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constitutes the initial defense layer of plant cells, activated upon detection of "danger signals." These signals, termed damage-associated-molecular-patterns (DAMPs) if originating from the plant or microbe/pathogen-associated-molecular-patterns (MAMPs, PAMPs, or HAMPs) if from the parasite, engage pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) triggering signaling cascades. PRRs, classified as receptor-like kinases (RLKs), mediate intercellular communication by bridging external stimuli with intracellular defense mechanisms. Antagonists, employing effector-triggered susceptibility (ETS) manipulate host-cell functions through effector molecules encoded by effector genes, aiming primarily at suppressing plant defenses. Notably, some effectors exploit plant traits, known as "plant susceptibility traits," diverting the plant's resources in favor of the parasite. Effectoromics, involving high-throughput expression screens, aids in identifying effector candidates crucial for colonization. Conversely, Effector-Triggered
Immunity (ETI) responsible for plant's counterattack, leveraging effectors as "danger signals" to render the parasite avirulent. During ETI, nucleotide-binding domain leucine-rich repeat (NLR)-containing receptors detect perturbations induced by effectors, leading to downstream signaling events that promote defense responses. However, parasites can counteract ETI by modifying ETS, undermining the efficacy of resistance genes deployed in agriculture. The evolutionary arms race between plants and parasites, underscored by the expansion of gene families involved in biotic interactions, shapes their genomic landscape, influencing their adaptive strategies and diversification.
122:, size, and wall composition. The size of insect galls can range significantly, from approximately two inches in diameter to less than one-sixteenth of an inch. Some galls are so small that they are merely slightly thickened patches on leaves. Their shape can range from spherical to bursiform, bullet-shaped, flower-shaped, cylindrical, or diamond-like. Factors influencing gall morphology include plant species, tissue type, gall-inducing agent, and environmental conditions. They typically exhibit symmetrical forms, although their end shapes vary due to differences in the physical actions and chemical stimuli of different insects. Around 90% of galls occur on the leaves of dicotyledons. Galls can develop on various parts of the host plant, such as roots, leaf bases, branches, or leaflets. Internally, galls also exhibit diverse structures. Some are simple, comprising only outgrown and curved leaf tissues, while others feature complex, hierarchical arrangements with multiple chambers containing different types of tissues, including
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317:, while the outer gall transcriptome resembles that of twigs, leaf buds, and reproductive structures, the inner gall transcriptome is distinct from normal oak tissues, underscoring the complexity of gall formation. Furthermore, there is an upregulation of genes related to sugar and amino acid metabolism in both outer and inner gall tissues, suggesting a role in transporting plant metabolites to support the nutritional needs of the developing gall wasp larva. The defense-related genes are found to be suppressed in inner gall tissues as a strategy to accommodate the feeding activity of the parasite.
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285:, induce the formation of leafy galls on plants, affecting their growth. These galls act as permanent sinks, diverting nutrients away from other parts of the plant and causing growth suppression elsewhere. The bacteria possess virulence genes that control their ability to colonize plants and produce cytokinins, which influence plant growth. While parasitic gall-inducers are typically harmful to plants, researchers are exploring ways to harness their growth-promoting abilities for agricultural benefit. Some derivatives of
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opening created by the larval stage. Conversely, insects with sucking mouthparts rely on partially open galls or those that naturally open to facilitate emergence. An example of the latter type is the aphid, which forms marble-sized galls on the leaf stems of cottonwood trees. While these galls have thin walls, they harbor entire colonies of aphids within. When the time is right, a slit appears on one side of the gall, allowing the aphids to escape as the slit's lips unfold.
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appearances (balls, knobs, lumps, warts, etc.) and a range of colors (red, green, yellow, and black). Different taxonomic groups of gall inducers vary in the complexity and diversity of gall formation and organization, with insect induced galls generally being more complex and diverse. Additionally, gall frequency varies based on factors such as weather, plant susceptibility, and pest populations.
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appearances (balls, knobs, lumps, warts, etc.) and a range of colors (red, green, yellow, and black). Different taxonomic groups of gall inducers vary in the complexity and diversity of gall formation and organization, with insect induced galls generally being more complex and diverse. Additionally, gall frequency varies based on factors such as weather, plant susceptibility, and pest populations.
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plant tissue. Enzymes like invertases are involved in gall growth, with greater activity correlating with stronger gall development. Gall-inducing insect performance is influenced by plant vigor and module size, with larger, fast-growing plant modules resulting in larger galls. Conversely, galls are easily induced on smaller plant modules.
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Gall forming virus was found on rice plants in central
Thailand in 1979 and named rice gall dwarf. Symptoms consisted of gall formation along leaf blades and sheaths, dark green discoloration, twisted leaf tips, and reduced numbers of tillers. Some plants died in the glasshouse in the later stages of
246:
The earliest impact from the insect leads to metaplasia in the affected cells, where they undergo changes in structure and function. When the chemical shock is of high intensity, metaplasia does not occur. Instead, the plant cells local to the shock die, thereby rejecting the insect and defending the
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Gall growth occurs gradually over time, with the length, breadth, and height of the galls increasing proportionally. The growth rate is maximal during the insect's early developmental stages and slows as it approaches adulthood. Hormones like auxins play a crucial role in gall growth. The presence of
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There are four stages of gall development: initiation, growth and differentiation, maturation, and dehiscence. Gall tissues are nutritive and present high concentrations of lipids, proteins, nitrogen, and other nutrients. The formation of galls begins with insect saliva on plants inducing a chemical
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of the insects into the plants and possibly mechanical damage. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. To form galls, the insects must take advantage of the time when plant cell division occurs quickly: the growing season, usually spring in temperate
262:
The 'zigzag' model introduced by Jones & Dangl (2006) demonstrates the molecular interactions underlying gall induction. This model, refined over time and subject to ongoing enhancements, illustrates the intricate dynamics between antagonistic molecular players. Pattern-triggered immunity (PTI),
142:
gall, the outermost layer is the epidermis followed by outer cortex and then inner cortex. In some galls these two cortex layers are separated by a lignified layer. The innermost part of a gall is the larval chamber. The nutritive layer situated between the larval chamber and the inner cortex. There
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Insects induce the formation of galls on plants from which they receive various services, such as a source of nutrition and a place to lay eggs, develop, and be provided protection from the environment and enemies. The gall producers are specific to specific plants, thus inducing galls with unique
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insects as their own microhabitats. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect. Galls act as both the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The interior of a gall can contain edible nutritious starch and other tissues. Some galls act as "physiologic sinks", concentrating
243:
stress and insect secretions stimulates the synthesis of growth-promoting substances, possibly involving a combination of different growth promoters like auxins and kinins. Gall growth involves both cell enlargement and division, but the specific factors triggering cell enlargement remain unclear.
225:
Insects induce the formation of galls on plants from which they receive various services, such as a source of nutrition and a place to lay eggs, develop, and be provided protection from the environment and enemies. The gall producers are specific to specific plants, thus inducing galls with unique
216:
There are two primary categories of galls: closed and open. Insects such as wasps, moths, and flies, possessing chewing mouthparts during their adult or larval stages, typically inhabit completely enclosed galls. Upon reaching maturity, the adult exits either by chewing its way out or utilizing an
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Nutritive tissue: Most galls contain specialized nutritive tissue that provides nutrition to the inducing arthropod and sometimes to their progeny. The structure of this tissue varies depending on the insect species inducing the gall and their feeding behaviors. Nutritive tissue differentiation is
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The formation of galls which is induction begins with insect saliva on plants. Insect saliva contains various chemicals, induces shock and osmotic changes in the host plant cell. The severity of insect feeding injures the plant varies depending on the insect. The osmotic changes that occur as a
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Changes in nutritive tissue: The activity of the nutritive tissue is maintained as long as the inhabiting larva continues to feed. However, when feeding ceases, the dynamic profile of the tissue gradually diminishes, and it is eventually replaced by inactive parenchyma. Removal or death of the
155:
involves the regulation of the organ on which the gall occurs while maintaining differentiation freedom. Gall development begins from a single or group of metaplasied cells and progresses through promoter-mediated cell expansion, cell multiplication, programmed differentiation, and control of
177:
Development of novel cell types: Galls exhibit unique cell types such as abnormally thick-walled dead cells (e.g., xylary elements and sclereids) and thin-walled living cells. These cells differentiate in specific patterns, contributing to the structure of the
105:. Plant galls are often highly organized structures so that the cause of the gall can often be determined without the actual agent being identified. This applies particularly to insect and mite plant galls. The study of plant galls is known as cecidology.
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Most of the transcriptomic studies on plant galls used entire gall samples resulting both gall and non-gall cells leading to thousands of gene expressions during gall development. Recent studies on gall induced by gall wasps (Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)
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278:. The T-DNA contains genes that encode for production of auxin, cytokinin and opines. As a result, the infected plant cells undergo rapid multiplication, essentially transforming into "bacterial factories" that produce more bacterial bodies.
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after an incubation of two weeks. Polyhedral particles of 65 nm diameter in the cytoplasm of phloem cells were always associated with the disease. No serologic relationship was found between this virus and that of rice dwarf.
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There are four stages of gall development: initiation, growth and differentiation, maturation, and dehiscence. Gall tissues are nutritive and present high concentrations of lipids, proteins, nitrogen, and other nutrients.
490:
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Brandão-Dias, Pedro F. P.; Zhang, Yuanmeng Miles; Pirro, Stacy; Vinson, Camila C.; et al. (2022). "Describing biodiversity in the genomics era: A new species of
Nearctic Cynipidae gall wasp and its genome".
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stress leads to the development of metaplasied cells, characterized by increased quantities of osmotically active material. The rejection response by the plant triggers the synthesis of defense compounds and
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and gall formation. When the chemical shock is of high intensity, metaplasia does not occur. Instead, the plant cells local to the shock die, thereby rejecting the insect and defending the plant tissue.
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are being investigated for their potential to promote balanced plant growth, and scientists are also studying plant interactions with these bacteria to discover traits that could enhance crop yields.
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between inner and outer gall tissues compared to adjacent leaf tissues. Notably, approximately 28% of oak genes display differential expression in the gall compared to leaves, indicating significant
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Hearn, Jack; Blaxter, Mark; Schönrogge, Karsten; Nieves-Aldrey, José-Luis; Pujade-Villar, Juli; Huguet, Elisabeth; Drezen, Jean-Michel; Shorthouse, Joseph D.; Stone, Graham N. (2019-11-04).
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Characteristics of nutritive cells: Nutritive cells exhibit dynamic features such as enriched cytoplasm, fragmented vacuoles, hypertrophied nucleus and nucleolus, and abundant cell
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Galls are unique growths on plants, and how the plant's genetic instructions could produce these structures in response to external factors is still a fresh field of science.
305:) leaves demonstrate the complexity of genetic mechanisms underlying galls by quantifying the tissue-specific gene expression. There are substantial differences in
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Plant galls are caused by a wide range of organisms, including animals such as insects, mites, and nematodes; fungi; bacteria; viruses; and other plants.
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substances: Cells lining the larval chamber in mature-old galls accumulate phenolic substances, indicating changes in gall tissue composition over time.
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mechanisms of gall formation is a unique interplay between the parasite and the host plant in shaping the developmental trajectory of the gall organ.
362:, where plant cell division occurs, are the usual sites of galls, though insect galls can be found on other parts of the plant, such as the leaves,
2779:
Betancourt, Eunice Kariñho; Soto, Paulina Hernández; Cortés, Nancy Calderón; Anaya, Martha Rendón; Estrella, Alfredo
Herrera; Oyama, Ken (2020),
2171:"Fink S. 1999.Pathological and regenerative plant anatomy. Encyclopedia of plant anatomy XIV. 1095 pp. Berlin, Stuttgart: Gebrüder Borntraeger"
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shock. The osmotic changes that occur as a result are characterized by increased quantities of osmotically active material and induce the cell
737:
3446:
2931:"Tissue-specific gene expression shows a cynipid wasp repurposes oak host gene networks to create a complex and novel parasite-specific organ"
2356:"M. S. Mani, Ecology of Plant Galls (Monogr. Biol. Vol. XII). 434 u. XII S., 164 Abb., 9 Taf. The Hague 1964: Dr. W. Junk Publishers. 40.-hfl"
2905:
2800:
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Larson, K. C.; Whitham, T. G. (1991). "Manipulation of food resources by a gall-forming aphid: the physiology of sink-source interactions",
2470:
2293:
2227:
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1966:
1733:"Larval Performance and Association Within and Between Two Species of Hackberry Nipple Gall Insects, Pachypsylla spp. (Homoptera: Psyllidae)"
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an abnormal outgrowth of plant tissue usually due to insect or mite parasites or fungi and sometimes forming an important source of tannin
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Plant response involves the establishment of metaplasied cells and localized metabolic changes to repair the wound and neutralize stress.
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exhibit several distinctive characteristics when compared to other types of galls. This bacterium transfers genetic material known as
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2496:"The mechanism of plant gall induction by insects: revealing clues, facts, and consequences in a cross-kingdom complex interaction"
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resources in the gall from the surrounding plant parts. Galls may also provide the insect with physical protection from predators.
239:
result are characterized by increased quantities of osmotically active material and induce the cell metaplasia and gall formation.
207:
Mineral content: Gall tissues contain elevated levels of various minerals, which may play a role in gall development and function.
2317:"Chitosan, a component of the compatible interaction between Solanum dulcamara L. and the gall mite Eriophyes cladophthirus Nal"
189:. They contain elevated levels of carbohydrates, lipids, soluble sugars, and proteins, along with intense phosphatase activity.
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is a nutritional gradient (high to low) from inside to outside of the gall while defense gradient to the opposite direction.
118:
Galls develop on various plant organs, providing nutrition and shelter to inducing insects. Galls display vast variation in
1457:, was among the most important exports from Syria during this period, with one merchant recording a shipment of galls from
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461:(the beech tree family). These are often restricted taxonomically to a single host species or a group of related species.
3458:
1772:"Effects of Gall Induction by Epiblema Strenuana on Gas Exchange, Nutrients, and Energetics in Parthenium Hysterophorus"
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forms woody structures sometimes called galls on its hosts. More complex interactions are possible; the parasitic plant
314:
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2978:"Evolution of Host-Plant Manipulation by Gall Makers: Ecological and Genetic Factors in the Solidago-eurosta System"
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386:. Gall-inducing insects are usually species-specific and sometimes tissue-specific on the plants they gall.
3244:"Modes of union and interaction between parasite and host in the Loranthaceae. III. Further observations on
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1686:"Comparative Analysis of Gall Morphology in Australian Gall Thrips: The Evolution of Extended Phenotypes"
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Many gall insects remain to be described. Estimates range up to more than 210,000 species, not counting
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1908:"Anatomy and ontogenesis of hymenopteran leaf galls of Struthanthus vulgaris Mart. (Loranthaceae)"
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Stone, G. N.; Schonrogge, K. (2003) "The adaptive significance of insect gall morphology",
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1867:"Anatomia e Ontogenia de Galhas Foliares de Piptadenia gonoacantha (Fabales, Mimosaceae)"
1126:
leaves and fruits. Leaf galls appear like tiny clubs; however, flower galls are globose.
449:
More than 1400 species of cynipid wasps cause galls. Some 1000 of these are in the tribe
197:
leads to rapid changes in the distribution of carbohydrates and lipids within the tissue.
3467:
3131:
2930:
2408:
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1685:
3516:
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Volovnik, S. V. (2010). "Weevils
Lixinae (Coleoptera, Curculionidae) as Gall Formers",
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1991:
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Abnormal growths especially on plants induced by parasitic insects and other organisms
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2781:"Ecological Genomics of Plant-Insect Interactions: The Case of Wasp-Induced Galls"
2780:
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2209:
1946:
1537:
3338:
2839:
2823:"Genomic dissection of an extended phenotype: Oak galling by a cynipid gall wasp"
2792:
2219:
1992:"A tale of two tissues: Probing gene expression in a complex insect-induced gall"
1958:
3287:
Egan, Scott P.; Zhang, Linyi; Comerford, Mattheau; Hood, Glen R. (August 2018).
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s gall size. II. A path analysis of the ecological factors behind selection",
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1145:, a wild rice, produces an edible gall highly valued as a food source in the
1056:) cause galls on the roots of susceptible plants. The galls are often small.
17:
2687:"Induction and suppression of RNA silencing: insights from viral infections"
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3377:
Life in a Gall: The
Biology and Ecology of Insects that Live in Plant Galls
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3438:
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Proceedings of the Royal
Society of London. Series B - Biological Sciences
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3171:
30:
This article is about the abnormal growths in plants. For other uses, see
2592:
1795:
1146:
1045:
458:
450:
359:
256:
90:
78:
2608:
1947:"Physiologie et morphogenèse des galles d'origine animale (zoocécidies)"
3231:
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3077:
3075:
3009:
2977:
2578:
1906:
KRAUS, JANE E.; ARDUIN, MARCOS; VENTURELLI, MARGARIDA (December 2002).
1470:
1462:
1429:
1354: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1150:
879:
790:
417:
160:
2946:
2734:"PLANT RESPONSES TO INSECT HERBIVORY: The Emerging Molecular Analysis"
2214:. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg. pp. 1927–1976.
2211:
Physiologie et morphogenèse des galles d'origine animale (zoocécidies)
2051:
2007:
1953:, Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, pp. 1927–1976,
1008:
Mites, small arachnids, cause distinctive galls in plants such as the
61:, anything gushing out) are a kind of swelling growth on the external
2880:
Sunnucks, Paul; Stonet, G N; Schonrogget, K; Csokat, G (1994-10-06),
2686:
1425:
1417:
421:
379:
367:
165:
98:
56:
2882:"The biogeography and population genetics of the invading gall wasp
2702:
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sometimes preferentially feeds on galls induced by the cynipid wasp
2993:
1618:
2929:
Martinson, Ellen O.; Werren, John H.; Egan, Scott P. (June 2022).
1828:"Morphogenesis of insect-induced plant galls: facts and questions"
1478:
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infection. The causal agent was transmitted by the hemipteran bug
409:
383:
351:
194:
94:
86:
82:
66:
41:
3456:
To Be or Not To Be a Gall: The Story of
Strange Growths on Plants
3415:
Field Guide to Plant Galls of
California and Other Western States
1951:
Differenzierung und
Entwicklung / Differentiation and Development
731:
Section through young bedeguar gall showing wasp larvae and cells
1512:
1113:
1028:
375:
102:
74:
3118:
Krusberg, L. R. (1963). "Host Response to Nematode Infection".
182:
influenced by the length and nature of the insect's mouthparts.
1832:
Flora - Morphology, Distribution, Functional Ecology of Plants
1474:
1450:
1432:
as part of the tanning process as well as a dye-base for ink.
1409:
1323:
829:
Pineapple gall cut open to show the woolly aphid larvae inside
454:
371:
350:
Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the
2787:, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 315–341,
3022:
Weis, A. E.; Kapelinski, A. (1994). "Variable selection on
2489:
2487:
1770:
Florentine, S. K.; Raman, A.; Dhileepan, K. (October 2005).
1408:
and have been used widely in the manufacturing of permanent
1749:
10.1674/0003-0031(1998)140[0351:lpaawa]2.0.co;2
1473:
for black dyes; they were also used to make a high-quality
342:
are the highly distinctive plant structures formed by some
313:
changes associated with gall development. According to the
274:
into the plant cells, where it becomes integrated into the
2591:
Jones, Jonathan D. G.; Dangl, Jeffery L. (November 2006).
1048:
are microscopic worms that live in soil. Some nematodes (
130:, physalides-parenchyma, and a nutritive cellular layer.
3417:. Berkeley, California: University of California Press.
3289:"Botanical parasitism of an insect by a parasitic plant"
2093:, Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag, pp. 397–415,
1731:
Heard, Stephen B.; Buchanan, Corinne K. (October 1998).
266:
Crown galls formed under the influence of the bacterium
2315:
Bronner, R.; Westphal, E.; Dreger, F. (February 1989).
1469:
per 100 pounds. The primary use of the galls was as a
793:
trees such as the Sitka spruce and the Norway spruce.
3260:(931). The Royal Society: 188–206. 18 February 1958.
2640:"Plants and animals: a different taste for microbes?"
2457:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 942–944,
1440:
3444:
A Field Guide to Plant Galls of the North East U.S.
2892:, Oxford University PressOxford, pp. 351–368,
2785:
Evolutionary Ecology of Plant-Herbivore Interaction
1684:Crespi, Bernard; Worobey, Michael (December 1998).
1477:. The gall was also used as a medication to treat
1439:literature records many uses for the gall, called
65:of plants. Plant galls are abnormal outgrowths of
2392:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 (
2053:Plant Galls: Organisms, Interactions, Populations
3155:"Nematode pathogenesis and resistance in plants"
1990:Schultz, Jack C.; Stone, Graham N. (June 2022).
355:climates, but which is extended in the tropics.
3343:. University of California Press. p. 405.
2976:Weis, Arthur E.; Abrahamson, Warren G. (1986).
2164:
2162:
1651:Annals of the Entomological Society of America
1132:often induces spectacular galls on its hosts.
3337:Goitein, Shelomo Dov; Sanders, Paula (1967).
2732:Kessler, André; Baldwin, Ian T. (June 2002).
583:Cherry oak gall cut open to reveal wasp larva
8:
967:False nettle stem gall caused by gall midge
496:Artichoke gall cut open to reveal wasp larva
2638:Zipfel, Cyril; Felix, Georg (August 2005).
2321:Physiological and Molecular Plant Pathology
2126:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of May 2024 (
2087:"Electrical Control of Plant Morphogenesis"
44:
3165:(10). Oxford University Press: 1735–1745.
682:Some wasps from other groups, such as the
77:in animals. They can be caused by various
3304:
3188:
3170:
3153:Williamson, V. M.; Hussey, R. S. (1996).
2856:
2838:
2511:
2272:Rohfritsch, O.; Shorthouse, J.D. (1982).
2050:Williams, Michele A J, ed. (1994-10-06).
2023:
1882:
1370:Learn how and when to remove this message
808:Developing pineapple pseudocone galls on
2750:10.1146/annurev.arplant.53.100301.135207
2360:Zeitschrift für allgemeine Mikrobiologie
3379:. Collingwood, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing.
1571:"TPWD: Plant Galls -- Young Naturalist"
1529:
1241:
1155:
1089:Root-knot galls caused by the nematode
1058:
1014:
904:
795:
692:
463:
2924:
2922:
2385:
2251:
2241:
2208:Maresquelle, H. J.; Meyer, J. (1965).
2119:
1945:Maresquelle, H. J.; Meyer, J. (1965),
1865:Arduin, M.; Kraus, J.E. (1995-06-25).
2560:
2558:
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2267:
2265:
2045:
2043:
1985:
1983:
1884:10.11606/issn.2316-9052.v14i0p109-130
1826:Raman, Anantanarayanan (2011-06-01).
7:
2494:Gatjens-Boniche, Omar (2019-12-01).
2409:"Formation of Galls by Mikiola fagi"
1821:
1819:
1817:
1815:
1813:
1640:
1638:
1636:
1592:
1590:
1565:
1563:
1561:
1352:adding citations to reliable sources
3340:A Mediterranean Society: Daily life
3132:10.1146/annurev.py.01.090163.001251
1283:caused by a pathogen with an aphid
3042:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1994.tb01357.x
2898:10.1093/oso/9780198577690.003.0021
2425:10.1111/j.1399-3054.1948.tb07113.x
2407:Jensen, P. Boysen (January 1948).
2286:10.1016/b978-0-12-394380-4.50011-6
2062:10.1093/oso/9780198577690.001.0001
1702:10.1111/j.1558-5646.1998.tb02248.x
1320:Physiology of insect-induced galls
1277:Citrus vein enation woody gall on
25:
3489:University of Kentucky Entomology
2539:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
2278:Molecular Biology of Plant Tumors
2056:. Oxford University PressOxford.
1647:"Biology of Insect-Induced Galls"
1645:Barnes, Jeffrey K. (1993-01-01).
1542:Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary
1108:induce gall formation, including
2644:Current Opinion in Plant Biology
2091:Plant Tissue Culture Engineering
1328:
1270:
1247:
1187:
1161:
1082:
1064:
1020:
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960:
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698:
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559:
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521:
501:
489:
469:
3219:, a grass-fungus association",
3120:Annual Review of Phytopathology
2685:Voinnet, Olivier (2005-02-10).
1924:10.1590/s0100-84042002012000009
1737:The American Midland Naturalist
1607:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1416:) and astringent ointments, in
1339:needs additional citations for
457:trees and other members of the
3211:Terrell, E. E.; Batra, L. R. "
3126:(1). Annual Reviews: 219–240.
2738:Annual Review of Plant Biology
1912:Revista Brasileira de Botânica
1597:Krikorian, A. D. (June 1988).
1465:fetching the high price of 4½
1216:Gall-causing bacteria include
1027:Lime nail galls caused by the
902:leaf-miner flies cause galls.
770:bugs that cause galls are the
1:
2550:10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00247-7
1601:Plant Galls and Gall Inducers
1112:, which infects a variety of
865:Pachypsylla celtidisumbilicus
777:Pachypsylla celtidisumbilicus
549:Marble gall of oak caused by
2840:10.1371/journal.pgen.1008398
2793:10.1007/978-3-030-46012-9_17
2500:Revista de Biología Tropical
2333:10.1016/0885-5765(89)90020-9
2220:10.1007/978-3-642-50088-6_49
2169:Gasson, P (September 2000).
1959:10.1007/978-3-642-50088-6_49
57:
2141:Sinnott, Edmund W. (1960).
2085:Carmen, Cogălniceanu Gina,
1844:10.1016/j.flora.2010.08.004
1441:
453:, their hosts mostly being
295:Dryocosmus quercuspalustris
3533:
3439:British Plant Gall Society
3394:Redfern, Margaret (2011).
3375:Blanche, Rosalind (2012).
3327:Bavli, tractate Gittin:19a
2463:10.1007/0-306-48380-7_1732
2455:Encyclopedia of Entomology
1603:. Jean Meyer , S. Cheskin"
1495:British Plant Gall Society
1120:. Galls are often seen in
690:, also cause plant galls.
595:Cherry oak gall wasp adult
566:Cherry oak gall caused by
442:
332:
29:
3306:10.1016/j.cub.2018.06.024
3067:10.1134/S0013873810050052
2886:(Hymenoptera: Cynipidae)"
2656:10.1016/j.pbi.2005.05.004
2593:"The plant immune system"
2147:. New York: McGraw-Hill.
1788:10.1007/s10526-004-5525-3
1263:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
1219:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
812:, caused by woolly aphid
435:of gall-forming insects.
268:Agrobacterium tumefaciens
2884:Andricus quercuscalicis
2513:10.15517/rbt.v67i6.33984
2449:Mapes, Carol C. (2005),
2099:10.1007/1-4020-3694-9_21
1243:Microbial pathogen galls
1197:Rhododendron ferrugineum
1077:penetrating a host plant
970:Neolasioptera boehmeriae
895:Neolasioptera boehmeriae
705:Rose bedeguar gall on a
2982:The American Naturalist
2691:Nature Reviews Genetics
2374:(inactive 2024-09-26).
2372:10.1002/jobm.3630060116
2101:(inactive 2024-05-09),
1235:Nephotettix nigropictus
998:) jewelweed flower gall
514:Andricus quercuscalicis
281:Certain bacteria, like
3266:10.1098/rspb.1958.0013
2187:10.1006/anbo.2000.1242
2153:10.5962/bhl.title.4649
1225:Pseudomonas savastanoi
991:Schizomyia impatientis
945:Nettle gall caused by
931:Centrosema virginianum
694:Non-cynipid wasp galls
315:transcriptome analysis
45:
3172:10.1105/tpc.8.10.1735
3085:Systematic Entomology
2413:Physiologia Plantarum
2354:Schwartz, W. (1966).
2280:. Elsevier: 131–152.
1663:10.1093/aesa/86.1.122
482:Andricus foecundatrix
390:Gall-inducing insects
333:Further information:
32:Gall (disambiguation)
3091:(1). Wiley: 94–112.
3055:Entomological Review
1505:List of insect galls
1348:improve this article
1212:Bacteria and viruses
1171:Juniperus virginiana
1153:provinces of China.
789:, which parasitises
638:) on pedunculate oak
335:List of insect galls
283:Rhodococcus fascians
69:tissues, similar to
3479:Brandeis University
3413:Russo, Ron (2007).
3398:. London: Collins.
2609:10.1038/nature05286
2144:Plant morphogenesis
1871:Boletim de Botânica
1509:Similar structures:
1313:Belonocnema treatae
1307:Cassytha filiformis
1280:Fortunella japonica
1054:root-knot nematodes
948:Dasineura investita
889:Dasineura investita
669:Phylloteras poculum
569:Cynips quercusfolii
528:Oak gall caused by
3485:"Common oak galls"
3473:2020-11-09 at the
3461:2014-03-21 at the
3449:2020-11-12 at the
3232:10.1007/BF02858549
3217:Ustilago esculenta
3097:10.1111/syen.12521
2579:10.1007/BF00328398
1453:trees in northern
1400:Galls are rich in
1138:Ustilago esculenta
882:flies such as the
652:Kokkocynips rileyi
635:Andricus lignicola
531:Neuroterus albipes
477:Oak artichoke gall
465:Cynipid wasp galls
424:, gall moths, and
49:, 'oak-apple') or
3299:(16): R863–R864.
3213:Zizania latifolia
2947:10.1111/mec.16159
2941:(11): 3228–3240.
2935:Molecular Ecology
2907:978-0-19-857769-0
2802:978-3-030-46011-2
2603:(7117): 323–329.
2472:978-0-306-48380-6
2295:978-0-12-394380-4
2229:978-3-642-50090-9
2071:978-0-19-857769-0
2008:10.1111/mec.16482
2002:(11): 3031–3034.
1996:Molecular Ecology
1968:978-3-642-50090-9
1380:
1379:
1372:
1200:caused by fungus
1143:Zizania latifolia
1123:Millettia pinnata
1110:western gall rust
678:Non-cynipid wasps
16:(Redirected from
3524:
3503:
3501:
3500:
3491:. Archived from
3428:
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3390:
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2842:
2833:(11): e1008398.
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2588:
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2535:
2526:
2525:
2515:
2506:(6): 1359–1382.
2491:
2482:
2481:
2480:
2479:
2451:"Gall Formation"
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2199:
2198:
2175:Annals of Botany
2166:
2157:
2156:
2138:
2132:
2131:
2125:
2117:
2116:
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2082:
2076:
2075:
2047:
2038:
2037:
2027:
1987:
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1975:
1942:
1936:
1935:
1903:
1897:
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1862:
1856:
1855:
1823:
1808:
1807:
1767:
1761:
1760:
1728:
1722:
1721:
1696:(6): 1686–1696.
1681:
1675:
1674:
1642:
1631:
1630:
1594:
1585:
1584:
1582:
1581:
1567:
1556:
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1548:
1534:
1500:Forest pathology
1444:
1375:
1368:
1364:
1361:
1355:
1332:
1324:
1274:
1251:
1191:
1168:Gall on conifer
1165:
1141:associated with
1118:cedar-apple rust
1086:
1068:
1033:Eriophyes tiliae
1024:
986:
964:
942:
914:
860:
838:
826:
805:
797:Hemipteran galls
753:Leptocybe invasa
740:
728:
712:Diplolepis rosae
702:
664:
647:
626:
604:
592:
580:
563:
552:Andricus kollari
546:
525:
505:
493:
473:
406:leaf-miner flies
303:Quercus rubra L.
299:northern red oak
200:Accumulation of
60:
55:(from the Greek
48:
21:
3532:
3531:
3527:
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3475:Wayback Machine
3463:Wayback Machine
3451:Wayback Machine
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3369:Further reading
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3293:Current Biology
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3221:Economic Botany
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2703:10.1038/nrg1555
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2544:(10): 512–522.
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1491:
1445:in Arabic. The
1422:leather tanning
1398:
1376:
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1333:
1322:
1294:
1287:
1275:
1266:
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1176:Gymnosporangium
1166:
1102:
1095:
1087:
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1069:
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1025:
1006:
999:
987:
978:
965:
956:
943:
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915:
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861:
852:
850:Adelges abietis
839:
830:
827:
818:
815:Adelges abietis
806:
786:Adelges abietis
764:
762:Hemipteran bugs
757:
741:
732:
729:
720:
703:
680:
673:
665:
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616:pedunculate oak
605:
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321:Taxonomic range
311:transcriptional
307:gene expression
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172:Differentiation
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3433:External links
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3424:978-0520248854
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3405:978-0002201445
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3386:978-0643106437
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3279:
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3226:(3): 274–285.
3204:
3159:The Plant Cell
3145:
3110:
3071:
3061:(5): 585–590.
3046:
3036:(3): 734–745.
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2994:10.1086/284513
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2274:"Insect Galls"
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2181:(3): 707–708.
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1918:(4): 449–458.
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1723:
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1632:
1619:10.1086/415876
1613:(2): 225–226.
1586:
1575:tpwd.texas.gov
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1260:infected with
1254:Crown gall on
1253:
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1194:Leaf galls on
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874:Dipteran flies
872:
871:
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868:hackberry gall
862:
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842:Pineapple gall
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684:Diplolepididae
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2828:
2827:PLOS Genetics
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2794:
2790:
2786:
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2419:(1): 95–108.
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2108:1-4020-3594-2
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2100:
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2063:
2059:
2055:
2054:
2046:
2044:
2040:
2035:
2031:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1986:
1984:
1980:
1970:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1941:
1938:
1933:
1929:
1925:
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1796:1959.17/64564
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1518:Witch's broom
1516:
1514:
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1506:
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1415:
1414:iron gall ink
1411:
1407:
1403:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1384:
1374:
1371:
1363:
1353:
1349:
1343:
1342:
1337:This section
1335:
1331:
1326:
1325:
1319:
1317:
1315:
1314:
1309:
1308:
1303:
1299:
1298:hemiparasitic
1291:
1286:
1282:
1281:
1273:
1268:
1265:
1264:
1259:
1258:
1250:
1245:
1242:
1240:
1237:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1226:
1221:
1220:
1211:
1206:
1204:
1199:
1198:
1190:
1185:
1181:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1164:
1159:
1156:
1154:
1152:
1148:
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1140:
1139:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1125:
1124:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1099:
1094:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1076:
1075:
1067:
1062:
1059:
1057:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1040:
1035:
1034:
1030:
1023:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1011:
1003:
997:
996:Cecidomyiidae
993:
992:
985:
980:
976:
975:Cecidomyiidae
972:
971:
963:
958:
954:
953:Cecidomyiidae
950:
949:
941:
936:
933:
932:
927:
923:
921:
920:Japanagromyza
913:
908:
905:
903:
901:
897:
896:
891:
890:
885:
881:
873:
867:
866:
859:
854:
851:
847:
843:
837:
832:
825:
820:
817:
816:
811:
810:Norway spruce
804:
799:
796:
794:
792:
788:
787:
783:
779:
778:
773:
769:
761:
755:
754:
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739:
734:
727:
722:
718:
714:
713:
708:
701:
696:
693:
691:
689:
685:
677:
671:
670:
663:
658:
654:
653:
646:
641:
637:
636:
631:
625:
620:
617:
613:
612:Cynips divisa
609:
603:
598:
591:
586:
579:
574:
571:
570:
562:
557:
554:
553:
545:
540:
537:
533:
532:
524:
519:
516:
515:
510:
504:
499:
492:
487:
484:
483:
478:
472:
467:
464:
462:
460:
456:
452:
446:
439:Cynipid wasps
438:
436:
434:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
414:scale insects
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
356:
353:
348:
345:
341:
336:
328:
326:
320:
318:
316:
312:
308:
304:
300:
296:
290:
288:
284:
279:
277:
273:
269:
264:
260:
258:
250:
248:
244:
240:
236:
229:
227:
220:
218:
211:
206:
203:
199:
196:
191:
188:
184:
180:
176:
175:
171:
169:
167:
162:
157:
154:
153:morphogenesis
147:Morphogenesis
146:
144:
141:
138:In a general
133:
131:
129:
125:
121:
113:
108:
106:
104:
100:
96:
92:
88:
84:
80:
76:
72:
71:benign tumors
68:
64:
59:
54:
53:
47:
43:
39:
33:
19:
18:Gall (botany)
3497:. Retrieved
3493:the original
3488:
3478:
3468:Insect Galls
3414:
3395:
3376:
3354:. Retrieved
3339:
3332:
3323:
3296:
3292:
3282:
3257:
3253:
3250:Korthalsella
3249:
3245:
3239:
3223:
3220:
3216:
3212:
3207:
3162:
3158:
3148:
3123:
3119:
3113:
3088:
3084:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3033:
3030:
3023:
3018:
2985:
2981:
2971:
2938:
2934:
2911:, retrieved
2889:
2883:
2875:
2830:
2826:
2816:
2806:, retrieved
2784:
2774:
2741:
2737:
2727:
2694:
2690:
2680:
2647:
2643:
2633:
2600:
2596:
2586:
2573:(1): 15–21.
2570:
2565:
2541:
2538:
2503:
2499:
2476:, retrieved
2454:
2416:
2412:
2402:
2388:cite journal
2363:
2359:
2349:
2324:
2320:
2310:
2299:. Retrieved
2277:
2233:. Retrieved
2210:
2203:
2178:
2174:
2143:
2136:
2112:, retrieved
2090:
2080:
2052:
1999:
1995:
1972:, retrieved
1950:
1940:
1915:
1911:
1901:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1835:
1831:
1779:
1775:
1765:
1740:
1736:
1726:
1693:
1689:
1679:
1654:
1650:
1610:
1606:
1600:
1578:. Retrieved
1574:
1552:
1547:November 16,
1545:. Retrieved
1541:
1532:
1434:
1399:
1385:
1381:
1366:
1357:
1346:Please help
1341:verification
1338:
1311:
1305:
1295:
1278:
1261:
1255:
1233:
1230:
1223:
1217:
1215:
1201:
1195:
1169:
1157:Fungal galls
1142:
1136:
1134:
1127:
1121:
1103:
1090:
1072:
1049:
1044:
1031:
1007:
989:
968:
946:
929:
918:
893:
887:
886:gall midges
877:
863:
849:
846:Sitka spruce
813:
784:
782:woolly aphid
775:
765:
751:
749:chalcid wasp
710:
709:, caused by
688:Chalcidoidea
681:
667:
650:
633:
611:
608:Red-pea gall
567:
550:
536:laeviusculus
535:
529:
512:
509:Knopper gall
480:
448:
430:
388:
357:
349:
340:Insect galls
338:
324:
302:
294:
291:
286:
282:
280:
267:
265:
261:
254:
245:
241:
237:
233:
224:
215:
158:
150:
137:
117:
51:
50:
37:
36:
3396:Plant Galls
2890:Plant Galls
2252:|work=
1449:, found on
1447:Aleppo gall
1406:tannic acid
1205:rhododendri
1203:Exobasidium
1180:Pucciniales
1135:The fungus
1129:Exobasidium
1092:Meloidogyne
1074:Meloidogyne
1052:species or
1050:Meloidogyne
926:Agromyzidae
906:Midge galls
900:Agromyzidae
898:, and some
884:cecidomyiid
433:parasitoids
398:gall midges
378:, and even
344:herbivorous
287:R. fascians
276:chromosomes
124:collenchyma
93:, to other
3499:2006-09-11
3350:0520048695
2913:2024-05-09
2808:2024-05-09
2478:2024-05-09
2301:2024-05-09
2235:2024-05-09
2114:2024-05-09
1974:2024-05-08
1776:Biocontrol
1580:2024-05-09
1524:References
1485:ailments.
1483:intestinal
1459:Suwaydiyya
1389:metaplasia
1174:caused by
1116:trees and
1106:rust fungi
1016:Mite galls
848:caused by
791:coniferous
780:, and the
768:hemipteran
766:Among the
745:Eucalyptus
717:diplolepid
511:caused by
479:caused by
402:gall flies
394:gall wasps
221:Physiology
187:organelles
156:symmetry.
128:parenchyma
120:morphology
40:(from the
3274:2053-9193
3181:1040-4651
3140:0066-4286
3105:0307-6970
3031:Evolution
3002:0003-0147
2955:0962-1083
2849:1553-7404
2758:1543-5008
2711:1471-0056
2664:1369-5266
2617:0028-0836
2567:Oecologia
2522:2215-2075
2433:0031-9317
2380:0044-2208
2366:(1): 91.
2341:0885-5765
2254:ignored (
2244:cite book
2195:0305-7364
2016:0962-1083
1932:0100-8404
1893:2316-9052
1852:0367-2530
1804:1386-6141
1757:0003-0031
1710:0014-3820
1690:Evolution
1671:1938-2901
1627:0033-5770
1538:"gall(4)"
1435:Medieval
1420:, and in
1412:(such as
1302:mistletoe
1257:Kalanchoe
1071:Juvenile
1046:Nematodes
1041:Nematodes
1010:lime tree
707:wild rose
672:oak galls
445:Gall wasp
360:meristems
140:gall wasp
134:Structure
79:parasites
3511:Category
3471:Archived
3459:Archived
3447:Archived
3315:30130501
2963:34510608
2867:31682601
2766:12221978
2719:15703763
2672:15922649
2625:17108957
2122:citation
2034:35466464
1718:28565317
1489:See also
1430:gallnuts
1360:May 2024
1147:Zhejiang
917:Gall of
880:dipteran
743:Gall on
686:and the
655:oak gall
459:Fagaceae
451:Cynipini
418:psyllids
392:include
368:branches
251:Genetics
202:phenolic
91:bacteria
58:kēkidion
3356:22 June
3199:8914324
3024:Eurosta
3010:2461318
2858:6855507
2025:9321127
1877:: 109.
1471:mordant
1463:Antioch
1151:Jiangsu
922:inferna
772:psyllid
756:, India
747:due to
426:weevils
380:flowers
329:Insects
257:Genetic
166:enzymes
161:Osmotic
109:Anatomy
99:insects
83:viruses
81:, from
63:tissues
52:cecidia
3421:
3402:
3383:
3347:
3313:
3272:
3246:Viscum
3197:
3190:161311
3187:
3179:
3138:
3103:
3008:
3000:
2961:
2953:
2904:
2865:
2855:
2847:
2799:
2764:
2756:
2717:
2709:
2670:
2662:
2623:
2615:
2597:Nature
2520:
2469:
2431:
2378:
2339:
2292:
2226:
2193:
2105:
2068:
2032:
2022:
2014:
1965:
1930:
1891:
1850:
1802:
1755:
1716:
1708:
1669:
1625:
1467:dinars
1437:Arabic
1426:Talmud
1424:. The
1418:dyeing
1402:resins
1300:plant
1292:Plants
1285:vector
534:forma
422:thrips
410:aphids
384:fruits
364:stalks
352:larvae
95:plants
3517:Galls
3027:'
3006:JSTOR
1479:fever
1461:near
1455:Syria
1104:Many
1100:Fungi
1004:Mites
928:) in
892:and
878:Some
614:) on
376:roots
272:T-DNA
212:Types
195:larva
178:gall.
151:Gall
103:mites
87:fungi
75:warts
67:plant
46:galla
42:Latin
38:Galls
3419:ISBN
3400:ISBN
3381:ISBN
3358:2020
3345:ISBN
3311:PMID
3270:ISSN
3248:and
3215:and
3195:PMID
3177:ISSN
3136:ISSN
3101:ISSN
2998:ISSN
2959:PMID
2951:ISSN
2902:ISBN
2863:PMID
2845:ISSN
2797:ISBN
2762:PMID
2754:ISSN
2715:PMID
2707:ISSN
2668:PMID
2660:ISSN
2621:PMID
2613:ISSN
2518:ISSN
2467:ISBN
2429:ISSN
2394:link
2376:ISSN
2337:ISSN
2290:ISBN
2256:help
2224:ISBN
2191:ISSN
2128:link
2103:ISBN
2066:ISBN
2030:PMID
2012:ISSN
1963:ISBN
1928:ISSN
1889:ISSN
1848:ISSN
1800:ISSN
1753:ISSN
1714:PMID
1706:ISSN
1667:ISSN
1623:ISSN
1549:2007
1513:Burl
1481:and
1442:ˁafṣ
1410:inks
1404:and
1396:Uses
1296:The
1222:and
1149:and
1114:pine
1029:mite
774:bug
719:wasp
715:, a
382:and
372:buds
358:The
101:and
89:and
3301:doi
3262:doi
3258:148
3252:".
3228:doi
3185:PMC
3167:doi
3128:doi
3093:doi
3063:doi
3038:doi
2990:doi
2986:127
2943:doi
2894:doi
2853:PMC
2835:doi
2789:doi
2746:doi
2699:doi
2652:doi
2605:doi
2601:444
2575:doi
2546:doi
2508:doi
2459:doi
2421:doi
2368:doi
2329:doi
2282:doi
2216:doi
2183:doi
2149:doi
2095:doi
2058:doi
2020:PMC
2004:doi
1955:doi
1920:doi
1879:doi
1840:doi
1836:206
1792:hdl
1784:doi
1745:doi
1741:140
1698:doi
1659:doi
1615:doi
1475:ink
1451:oak
1350:by
844:on
455:oak
297:on
73:or
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