kimishima
1651:Fusajiro Yamauchi
1592:Works related to
1277:978-0-7355-1125-5
1009:Los Angeles Times
841:978-1-4766-6743-0
537:Galoob v Nintendo
497:Impact and legacy
147:
146:
16:(Redirected from
2609:
2539:Sega v. Accolade
2358:
2351:
2344:
2335:
2299:Nintendo Selects
2210:
2045:Nintendo Account
2032:Nintendo Network
1944:
1814:Yoshiaki Koizumi
1759:Tadashi Sugiyama
1744:Shigeru Miyamoto
1734:
1710:Reggie Fils-Aimé
1663:Hiroshi Yamauchi
1641:
1623:
1616:
1609:
1600:
1591:
1576:
1575:
1573:
1571:
1556:
1547:
1546:
1545:(2006): 173–187.
1534:
1528:
1527:
1517:
1508:
1499:
1498:
1482:
1473:
1472:
1470:
1468:
1459:. Archived from
1445:
1437:
1431:
1430:
1414:
1403:
1402:
1390:
1384:
1383:
1367:
1358:
1357:
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542:Sega v. Accolade
398:derivative works
302:read-only memory
298:reverse engineer
234:Sega v. Accolade
188:derivative works
130:Pamela Ann Rymer
117:Court membership
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2011:
1980:
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1900:Hirokazu Tanaka
1890:Masayuki Uemura
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1829:Hiroyuki Kimura
1804:Hiroji Kiyotake
1774:Akito Nakatsuka
1754:Yoshio Sakamoto
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1463:on May 17, 2010
1457:"154 F.3d 1107"
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756:Kent, Steven L.
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681:" for modders.
679:pyrrhic victory
513:with a lawsuit.
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2130:Nintendo World
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2123:Nintendo Power
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1824:Shigefumi Hino
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1794:Satoru Shibata
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1727:
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1718:(2019–present)
1713:
1707:
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1698:Minoru Arakawa
1694:
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1684:
1683:(2018–present)
1678:
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1666:
1660:
1657:Sekiryo Kaneda
1654:
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1628:
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1618:
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1596:at Wikisource
1584:
1583:External links
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1500:
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1432:
1429:(4): 991–1044.
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1376:BYU Law Review
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1497:(3): 811–843.
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1159:, p. 76.
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1014:September 12,
1010:
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997:
995:
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974:
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958:(3): 615–652.
957:
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887:Nintendo Life
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802:(2): 489–513.
801:
797:
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786:
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773:
771:0-7615-3643-4
767:
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749:
745:
738:
736:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
713:
711:
707:
703:
702:"clean" edits
699:
695:
691:
690:digital video
687:
682:
680:
676:
672:
671:
665:
661:
658:compared the
657:
653:
649:
645:
644:Alex Kozinski
641:
640:
635:
634:
633:Duke Nukem 3D
629:
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477:Fern M. Smith
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369:Legal dispute
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249:by courts in
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140:
137:Case opinions
135:
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127:
126:Jerome Farris
124:
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19:
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2320:
2193:
2160:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2114:
2107:
2100:
2093:
2087:Publications
1959:mobile games
1910:Gunpei Yokoi
1905:Satoru Okada
1885:Genyo Takeda
1784:Hideki Konno
1669:Satoru Iwata
1586:
1568:. Retrieved
1564:
1542:
1538:
1532:
1523:
1519:
1494:
1490:
1465:. Retrieved
1461:the original
1452:the original
1440:
1435:
1426:
1422:
1398:
1388:
1379:
1375:
1353:
1349:
1339:
1330:
1320:
1308:. Retrieved
1296:
1286:
1266:
1259:
1250:
1246:
1233:
1221:. Retrieved
1214:the original
1209:
1205:
1172:
1152:
1139:
1134:
1122:. Retrieved
1115:
1106:
1100:(1): 49–118.
1097:
1093:
1069:
1065:
1055:
1042:
1012:. Retrieved
1008:
978:
955:
951:
922:September 4,
920:. Retrieved
916:
893:September 4,
891:. Retrieved
886:
830:
799:
795:
759:
728:
724:
720:
716:
714:
697:
683:
677:decision a "
674:
668:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
637:
631:
627:
617:
613:
607:
594:
590:
589:praised the
584:
579:
574:
570:
564:
558:
551:Sega Genesis
540:
536:
535:
530:
527:
523:Sega Genesis
516:
507:Sega Genesis
487:
474:
463:
444:
419:
413:
406:
390:counterclaim
387:
377:, seeking a
372:
358:Lewis Galoob
347:
340:
329:
314:
282:
250:
232:
222:
196:
166:made by the
150:
149:
148:
110:cert. denied
109:
94:Prior action
89:Case history
72:May 21, 1992
62:
29:
2194:NES Edition
2154:Camp Hyrule
2050:My Nintendo
1992:Love Tester
1971:Controllers
1954:Video games
1947:Video games
1864:Bill Trinen
1854:Aya Kyogoku
1849:Risa Tabata
1819:Eiji Aonuma
1716:Doug Bowser
1712:(2006–2019)
1706:(2002–2006)
1700:(1980–2002)
1677:(2015–2018)
1671:(2002–2015)
1665:(1949–2002)
1659:(1929–1949)
1653:(1889–1929)
1467:October 20,
1253:(4): 66–77.
1124:January 19,
673:called the
624:Id Software
599:live stream
402:copyrighted
317:Codemasters
310:counterfeit
287:(NES) is a
202:Codemasters
2556:Categories
2432:Plagiarism
2225:Shigureden
2002:Ultra Hand
1976:Characters
1749:Koji Kondo
1637:Presidents
1570:August 26,
1331:Georgetown
1310:August 26,
1223:August 28,
739:References
725:Micro Star
660:Micro Star
652:Duke Nukem
603:Let's Play
383:injunction
343:Game Genie
269:Game Genie
259:Background
214:injunction
210:cartridges
168:Game Genie
158:where the
156:legal case
154:is a 1992
2294:Marketing
2287:Data leak
2213:Operating
2206:Locations
1395:"Nuke It"
1356:(2): 416.
1305:0362-4331
706:ClearPlay
692:service,
686:SONICblue
400:of their
277:cartridge
2567:Nintendo
2316:Bergsala
2255:Upcoming
2159:Classic
2020:Services
1966:Consoles
1939:Products
1630:Nintendo
1117:CBC News
917:GameSpot
758:(2001).
694:ReplayTV
654:sequel.
547:Accolade
482:fair use
455:appealed
415:Galaxian
350:Camerica
289:Nintendo
273:Nintendo
229:consoles
225:extended
218:enjoined
192:fair use
184:Nintendo
99:F. Supp.
77:Citation
2282:History
2275:Related
2239:Defunct
1526:(2007).
648:Nuke-It
628:Nuke-It
312:games.
293:console
243:holding
69:Decided
2542:(1992)
2534:(1992)
2513:(2018)
2505:(2012)
2497:(2012)
2489:(1994)
2481:(1988)
2473:(1984)
2465:(1982)
2457:(1982)
2449:(1981)
2437:clones
2423:(1998)
2415:(1992)
2407:(1992)
2399:(1983)
2391:(1982)
2383:(1981)
2161:Tetris
2147:Events
1878:Former
1737:Active
1730:People
1565:Forbes
1446:,
1303:
1274:
1176:,
1143:,
1046:,
982:,
838:
768:
729:Galoob
723:, and
721:Galoob
717:Midway
698:Galoob
675:Galoob
664:Galoob
614:Galoob
595:Galoob
591:Galoob
575:Galoob
420:Midway
410:(1983)
354:Galoob
180:Galoob
143:works.
1516:(PDF)
1243:(PDF)
1217:(PDF)
1202:(PDF)
418:. In
362:Mario
336:lives
306:10NES
291:game
275:game
49:Court
2435:and
1985:Toys
1572:2022
1469:2010
1380:2014
1312:2022
1301:ISSN
1272:ISBN
1225:2022
1210:2015
1126:2023
1016:2022
924:2022
895:2022
836:ISBN
766:ISBN
662:and
619:Doom
573:and
571:Sega
555:Sega
519:Sega
511:Sega
434:The
283:The
267:The
245:was
170:, a
97:780
82:F.2d
80:964
601:or
197:UK
84:965
2558::
1563:.
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780:^
747:^
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128:,
2357:e
2350:t
2343:v
1622:e
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20:)
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