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stars and gas but not dark matter). This so-called radial acceleration relation (RAR) might be fundamental for understanding the dynamics of galaxies. The same relation provided a good fit for 2693 samples in 153 rotating galaxies, with diverse shapes, masses, sizes, and gas fractions. Brightness in the near infrared, where the more stable light from red giants dominates, was used to estimate the density contribution due to stars more consistently. The results are consistent with MOND, and place limits on alternative explanations involving dark matter alone. However, cosmological simulations within a Lambda-CDM framework that include baryonic feedback effects reproduce the same relation, without the need to invoke new dynamics (such as MOND). Thus, a contribution due to dark matter itself can be fully predictable from that of the baryons, once the feedback effects due to the dissipative collapse of baryons are taken into account. MOND is not a relativistic theory, although relativistic theories which reduce to MOND have been proposed, such as
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missing matter. Babcock's measurements turned out to disagree substantially with those found later, and the first measurement of an extended rotation curve in good agreement with modern data was published in 1957 by Henk van de Hulst and collaborators, who studied M31 with the newly commissioned
Dwingeloo 25 meter telescope. A companion paper by Maarten Schmidt showed that this rotation curve could be fit by a flattened mass distribution more extensive than the light. In 1959, Louise Volders used the same telescope to demonstrate that the spiral galaxy
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783:. Dark matter is believed to dominate the gravitational potential of galaxies and clusters of galaxies. Under this theory, galaxies are baryonic condensations of stars and gas (namely hydrogen and helium) that lie at the centers of much larger haloes of dark matter, affected by a gravitational instability caused by primordial density fluctuations.
40:
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77:, and the data observed from each side of a spiral galaxy are generally asymmetric, so that data from each side are averaged to create the curve. A significant discrepancy exists between the experimental curves observed, and a curve derived by applying gravity theory to the matter observed in a galaxy. Theories involving
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Since observations of galaxy rotation do not match the distribution expected from application of Kepler's laws, they do not match the distribution of luminous matter. This implies that spiral galaxies contain large amounts of dark matter or, alternatively, the existence of exotic physics in action on
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reported in his PhD thesis measurements of the rotation curve for
Andromeda which suggested that the mass-to-luminosity ratio increases radially. He attributed that to either the absorption of light within the galaxy or to modified dynamics in the outer portions of the spiral and not to any form of
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Using data from the
Spitzer Photometry and Accurate Rotation Curves (SPARC) database, a group has found that the radial acceleration traced by rotation curves (an effect given the name "radial acceleration relation") could be predicted just from the observed baryon distribution (that is, including
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is assumed to be correct, it would follow that most of the mass of the galaxy had to be in the galactic bulge near the center and that the stars and gas in the disk portion should orbit the center at decreasing velocities with radial distance from the galactic center (the dashed line in Fig. 1).
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Observations of the rotation curve of spirals, however, do not bear this out. Rather, the curves do not decrease in the expected inverse square root relationship but are "flat", i.e. outside of the central bulge the speed is nearly a constant (the solid line in Fig. 1). It is also observed that
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The rotational/orbital speeds of galaxies/stars do not follow the rules found in other orbital systems such as stars/planets and planets/moons that have most of their mass at the centre. Stars revolve around their galaxy's centre at equal or increasing speed over a large range of distances. In
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wrote that "the distribution of mass in the system appears to bear almost no relation to that of light... one finds the ratio of mass to light in the outer parts of NGC 3115 to be about 250". On page 302–303 of his journal article, he wrote that "The strongly condensed luminous system appears
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Many cosmologists strive to understand the nature and the history of these ubiquitous dark haloes by investigating the properties of the galaxies they contain (i.e. their luminosities, kinematics, sizes, and morphologies). The measurement of the kinematics (their positions, velocities and
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is a persistent problem for the standard cold dark matter theory. Simulations involving the feedback of stellar energy into the interstellar medium in order to alter the predicted dark matter distribution in the innermost regions of galaxies are frequently invoked in this context.
34:
Rotation curve of spiral galaxy
Messier 33 (yellow and blue points with error bars), and a predicted one from distribution of the visible matter (gray line). The discrepancy between the two curves can be accounted for by adding a dark matter halo surrounding the
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The galaxy rotation problem is the discrepancy between observed galaxy rotation curves and the theoretical prediction, assuming a centrally dominated mass associated with the observed luminous material. When mass profiles of galaxies are calculated from the
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imbedded in a large and more or less homogeneous mass of great density" and although he went on to speculate that this mass may be either extremely faint dwarf stars or interstellar gas and dust, he had clearly detected the dark matter halo of this galaxy.
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in 1983, which modifies the
Newtonian force law at low accelerations to enhance the effective gravitational attraction. MOND has had a considerable amount of success in predicting the rotation curves of low-surface-brightness galaxies, matching the
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does not apply universally or that, conservatively, upwards of 50% of the mass of galaxies was contained in the relatively dark galactic halo. Although initially met with skepticism, Rubin's results have been confirmed over the subsequent decades.
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and then read its rotation rate from its location on the Tully–Fisher diagram. Conversely, knowing the rotational velocity of a spiral galaxy gives its luminosity. Thus the magnitude of the galaxy rotation is related to the galaxy's visible mass.
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While precise fitting of the bulge, disk, and halo density profiles is a rather complicated process, it is straightforward to model the observables of rotating galaxies through this relationship. So, while state-of-the-art cosmological and
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Very importantly, the analysis of the inner parts of low and high surface brightness galaxies showed that the shape of the rotation curves in the centre of dark-matter dominated systems indicates a profile different from the
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the discovery that most stars in spiral galaxies orbit at roughly the same speed, and that this implied that galaxy masses grow approximately linearly with radius well beyond the location of most of the stars (the
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included can be matched to galaxy observations, there is not yet any straightforward explanation as to why the observed scaling relationship exists. Additionally, detailed investigations of the rotation curves of
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accelerations) of the observable stars and gas has become a tool to investigate the nature of dark matter, as to its content and distribution relative to that of the various baryonic components of those galaxies.
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807:, which shows that for spiral galaxies the rotational velocity is uniquely related to their total luminosity. A consistent way to predict the rotational velocity of a spiral galaxy is to measure its
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The authors then remarked that a "gently changing logarithmic slope" for a density profile function could also accommodate approximately flat rotation curves over large scales. They found the famous
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to some inner "core radius" where the density is then assumed constant. Observations do not comport with such a simple profile, as reported by
Navarro, Frenk, and White in a seminal 1996 paper.
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indicated that they moved faster than expected when a mass distribution based upon visible matter was assumed, but these measurements were later determined to be essentially erroneous. In 1939,
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The rotation curves might be explained by hypothesizing the existence of a substantial amount of matter permeating the galaxy outside of the central bulge that is not emitting light in the
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Rubin, V.; Thonnard, N.; Ford, W. K. Jr. (1980). "Rotational
Properties of 21 Sc Galaxies with a Large Range of Luminosities and Radii from NGC 4605 (R=4kpc) to UGC 2885 (R=122kpc)".
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Rubin, V.; Thonnard, N.; Ford, W. K. Jr. (1980). "Rotational
Properties of 21 Sc Galaxies With a Large Range of Luminosities and Radii from NGC 4605 (R=4kpc) to UGC 2885 (R=122kpc)".
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that are more extended and less dense than those of galaxies with high surface brightness, and thus surface brightness is related to the halo properties. Such dark-matter-dominated
672:, are parameters that vary from halo to halo. Because the slope of the density profile diverges at the center, other alternative profiles have been proposed, for example the
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In order to accommodate a flat rotation curve, a density profile for a galaxy and its environs must be different than one that is centrally concentrated. Newton's version of
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The explanation of the mass discrepancy in spiral galaxies by means of massive and extensive dark component was first put forward by A. Bosma in a PhD dissertation, see
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galactic scales. The additional invisible component becomes progressively more conspicuous in each galaxy at outer radii and among galaxies in the less luminous ones.
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Rubin, V.C.; Thonnard, N.; Ford, W.K. Jr. (1978). "Extended rotation curves of high-luminosity spiral galaxies. IV – Systematic dynamical properties, SA through SC".
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Though dark matter is by far the most accepted explanation of the rotation problem, other proposals have been offered with varying degrees of success. Of the
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There have been a number of attempts to solve the problem of galaxy rotation by modifying gravity without invoking dark matter. One of the most discussed is
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152:
1798:"Dark Matter Less Influential in Galaxies in Early Universe – VLT observations of distant galaxies suggest they were dominated by normal matter"
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Van de Hulst, H.C; et al. (1957). "Rotation and density distribution of the
Andromeda nebula derived from observations of the 21-cm line".
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S. S. McGaugh; W. J. G. de Blok (1998). "Testing the
Hypothesis of Modified Dynamics with Low Surface Brightness Galaxies and Other Evidence".
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within those systems. The mass estimations for galaxies based on the light they emit are far too low to explain the velocity observations.
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are consistent with the mass density distributions of the visible matter, avoiding the need for a massive halo of exotic dark matter.
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1689:"Empirical Models for Dark Matter Halos. I. Nonparametric Construction of Density Profiles and Comparison with Parametric Models"
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galaxies with a uniform distribution of luminous matter have a rotation curve that rises from the center to the edge, and most
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contrast, the orbital velocities of planets in planetary systems and moons orbiting planets decline with distance according to
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Left: A simulated galaxy without dark matter. Right: Galaxy with a flat rotation curve that would be expected with dark matter.
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163:
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Stacy McGaugh; Federico Lelli; Jim Schombert (2016). "The Radial Acceleration Relation in Rotationally Supported Galaxies".
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Schmidt, M (1957). "Rotation and density distribution of the Andromeda nebula derived from observations of the 21-cm line".
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A popular interpretation of these observations is that about 26% of the mass of the Universe is composed of dark matter, a
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The Unknown Universe: The Origin of the Universe, Quantum Gravity, Wormholes, and Other Things Science Still Can't Explain
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284:
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Rubin, V.; Ford, W. K. Jr. (1970). "Rotation of the Andromeda Nebula from a Spectroscopic Survey of Emission Regions".
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Some Problems Concerning the Structure and Dynamics of the Galactic System and the Elliptical Nebulae NGC 3115 and 4494
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829:(LSB galaxies) in the 1990s and of their position on the Tully–Fisher relation showed that LSB galaxies had to have
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Beordo, William; Crosta, Mariateresa; Lattanzi, Mario G.; Re Fiorentin, Paola; Spagna, Alessandro (April 2024).
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Help add sources such as review articles, monographs, or textbooks. Please also establish the relevance for any
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Cooperstock, Fred I., and S. Tieu. "General relativity resolves galactic rotation without exotic dark matter."
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1960:"Impact of baryon physics on dark matter structures: a detailed simulation study of halo density profiles"
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in the stellar disks, they do not match with the masses derived from the observed rotation curves and the
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J. D. Bekenstein (2004). "Relativistic gravitation theory for the modified Newtonian dynamics paradigm".
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483:{\displaystyle \rho (r)={\frac {v(r)^{2}}{4\pi Gr^{2}}}\left(1+2~{\frac {d\log v(r)}{d\log r}}\right)}
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to a greater degree of accuracy than had ever before been achieved. Together with fellow staff-member
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The Distribution and Kinematics of Neutral Hydrogen in Spiral Galaxies of Various Morphological Types
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The Distribution and Kinematics of Neutral Hydrogen in Spiral Galaxies of Various Morphological Types
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645:{\displaystyle \rho (r)={\frac {\rho _{0}}{{\frac {r}{R_{s}}}\left(1+{\frac {r}{R_{s}}}\right)^{2}}}}
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266:). Rubin presented her results in an influential paper in 1980. These results suggested either that
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2072:"The Tully-Fisher relation for low surface brightness galaxies: implications for galaxy evolution"
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Comparison of rotating disc galaxies in the present day (left) and the distant Universe (right).
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Weinberg, David H.; et, al. (2008). "Baryon Dynamics, Dark Matter Substructure, and Galaxies".
298:, the existence of which was first posited in the 1930s by Jan Oort in his measurements of the
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S. S. McGaugh; M. Milgrom (2013). "Andromeda Dwarfs in Light of Modified Newtonian Dynamics".
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Observations of orbit velocities in spiral galaxies suggest a mass structure according to:
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S. S. McGaugh (2011). "Novel Test of Modified Newtonian Dynamics with Gas Rich Galaxies".
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250:
74:
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Crosta, Mariateresa; Giammaria, Marco; Lattanzi, Mario G.; Poggio, Eloisa (August 2020).
2569:"On the fundamentality of the radial acceleration relation for late-type galaxy dynamics"
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234:(Carnegie Double Astrograph) was intended to study this problem of Galactic rotation.
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The rotational dynamics of galaxies are well characterized by their position on the
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Primary research report discussing Oort limit, and citing original Oort 1932 study.
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2423:
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ratio of the central bulge. The material responsible for the extra mass was dubbed
246:
2847:
676:, which has exhibited better agreement with certain dark matter halo simulations.
3003:"The Mass Distribution in the Galactic Disc – III. The Local Volume Mass Density"
2222:
1564:"The universal rotation curve of spiral galaxies – I. The dark matter connection"
1223:
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1106:"Extended Rotation Curves of Spiral Galaxies: Dark Haloes and Modified Dynamics"
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78:
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2798:"Galactic Dynamics Via General Relativity: A Compilation and New Developments"
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Zwaan, M. A.; van der Hulst, J. M.; de Blok, W. J. G.; McGaugh, S. S. (1995).
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2018:
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2019:"The dark and visible matter content of low surface brightness disc galaxies"
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1563:
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907:
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2431:
1797:
2916:"Geometry-driven and dark-matter-sustained Milky Way rotation curves with
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166:
cited. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and removed.
2863:"On testing CDM and geometry-driven Milky Way rotation curve models with
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2959:"Galactic rotation curve and dark matter according to gravitomagnetism"
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Gentile, G.; Salucci, P.; Klein, U.; Vergani, D.; Kalberla, P. (2004).
267:
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879:, and the velocity dispersions of the small satellite galaxies of the
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3424:
3154:
73:
from that galaxy's centre. It is typically rendered graphically as a
2184:"High-resolution rotation curves of low surface brightness galaxies"
1687:
Merritt, D.; Graham, A.; Moore, B.; Diemand, J.; Terzić, B. (2006).
933:'s rotation curve without requiring any dark matter if instead of a
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1933:
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1743:
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1688:
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1618:
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1419:
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metric was also proposed, showing that the rotation curves for the
113:
and to assume its distribution from the galaxy's center out to its
3512:
3507:
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3081:
2467:
2406:
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1976:
1208:
794:
241:, an astronomer at the Department of Terrestrial Magnetism at the
109:. A solution to this conundrum is to hypothesize the existence of
38:
29:
198:
became the first to report that measurements of the stars in the
1200:
For an extensive discussion of the data and its fit to MOND see
66:
3127:
1249:
Babcock, H. W. (1939). "The rotation of the Andromeda Nebula".
753:{\displaystyle v(r)=\left(r\,{\frac {d\Phi }{dr}}\right)^{1/2}}
338:
implies that the spherically symmetric, radial density profile
81:
are the main postulated solutions to account for the variance.
135:
1742:
Merritt, D.; Navarro, J. F.; Ludlow, A.; Jenkins, A. (2005).
992:"The Connection Between Galaxies and Their Dark Matter Halos"
944:
In March 2021, Gerson Otto Ludwig published a model based on
2696:
J. W. Moffat (2006). "Scalar tensor vector gravity theory".
3123:
1744:"A Universal Density Profile for Dark and Luminous Matter?"
2125:"The cored distribution of dark matter in spiral galaxies"
1824:"The radial Tully-Fisher relation for spiral galaxies – I"
1353:
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands
1350:
Volders, L. (1959). "Neutral hydrogen in M 33 and M 101".
1322:
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands
1291:
Bulletin of the Astronomical Institutes of the Netherlands
2602:"Λ is Consistent with SPARC Radial Acceleration Relation"
925:
According to recent analysis of the data produced by the
1885:"Reliance on Indirect Evidence Fuels Dark Matter Doubts"
1399:
Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
287:(LSB galaxies) have the same anomalous rotation curve.
1617:
Navarro, J. F.; Frenk, C. S.; White, S. D. M. (1996).
1104:
Begeman, K. G.; Broeils, A. H.; Sanders, R.H. (1991).
128:(MOND), which involves modifying the laws of gravity.
3938:
2744:"The dark matter problem from f(R) gravity viewpoint"
685:
553:
511:. This profile closely matches the expectations of a
355:
779:
type of matter which does not emit or interact with
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3161:
990:Wechsler, Risa H.; Tinker, Jeremy L. (2018-09-14).
3067:Bergstrom, Lars (2009). "Dark Matter Candidates".
853:spatial mass distribution profile. This so-called
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644:
482:
3008:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2925:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2872:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2600:Keller, B. W.; Wadsley, J. W. (23 January 2017).
2573:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2129:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2077:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2024:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1964:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1829:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1569:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
1111:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
929:, it would seem possible to explain at least the
249:that could measure the velocity curve of edge-on
1196:
1194:
121:
27:Observed discrepancy in galactic angular momenta
2698:Journal of Cosmology and Astroparticle Physics
2246:"Dark Matter in galaxies: Leads to its Nature"
3780:List of the most distant astronomical objects
3139:
1672:Ostlie, Dale A.; Carroll, Bradley W. (2017).
65:) is a plot of the orbital speeds of visible
8:
1518:
1516:
211:also does not spin as expected according to
3120:'s approach to the problem. (November 2016)
2796:Cooperstock, F. I.; Tieu, S. (2007-05-20).
2567:Stiskalek, Richard; Desmond, Harry (2023).
996:Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics
526:is approximately constant then the density
501:is the radial orbital velocity profile and
257:, Rubin announced at a 1975 meeting of the
3146:
3132:
3124:
1676:. Cambridge University Press. p. 918.
1562:Persic, M.; Salucci, P.; Stel, F. (1996).
948:that explains galaxy rotation curves with
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2813:
2802:International Journal of Modern Physics A
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1619:"The Structure of Cold Dark Matter Halos"
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1418:
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1303:
1264:
1228:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1999.
1207:
1202:Milgrom, M. (2007). "The MOND Paradigm".
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1007:
740:
736:
711:
710:
684:
633:
620:
611:
591:
582:
575:
569:
552:
434:
408:
387:
371:
354:
182:Learn how and when to remove this message
2742:S. Capozziello; M. De Laurentis (2012).
3945:
2017:de Blok, W. J. G.; McGaugh, S. (1997).
982:
820:simulations of dark matter with normal
2244:Salucci, P.; De Laurentis, M. (2012).
1674:An Introduction to Modern Astrophysics
902:A model of galaxy rotation based on a
314:(CDM) is today a major feature of the
2182:de Blok, W. J. G.; Bosma, A. (2002).
1822:Yegorova, I. A.; Salucci, P. (2007).
7:
962:List of unsolved problems in physics
1155:. Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press.
1018:10.1146/annurev-astro-081817-051756
237:In the late 1960s and early 1970s,
69:or gas in that galaxy versus their
717:
513:singular isothermal sphere profile
243:Carnegie Institution of Washington
25:
4017:Physics beyond the Standard Model
1484:The Astrophysical Journal Letters
972:Nonsymmetric gravitational theory
899:of Capozziello and De Laurentis.
3984:
3972:
3960:
3948:
3920:
3909:
3908:
2160:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2004.07836.x
1995:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.16613.x
1861:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2007.11637.x
1275:10.5479/ADS/bib/1939LicOB.19.41B
1185:NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
1151:Hammond, Richard (May 1, 2008).
1061:NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database
837:may hold the key to solving the
543:, which is consistent both with
306:in his studies of the masses of
140:
99:distribution of stars in spirals
3001:Kuijken K.; Gilmore G. (1989).
2984:10.1140/epjc/s10052-021-08967-3
2963:The European Physical Journal C
2784:arXiv preprint astro-ph/0507619
1883:Dorminey, Bruce (30 Dec 2010).
1225:Oxford Dictionary of Scientists
937:the entire set of equations of
870:(MOND), originally proposed by
827:low-surface-brightness galaxies
285:low-surface-brightness galaxies
3851:Galaxy formation and evolution
3846:Galaxy color–magnitude diagram
3099:10.1088/1367-2630/11/10/105006
2538:10.1103/physrevlett.117.201101
2424:10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.121303
1395:"1947PASP...59..182S Page 182"
877:baryonic Tully–Fisher relation
695:
689:
563:
557:
455:
449:
384:
377:
365:
359:
245:, worked with a new sensitive
1:
2728:10.1088/1475-7516/2006/03/004
312:non-baryonic cold dark matter
259:American Astronomical Society
157:secondary or tertiary sources
124:, one of the most notable is
3114:The Case Against Dark Matter
2957:Ludwig, G. O. (2021-02-23).
2192:Astronomy & Astrophysics
893:scalar–tensor–vector gravity
889:tensor–vector–scalar gravity
3733:Galaxies named after people
2637:10.3847/2041-8213/835/1/L17
1174:Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
1050:Rijksuniversiteit Groningen
868:modified Newtonian dynamics
862:Alternatives to dark matter
652:where the central density,
541:Navarro–Frenk–White profile
126:modified Newtonian dynamics
4038:
3866:Gravitational microlensing
3821:Galactic coordinate system
2683:10.1103/PhysRevD.70.083509
2485:10.1088/0004-637X/766/1/22
2286:de Blok, W. J. G. (2010).
2223:10.1051/0004-6361:20020080
547:and observations given by
3904:
2832:10.1142/S0217751X0703666X
2606:The Astrophysical Journal
2455:The Astrophysical Journal
1904:The Astrophysical Journal
1749:The Astrophysical Journal
1624:The Astrophysical Journal
1526:The Astrophysical Journal
1437:The Astrophysical Journal
1252:Lick Observatory Bulletin
1074:The Astrophysical Journal
781:electromagnetic radiation
164:primary research articles
4007:Concepts in astrophysics
3831:Galactic magnetic fields
3644:Brightest cluster galaxy
3540:Luminous infrared galaxy
1694:The Astronomical Journal
661:, and the scale radius,
3826:Galactic habitable zone
3811:Extragalactic astronomy
3400:Supermassive black hole
3314:Active galactic nucleus
3030:10.1093/mnras/239.2.651
2508:Physical Review Letters
2394:Physical Review Letters
2288:"The Core-Cusp Problem"
2215:2002A&A...385..816D
2109:10.1093/mnras/273.1.l35
2056:10.1093/mnras/290.3.533
1135:10.1093/mnras/249.3.523
950:gravitoelectromagnetism
935:Newtonian approximation
766:gravitational potential
18:Galactic rotation curve
3578:Low surface brightness
3329:Central massive object
3069:New Journal of Physics
2900:10.1093/mnras/staa1511
2769:10.1002/andp.201200109
2586:10.1093/mnras/stad2675
2254:Proceedings of Science
1603:10.1093/mnras/278.1.27
967:Long-slit spectroscopy
800:
791:Further investigations
754:
646:
509:gravitational constant
484:
50:
36:
3856:Galaxy rotation curve
3048:, Dmitri Mihalas and
2943:10.1093/mnras/stae855
2341:Astrophysical Journal
2293:Advances in Astronomy
1393:Shane, C. D. (1947).
809:bolometric luminosity
805:Tully–Fisher relation
798:
755:
647:
485:
330:Halo density profiles
122:possible alternatives
89:. This reflects the
48:
33:
3891:Population III stars
3886:Intergalactic travel
3836:Galactic orientation
3703:Voids and supervoids
839:dwarf galaxy problem
683:
551:
353:
103:mass-to-light ratios
3881:Intergalactic stars
3770:Large quasar groups
3765:Groups and clusters
3629:Groups and clusters
3488:Lyman-alpha emitter
3380:Interstellar medium
3091:2009NJPh...11j5006B
3021:1989MNRAS.239..651K
2975:2021EPJC...81..186L
2824:2007IJMPA..22.2293C
2760:2012AnP...524..545C
2720:2006JCAP...03..004M
2675:2004PhRvD..70h3509B
2628:2017ApJ...835L..17K
2530:2016PhRvL.117t1101M
2477:2013ApJ...766...22M
2416:2011PhRvL.106l1303M
2363:1998ApJ...499...66M
2325:10.1155/2010/789293
2316:2010AdAst2010E...5D
2273:2013arXiv1302.2268S
2151:2004MNRAS.351..903G
2100:1995MNRAS.273L..35Z
2047:1997MNRAS.290..533D
1986:2010MNRAS.405.2161D
1926:2008ApJ...678....6W
1889:Scientific American
1852:2007MNRAS.377..507Y
1773:2005ApJ...624L..85M
1718:2006AJ....132.2685M
1648:1996ApJ...462..563N
1593:1996MNRAS.281...27P
1540:1980ApJ...238..471R
1498:1978ApJ...225L.107R
1451:1970ApJ...159..379R
1411:1947PASP...59..182S
1380:Oort, J.H. (1940),
1367:1959BAN....14..323V
1336:1957BAN....14...17S
1305:1957BAN....14....1V
1266:1939LicOB..19...41B
1125:1991MNRAS.249..523B
1088:1980ApJ...238..471R
843:structure formation
318:that describes the
310:. The existence of
276:Newtonian mechanics
4012:Galactic astronomy
3876:Intergalactic dust
3861:Gravitational lens
3816:Galactic astronomy
3785:Starburst galaxies
3525:blue compact dwarf
3481:Energetic galaxies
3445:BL Lacertae object
3046:Galactic Astronomy
2748:Annalen der Physik
1958:; al., et (2010).
1166:Bosma, A. (1978).
1042:Bosma, A. (1978).
946:general relativity
939:general relativity
904:general relativity
855:cuspy halo problem
831:dark matter haloes
801:
750:
642:
545:N-body simulations
480:
336:Kepler's Third Law
232:Carnegie telescope
213:Keplerian dynamics
200:solar neighborhood
91:mass distributions
87:Kepler’s third law
51:
37:
3936:
3935:
3896:Galaxy X (galaxy)
3871:Illustris project
3841:Galactic quadrant
3562:Wolf-Rayet galaxy
3552:Green bean galaxy
3547:Hot dust-obscured
3498:Luminous infrared
3262:Elliptical galaxy
2808:(13): 2293–2325.
2754:(9–10): 545–578.
2653:Physical Review D
1235:978-0-19-280086-2
729:
640:
626:
597:
473:
433:
415:
268:Newtonian gravity
192:
191:
184:
151:needs additional
46:
16:(Redirected from
4029:
3989:
3988:
3987:
3977:
3976:
3975:
3965:
3964:
3963:
3953:
3952:
3944:
3924:
3912:
3911:
3557:Hanny's Voorwerp
3467:Relativistic jet
3341:Dark matter halo
3148:
3141:
3134:
3125:
3110:
3084:
3034:
3032:
2989:
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2954:
2948:
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2945:
2911:
2905:
2904:
2902:
2892:
2858:
2852:
2851:
2817:
2815:astro-ph/0610370
2793:
2787:
2780:
2774:
2773:
2771:
2739:
2713:
2693:
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2686:
2668:
2666:astro-ph/0403694
2648:
2642:
2641:
2639:
2621:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2579:(4): 6130–6145.
2564:
2558:
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2523:
2503:
2497:
2496:
2470:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2409:
2389:
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2354:astro-ph/9801102
2336:
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2283:
2277:
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2266:
2257:(DSU 2012): 12.
2250:
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2235:
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2208:
2206:astro-ph/0201276
2188:
2179:
2173:
2172:
2162:
2144:
2142:astro-ph/0403154
2120:
2114:
2113:
2111:
2093:
2091:astro-ph/9501102
2067:
2061:
2060:
2058:
2040:
2038:astro-ph/9704274
2014:
2008:
2007:
1997:
1979:
1970:(4): 2161–2178.
1952:
1946:
1945:
1919:
1917:astro-ph/0604393
1899:
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1874:
1873:
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1843:astro-ph/0612434
1819:
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1763:astro-ph/0502515
1739:
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1710:
1708:astro-ph/0509417
1701:(6): 2685–2700.
1684:
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1650:
1640:
1638:astro-ph/9508025
1614:
1608:
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1583:astro-ph/9506004
1559:
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1127:
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1058:
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1036:
1030:
1029:
1011:
987:
895:(STVG), and the
872:Mordehai Milgrom
818:galaxy formation
763:
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435:
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393:
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372:
348:
316:Lambda-CDM model
196:Jan Hendrik Oort
187:
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144:
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136:
47:
21:
4037:
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3947:
3939:
3937:
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3900:
3799:
3714:
3607:
3566:
3476:
3411:
3390:Galaxy filament
3334:Galactic Center
3302:
3157:
3152:
3066:
3063:
3042:
3000:
2997:
2995:Further reading
2992:
2956:
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989:
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984:
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927:Gaia spacecraft
864:
822:baryonic matter
793:
761:
721:
713:
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702:
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681:
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674:Einasto profile
670:
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350:
339:
332:
308:galaxy clusters
251:spiral galaxies
188:
177:
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134:
71:radial distance
61:(also called a
39:
28:
23:
22:
15:
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11:
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3688:Stellar stream
3685:
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3392:
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3375:Galactic ridge
3372:
3370:Galactic plane
3367:
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3075:(10): 105006.
3062:
3061:External links
3059:
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3057:
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3037:
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3015:(2): 651–664.
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2400:(12): 121303.
2384:
2371:10.1086/305629
2331:
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2199:(3): 816–846.
2174:
2135:(3): 903–922.
2115:
2084:(2): L35–L38.
2062:
2031:(3): 533–552.
2009:
1956:Duffy, Alan R.
1947:
1934:10.1086/524646
1894:
1875:
1836:(2): 507–515.
1814:
1789:
1783:10.1086/430636
1756:(2): L85–L88.
1734:
1728:10.1086/508988
1679:
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1658:10.1086/177173
1609:
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1549:10.1086/158003
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1507:10.1086/182804
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1118:(3): 523–537.
1101:
1097:10.1086/158003
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1002:(1): 435–487.
981:
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835:dwarf galaxies
792:
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300:Oort constants
264:galactic bulge
204:Horace Babcock
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107:law of gravity
63:velocity curve
55:rotation curve
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3849:
3847:
3844:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3834:
3832:
3829:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3808:
3806:
3802:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3790:Superclusters
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3763:
3759:
3756:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3734:
3731:
3730:
3729:
3726:
3725:
3723:
3721:
3717:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3704:
3701:
3699:
3696:
3694:
3693:Superclusters
3691:
3689:
3686:
3684:
3681:
3679:
3676:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3658:
3657:
3654:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3624:Galactic tide
3622:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3596:
3594:
3591:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3583:Ultra diffuse
3581:
3579:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3569:
3563:
3560:
3558:
3555:
3553:
3550:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3522:
3521:
3518:
3514:
3511:
3509:
3506:
3504:
3501:
3500:
3499:
3496:
3494:
3491:
3489:
3486:
3485:
3483:
3479:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3441:
3438:
3436:
3433:
3431:
3428:
3426:
3423:
3422:
3420:
3418:
3417:Active nuclei
3414:
3406:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3398:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3383:
3381:
3378:
3376:
3373:
3371:
3368:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3348:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3330:
3327:
3325:
3322:
3320:
3317:
3315:
3312:
3311:
3309:
3305:
3297:
3294:
3293:
3292:
3289:
3287:
3284:
3280:
3277:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3268:
3265:
3264:
3263:
3260:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3237:
3236:
3233:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3196:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3168:
3166:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3149:
3144:
3142:
3137:
3135:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3119:
3118:Erik Verlinde
3115:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3096:
3092:
3088:
3083:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3065:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3054:W. H. Freeman
3051:
3047:
3044:
3043:
3039:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2998:
2994:
2985:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2953:
2950:
2944:
2939:
2936:: 4681–4698.
2935:
2931:
2927:
2926:
2921:
2919:
2910:
2907:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2883:: 2107–2122.
2882:
2878:
2874:
2873:
2868:
2866:
2857:
2854:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2789:
2785:
2779:
2776:
2770:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2737:
2733:
2729:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2712:
2711:gr-qc/0506021
2707:
2703:
2699:
2692:
2689:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2672:
2667:
2662:
2659:(8): 083509.
2658:
2654:
2647:
2644:
2638:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2596:
2593:
2587:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2563:
2560:
2555:
2551:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2502:
2499:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2482:
2478:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2446:
2441:
2437:
2433:
2429:
2425:
2421:
2417:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2388:
2385:
2380:
2376:
2372:
2368:
2364:
2360:
2355:
2350:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2332:
2326:
2321:
2317:
2313:
2308:
2303:
2299:
2295:
2294:
2289:
2282:
2279:
2274:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2247:
2240:
2237:
2232:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2185:
2178:
2175:
2170:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2152:
2148:
2143:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2119:
2116:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2078:
2073:
2066:
2063:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2025:
2020:
2013:
2010:
2005:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1969:
1965:
1961:
1957:
1951:
1948:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1898:
1895:
1890:
1886:
1879:
1876:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1835:
1831:
1830:
1825:
1818:
1815:
1803:
1799:
1793:
1790:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1755:
1751:
1750:
1745:
1738:
1735:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1695:
1690:
1683:
1680:
1675:
1668:
1665:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1625:
1620:
1613:
1610:
1604:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1570:
1565:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1527:
1519:
1517:
1513:
1508:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1491:: L107–L111.
1490:
1486:
1485:
1477:
1474:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1443:
1439:
1438:
1430:
1427:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1389:
1386:
1383:
1377:
1374:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1354:
1346:
1343:
1337:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1323:
1315:
1312:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1292:
1284:
1281:
1276:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1253:
1245:
1242:
1237:
1231:
1227:
1226:
1219:
1216:
1210:
1205:
1197:
1195:
1191:
1186:
1175:
1171:
1170:
1162:
1159:
1154:
1147:
1144:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1113:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1089:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1069:
1068:
1062:
1051:
1047:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1035:
1032:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
986:
983:
977:
973:
970:
968:
965:
963:
960:
959:
955:
953:
951:
947:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
923:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
900:
898:
894:
890:
884:
882:
878:
873:
869:
861:
859:
856:
852:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
823:
819:
813:
810:
806:
797:
790:
788:
784:
782:
778:
773:
769:
767:
745:
741:
737:
732:
725:
722:
714:
707:
703:
698:
692:
686:
677:
675:
669:
665:
656:
634:
629:
621:
617:
613:
608:
605:
601:
592:
588:
584:
576:
572:
566:
560:
554:
546:
542:
537:
534:
530:
523:
519:
514:
510:
505:
498:
494:
476:
469:
466:
463:
460:
452:
446:
443:
440:
437:
428:
425:
422:
418:
409:
405:
401:
398:
395:
388:
380:
374:
368:
362:
356:
346:
342:
337:
329:
327:
325:
321:
317:
313:
309:
305:
301:
297:
293:
292:mass-to-light
288:
286:
280:
277:
272:
269:
265:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
235:
233:
228:
225:
221:
218:Reporting on
216:
214:
210:
205:
201:
197:
186:
183:
175:
172:December 2016
165:
159:
158:
154:
149:This section
147:
138:
137:
131:
129:
127:
123:
118:
116:
112:
108:
104:
100:
94:
92:
88:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
32:
19:
3991:Solar System
3926:
3914:
3855:
3649:fossil group
3571:Low activity
3405:Ultramassive
3235:Dwarf galaxy
3218:intermediate
3213:grand design
3072:
3068:
3045:
3040:Bibliography
3012:
3006:
2966:
2962:
2952:
2929:
2923:
2917:
2909:
2876:
2870:
2864:
2856:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2783:
2778:
2751:
2747:
2701:
2697:
2691:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2609:
2605:
2595:
2576:
2572:
2562:
2511:
2507:
2501:
2458:
2454:
2448:
2397:
2393:
2387:
2347:(1): 66–81.
2344:
2340:
2334:
2297:
2291:
2281:
2252:
2239:
2196:
2190:
2177:
2132:
2128:
2118:
2081:
2075:
2065:
2028:
2022:
2012:
1967:
1963:
1950:
1907:
1903:
1897:
1888:
1878:
1833:
1827:
1817:
1805:. Retrieved
1801:
1792:
1753:
1747:
1737:
1698:
1692:
1682:
1673:
1667:
1628:
1622:
1612:
1576:(1): 27–47.
1573:
1567:
1557:
1530:
1524:
1488:
1482:
1476:
1441:
1435:
1429:
1405:(349): 182.
1402:
1398:
1388:
1376:
1360:(492): 323.
1357:
1351:
1345:
1326:
1320:
1314:
1295:
1289:
1283:
1256:
1250:
1244:
1224:
1218:
1183:– via
1179:December 30,
1177:. Retrieved
1168:
1161:
1152:
1146:
1115:
1109:
1078:
1072:
1059:– via
1055:December 30,
1053:. Retrieved
1044:
1034:
999:
995:
985:
943:
941:is adopted.
924:
901:
885:
865:
847:
814:
802:
785:
777:hypothetical
774:
770:
678:
667:
663:
654:
538:
532:
528:
521:
517:
503:
496:
492:
344:
340:
333:
304:Fritz Zwicky
289:
281:
273:
247:spectrograph
236:
229:
217:
193:
178:
169:
150:
119:
95:
83:
62:
54:
52:
3979:Outer space
3967:Spaceflight
3708:void galaxy
3671:cannibalism
3656:Interacting
3612:Interaction
3598:Blue Nugget
3588:Dark galaxy
3493:Lyman-break
3385:Protogalaxy
3351:Disc galaxy
1910:(1): 6–21.
1802:www.eso.org
1631:: 563–575.
1081:: 471–487.
897:f(R) theory
881:Local Group
764:the galaxy
296:dark matter
111:dark matter
79:dark matter
59:disc galaxy
4001:Categories
3748:Polar-ring
3593:Red nugget
3535:faint blue
3395:Spiral arm
3250:spheroidal
3240:elliptical
3223:Magellanic
3208:flocculent
3176:Lenticular
3163:Morphology
3050:Paul McRae
2969:(2): 186.
2890:1810.04445
2619:1610.06183
2612:(1): L17.
2521:1609.05917
2300:: 789293.
1009:1804.03097
239:Vera Rubin
3683:Satellite
3678:Jellyfish
3666:collision
3603:Dead disk
3520:Starburst
3435:Markarian
3307:Structure
3274:Irregular
3245:irregular
3107:204020148
3082:0903.4849
2840:0217-751X
2493:118576979
2468:1301.0822
2461:(1): 22.
2407:1102.3913
2307:0910.3538
2264:1302.2268
2004:118517066
1977:1001.3447
1468:122756867
1259:: 41–51.
1209:0801.3133
1067:See also
1026:0066-4146
978:Footnotes
931:Milky Way
908:Milky Way
891:(TeVeS),
718:Φ
573:ρ
555:ρ
515:where if
467:
444:
399:π
357:ρ
320:cosmology
255:Kent Ford
194:In 1932,
153:citations
4022:Rotation
3915:Category
3804:See also
3728:Galaxies
3455:X-shaped
3286:Peculiar
3228:unbarred
3186:unbarred
3155:Galaxies
3116:. About
2736:17376981
2704:(3): 4.
2554:34521243
2546:27886485
2432:21517295
2379:18901029
2231:15880032
2169:14308775
1942:14893610
1870:17917374
1807:16 March
956:See also
920:NGC 7331
916:NGC 3198
912:NGC 3031
324:universe
224:Jan Oort
220:NGC 3115
3941:Portals
3775:Quasars
3743:Nearest
3738:Largest
3639:cluster
3472:Seyfert
3087:Bibcode
3017:Bibcode
2971:Bibcode
2820:Bibcode
2786:(2005).
2756:Bibcode
2716:Bibcode
2671:Bibcode
2624:Bibcode
2526:Bibcode
2473:Bibcode
2440:1427896
2412:Bibcode
2359:Bibcode
2312:Bibcode
2269:Bibcode
2211:Bibcode
2147:Bibcode
2096:Bibcode
2043:Bibcode
1982:Bibcode
1922:Bibcode
1848:Bibcode
1768:Bibcode
1713:Bibcode
1643:Bibcode
1588:Bibcode
1535:Bibcode
1533:: 471.
1493:Bibcode
1446:Bibcode
1444:: 379.
1407:Bibcode
1362:Bibcode
1331:Bibcode
1300:Bibcode
1261:Bibcode
1172:(PhD).
1120:Bibcode
1083:Bibcode
1048:(PhD).
507:is the
322:of the
132:History
35:galaxy.
3927:Portal
3758:Spiral
3661:merger
3440:Quasar
3425:Blazar
3363:corona
3279:barred
3255:spiral
3203:barred
3198:anemic
3193:Spiral
3181:barred
3105:
2848:155920
2846:
2838:
2734:
2552:
2544:
2491:
2438:
2430:
2377:
2229:
2167:
2002:
1940:
1868:
1466:
1329:: 17.
1232:
1024:
490:where
432:
3955:Stars
3795:Voids
3720:Lists
3698:Walls
3634:group
3619:Field
3513:ELIRG
3508:HLIRG
3503:ULIRG
3460:DRAGN
3450:Radio
3430:LINER
3324:Bulge
3296:Polar
3103:S2CID
3077:arXiv
3056:1968.
2932:(4).
2885:arXiv
2879:(2).
2844:S2CID
2810:arXiv
2732:S2CID
2706:arXiv
2661:arXiv
2614:arXiv
2550:S2CID
2516:arXiv
2489:S2CID
2463:arXiv
2436:S2CID
2402:arXiv
2375:S2CID
2349:arXiv
2302:arXiv
2259:arXiv
2249:(PDF)
2227:S2CID
2201:arXiv
2187:(PDF)
2165:S2CID
2137:arXiv
2086:arXiv
2033:arXiv
2000:S2CID
1972:arXiv
1938:S2CID
1912:arXiv
1866:S2CID
1838:arXiv
1758:arXiv
1703:arXiv
1633:arXiv
1578:arXiv
1464:S2CID
1298:: 1.
1204:arXiv
1004:arXiv
760:with
67:stars
57:of a
3753:Ring
3358:Halo
3346:Disc
3291:Ring
3171:Disc
2920:DR3"
2918:Gaia
2867:DR2"
2865:Gaia
2836:ISSN
2542:PMID
2428:PMID
2298:2010
1809:2017
1230:ISBN
1181:2016
1057:2016
1022:ISSN
918:and
349:is:
302:and
230:The
115:halo
101:and
75:plot
53:The
3530:pea
3319:Bar
3095:doi
3025:doi
3013:239
2979:doi
2938:doi
2934:OUP
2930:529
2895:doi
2881:OUP
2877:496
2828:doi
2764:doi
2752:524
2724:doi
2679:doi
2632:doi
2610:835
2581:doi
2577:525
2534:doi
2512:117
2481:doi
2459:766
2420:doi
2398:106
2367:doi
2345:499
2320:doi
2219:doi
2197:385
2155:doi
2133:351
2104:doi
2082:273
2051:doi
2029:290
1990:doi
1968:405
1930:doi
1908:678
1856:doi
1834:377
1778:doi
1754:624
1723:doi
1699:132
1653:doi
1629:463
1598:doi
1574:281
1545:doi
1531:238
1503:doi
1489:225
1456:doi
1442:159
1415:doi
1271:doi
1130:doi
1116:249
1093:doi
1079:238
1014:doi
851:NFW
841:of
464:log
441:log
274:If
209:M33
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