254:. These natural gas hydrates are seen as a potentially vast energy resource and several countries have dedicated national programs to develop this energy resource. Clathrate hydrate has also been of great interest as technology enabler for many applications like seawater desalination, gas storage, carbon dioxide capture & storage, cooling medium for data centre and district cooling etc. Hydrocarbon clathrates cause problems for the petroleum industry, because they can form inside
946:, and it is mechanically more stable and has a larger lattice constant at low temperatures than the Ne-filled analogue. The existence of such a porous ice had been theoretically predicted before. From a theoretical perspective, empty hydrates can be probed using Molecular Dynamics or Monte Carlo techniques. Conde et al. used empty hydrates and a fully atomic description of the solid lattice to estimate the phase diagram of H
31:
3524:
3546:
291:
932:
renders theoretical and computer simulation methods the ideal choice to address their thermodynamic properties. Starting from very cold samples (110–145 K), Falenty et al. degassed Ne–sII clathrates for several hours using vacuum pumping to obtain a so-called ice XVI, while employing neutron diffraction to observe that (i) the empty sII hydrate structure decomposes at
3535:
1945:
Kimble, R. A.; Lesser, M. P.; Martel, A. R.; Menanteau, F.; Meurer, G. R.; Miley, G. K.; Postman, M.; Rosati, P.; Sirianni, M.; Sparks, W. B.; Tran, H. D.; Tsvetanov, Z. I.; White, R. L.; Zheng, W. (2003). "Hubble Space
Telescope ACS Coronagraphic Imaging of the Circumstellar Disk around HD 141569A".
919:, because they require much smaller concentrations than the conventional thermodynamic inhibitors. Kinetic inhibitors, which do not require water and hydrocarbon mixture to be effective, are usually polymers or copolymers and anti-agglomerants (requires water and hydrocarbon mixture) are polymers or
1944:
Clampin, M.; Krist, J. E.; Ardila, D. R.; Golimowski, D. A.; Hartig, G. F.; Ford, H. C.; Illingworth, G. D.; Bartko, F.; Bentez, N.; Blakeslee, J. P.; Bouwens, R. J.; Broadhurst, T. J.; Brown, R. A.; Burrows, C. J.; Cheng, E. S.; Cross, N. J. G.; Feldman, P. D.; Franx, M.; Gronwall, C.; Infante, L.;
1007:
surface obtained was fitted by the universal form of the
Parsafar and Mason equation of state with an accuracy of 99.7–99.9%. Framework deformation caused by applied temperature followed a parabolic law, and there is a critical temperature above which the isobaric thermal expansion becomes negative,
931:
Empty clathrate hydrates are thermodynamically unstable (guest molecules are of paramount importance to stabilize these structures) with respect to ice, and as such their study using experimental techniques is greatly limited to very specific formation conditions; however, their mechanical stability
914:
and anti-agglomerants in actual field operations is a new and evolving technology. It requires extensive tests and optimisation to the actual system. While kinetic inhibitors work by slowing down the kinetics of the nucleation, anti-agglomerants do not stop the nucleation, but stop the agglomeration
480:
The unit cell of Type H consists of 34 water molecules, forming three types of cages – two small ones of different types, and one "huge". In this case, the unit cell consists of three small cages of type 5, two small ones of type 456 and one huge of type 56. The formation of Type H requires the
464:
The unit cell of Type II consists of 136 water molecules, again forming two types of cages – small and large. In this case there are sixteen small cages and eight large ones in the unit cell. The small cage again has the shape of a pentagonal dodecahedron (5), but the large one is a
796:
are common structures in permafrost regions. Similar structures are found in deep water related to methane vents. Significantly, gas hydrates can even be formed in the absence of a liquid phase. Under that situation, water is dissolved in gas or in liquid hydrocarbon phase.
873:
When operating within a set of parameters where hydrates could be formed, there are still ways to avoid their formation. Altering the gas composition by adding chemicals can lower the hydrate formation temperature and/or delay their formation. Two options generally exist:
976:, respectively. Matsui et al. employed molecular dynamics to perform a thorough and systematic study of several ice polymorphs, namely space fullerene ices, zeolitic ices, and aeroices, and interpreted their relative stability in terms of geometrical considerations.
571:. The one at 43 μm is much weaker than the one at 60 μm, which means the water ice, is located in the outer parts of the disk at temperatures below 50 K. There is also another broad ice feature between 87 and 90 μm, which is very similar to the one in
903:. All may be recovered and recirculated, but the economics of methanol recovery is not favourable in most cases. MEG is preferred over DEG for applications where the temperature is expected to be −10 °C or lower due to high viscosity at low temperatures.
728:
deposits may be significant (10 to 10 cubic metres), which makes them of major interest as a potential energy resource. Catastrophic release of methane from the decomposition of such deposits may lead to a global climate change, referred to as the
1056:
capture and sequestration. A nonstoichiometric compound, carbon dioxide hydrate, is composed of hydrogen-bonded water molecules arranged in ice-like frameworks that are occupied by molecules with appropriate sizes and regions. In structure I, the
1156:
Hassanpouryouzband, Aliakbar; Joonaki, Edris; Vasheghani
Farahani, Mehrdad; Takeya, Satoshi; Ruppel, Carolyn; Yang, Jinhai; J. English, Niall; M. Schicks, Judith; Edlmann, Katriona; Mehrabian, Hadi; M. Aman, Zachary; Tohidi, Bahman (2020).
489:), given the presence of other smaller help gases to fill and support the remaining cavities. Structure H hydrates were suggested to exist in the Gulf of Mexico. Thermogenically produced supplies of heavy hydrocarbons are common there.
835:
and to adhere to the pipe wall and thereby plug the pipeline. Once formed, they can be decomposed by increasing the temperature and/or decreasing the pressure. Even under these conditions, the clathrate dissociation is a slow process.
957:, and obtain the differences in chemical potentials between ice Ih and the empty hydrates, central to the van der Waals−Platteeuw theory. Jacobson et al. performed simulations using a monoatomic (coarse-grained) model developed for H
961:
O that is capable of capturing the tetrahedral symmetry of hydrates. Their calculations revealed that, under 1 atm pressure, sI and sII empty hydrates are metastable regarding the ice phases up to their melting temperatures,
198:
at suitable temperatures and pressures. Clathrate hydrates are not officially chemical compounds, as the enclathrated guest molecules are never bonded to the lattice. The formation and decomposition of clathrate hydrates are
1318:
Choudhary, Nilesh; Chakrabarty, Suman; Roy, Sudip; Kumar, Rajnish (January 2019). "A comparison of different water models for melting point calculation of methane hydrate using molecular dynamics simulations".
2290:
Ussler, W.; Paull, C. K.; Lorenson, T.; Dallimore, S.; Medioli, B.; Blasco, S.; McLaughlin, F.; Nixon, F. M. (2005). "Methane
Leakage from Pingo-like Features on the Arctic Shelf, Beaufort Sea, NWT, Canada".
422:
The unit cell of Type I consists of 46 water molecules, forming two types of cages – small and large. The unit cell contains two small cages and six large ones. The small cage has the shape of a pentagonal
1073:
molecules occupying both large cavities (tetrakaidecahedral) and small cavities (pentagonal dodecahedral). Researchers believed that oceans and permafrost have immense potential to capture anthropogenic
857:
Prevent formation of hydrates by addition of chemicals that (a) shift the hydrate equilibrium conditions towards lower temperatures and higher pressures or (b) increase hydrate formation time (
839:
Therefore, preventing hydrate formation appears to be the key to the problem. A hydrate prevention philosophy could typically be based on three levels of security, listed in order of priority:
1801:
Malfait, K.; Waelkens, C.; Waters, L.B.F.M.; Vandenbussche, B.; Huygen, E.; de Graauw, M.S. (1998). "The spectrum of the young star HD 100546 observed with the
Infrared Space Observatory".
555:
suggest massive dust disks consisting of millimetre-sized grains, which disappear after several million years (e.g.,). A lot of work on detecting water ices in the
Universe was done on the
1512:
Babu, Ponnivalavan; Linga, Praveen; Kumar, Rajnish; Englezos, Peter (1 June 2015). "A review of the hydrate based gas separation (HBGS) process for carbon dioxide pre-combustion capture".
2197:
Kamata, Shunichi; Nimmo, Francis; Sekine, Yasuhito; Kuramoto, Kiyoshi; Noguchi, Naoki; Kimura, Jun; Tani, Atsushi (June 2019). "Pluto's ocean is capped and insulated by gas hydrates".
203:, not chemical reactions. Their detailed formation and decomposition mechanisms on a molecular level are still not well understood. Clathrate hydrates were first documented in 1810 by
1024:) > (200 MPa, 200 K). The length of the hydrogen bonds responsible for framework integrity was insensitive to the thermodynamic conditions and its average value is
1445:
Chong, Zheng Rong; Yang, She Hern Bryan; Babu, Ponnivalavan; Linga, Praveen; Li, Xiao-Sen (2016). "Review of natural gas hydrates as an energy resource: Prospects and challenges".
517:
stars were fulfilled, despite the rapid grain growth to metre-scale. The key was to provide enough microscopic ice particles exposed to a gaseous environment. Observations of the
2367:
2086:
Kieffer, Susan W.; Xinli Lu; Craig M. Bethke; John R. Spencer; Stephen
Marshak; Alexandra Navrotsky (2006). "A Clathrate Reservoir Hypothesis for Enceladus' South Polar Plume".
380:
344:
2137:
Iess, L.; Stevenson, D. J.; Parisi, M.; Hemingway, D.; Jacobson, R. A.; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Nimmo, F.; Armstrong, J. W.; Asmar, S. W.; Ducci, M.; Tortora, P. (April 4, 2014).
2426:
Cruz, Fernando J. A. L.; Alavi, Saman; Mota, José P. B. (2019). "Low-Temperature
Thermodynamic Study of the Metastable Empty Clathrate Hydrates Using Molecular Simulations".
1016:) field was analyzed in terms of angle and distance descriptors of a classical tetrahedral structure and observed to occur essentially by means of angular alteration for (
654:" fractures found in that area. However, subsequent analysis of plume material makes it more likely that the geysers on Enceladus derive from a salty subsurface ocean.
417:
546:
1539:
1557:
Ghosh, Jyotirmoy; Methikkalam, Rabin Rajan J.; Bhuin, Radha
Gobinda; Ragupathy, Gopi; Choudhary, Nilesh; Kumar, Rajnish; Pradeep, Thalappil (29 January 2019).
907:(TEG) has too low vapour pressure to be suited as an inhibitor injected into a gas stream. More methanol is lost in the gas phase when compared to MEG or DEG.
1086:
hydrate equilibrium curve in phase diagram towards higher temperature and lower pressures is still under scrutiny to make extensive large-scale storage of CO
2903:
2680:
Cruz F.J.A.L.; Alavi S.; Mota J.P.B. (2019). "Low-Temperature
Thermodynamic Study of the Metastable Empty Clathrate Hydrates Using Molecular Simulations".
2318:
Youssef, Z.; Barreau, A.; Mougin, P.; Jose, J.; Mokbel, I. (15 April 2009). "Measurements of Hydrate Dissociation Temperature of Methane, Ethane, and CO
481:
cooperation of two guest gases (large and small) to be stable. It is the large cavity that allows structure H hydrates to fit in large molecules (e.g.
865:
The actual philosophy would depend on operational circumstances such as pressure, temperature, type of flow (gas, liquid, presences of water etc.).
807:
The 2020 Research Fronts report identified gas hydrate accumulation and mining technology as one of the top 10 research fronts in the geosciences.
104:
structure of hydrate clathrates would collapse into conventional ice crystal structure or liquid water. Most low molecular weight gases, including
2754:
Zheng J.; Chong Z.R.; Qureshi M.F.; Linga P. (2020). "Carbon Dioxide Sequestration via Gas Hydrates: A Potential Pathway toward Decarbonization".
2895:
650:
originates from clathrate hydrates, where carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrogen are released when exposed to the vacuum of space through the "
1664:
1281:
2250:
Kvenvolden, Keith A.; McMenamin, Mark A. (1980). "Hydrates of natural gas; a review of their geologic occurrence". Circular (Report).
620:
1766:
Natta, A.; Grinin, V.; Mannings, V. (2000). "Properties and Evolution of Disks around Pre-Main-Sequence Stars of Intermediate Mass".
432:
2469:
Falenty A.; Hansen T.C.; Kuhs F. (2014). "Formation and Properties of Ice XVI Obtained by Emptying a Type sII Clathrate Hydrate".
1890:
Malfait, K.; Waelkens, C.; Bouwman, J.; De Koter, A.; Waters, L. B. F. M. (1999). "The ISO spectrum of the young star HD 142527".
1729:
Beckwith, S. V. W.; Henning, T.; Nakagawa, Y. (2000). "Dust properties and assembly of large particles in protoplanetary disks".
2882:
2872:
1494:
2886:
2876:
2272:
2931:
979:
The thermodynamics of metastable empty sI clathrate hydrates have been probed over broad temperature and pressure ranges,
843:
Avoid operational conditions that might cause formation of hydrates by depressing the hydrate formation temperature using
2555:
Conde M.M.; Vega C.; Tribello G.A.; Slater B. (2009). "The Phase Diagram of Water at Negative Pressures: Virtual Ices".
1681:
804:
of methane hydrates from under the seafloor were successful. However, commercial-scale production remains years away.
599:
HD 141569A, are dusty. Li & Lunine found water ice there. Knowing the ices usually exist at the outer parts of the
436:
3570:
2399:
Gao, Shuqiang (2008). "Investigation of Interactions between Gas Hydrates and Several Other Flow Assurance Elements".
231:
2725:"CO2 Hydrate: Synthesis, Composition, Structure, Dissociation Behavior, and a Comparison to Structure I CH4 Hydrate"
3575:
1410:
Buffett, B.; Archer, D. (2004). "Global inventory of methane clathrate: sensitivity to changes in the deep ocean".
556:
675:
have proposed that a thin layer of clathrate hydrates thermally insulates the subsurface ocean of liquid water of
3590:
3328:
651:
2368:"China and Japan find way to extract 'combustible ice' from seafloor, harnessing a legendary frozen fossil fuel"
2723:
Circone S.; Stern L.A.; Kirby S.H.; Durham W.B.; Chacoumakos B.C.; Rawn C.J.; Rondinone A.J.; Ishii Y. (2003).
1837:
Li, Aigen; Lunine, Jonathan I.; Bendo, G. J. (2003). "Modeling the infrared emission from the ε-Eridani disk".
1109:
730:
657:
447:
259:
3083:
995:, by Cruz et al. using large-scale simulations and compared with experimental data at 100 kPa. The whole
823:
failure and damage valves and instrumentation. The results can range from flow reduction to equipment damage.
1217:
243:
2600:"Thermodynamic Stability and Growth of Guest-Free Clathrate Hydrates: A Low-Density Crystal Phase of Water"
819:. This is highly undesirable, because the clathrate crystals might agglomerate and plug the line and cause
3137:
1701:
1655:
Sloan, E. Dendy & Koh, Carolyn A. (2008) . "Chapter 2. Molecular Structures and Similarities to Ice".
1229:
851:
672:
588:
279:
1480:
923: – usually ammonium and COOH – surfactants being both attracted to hydrates and hydrocarbons.
584:
349:
313:
100:
and the guest molecule is typically a gas or liquid. Without the support of the trapped molecules, the
2793:
Gao, Shuqiang; House, Waylon; Chapman, Walter (2005). "NMR/MRI Study of Clathrate Hydrate Mechanisms".
2322:
in the Absence of Any Aqueous Phase and Prediction with the Cubic Plus Association Equation of State".
3545:
2892:
1827:
Barlow, M.J., In the proceedings of 'ISO's view on stellar evolution', Noordwijkerhout, July 1–4, 1997
3595:
3419:
2846:
2689:
2564:
2478:
2435:
2300:
2206:
2155:
2095:
2060:
2017:
1964:
1926:
1899:
1856:
1810:
1775:
1748:
1693:
1570:
1454:
1419:
1328:
624:
608:
1234:
1008:
ranging from 194.7 K at 100 kPa to 166.2 K at 500 MPa. Response to the applied (
207:
who found that water was a primary component of what was earlier thought to be solidified chlorine.
3424:
1706:
801:
748:
600:
592:
525:
510:
1998:
Li, Aigen; Lunine, Jonathan I. (2003). "Modeling the infrared emission from the HD 141569A disk".
787:
3527:
2818:
2771:
2705:
2537:
2502:
2451:
2232:
2179:
2119:
2033:
2007:
1980:
1954:
1872:
1846:
1738:
1684:; Lunine, Jonathan I. (February 2003). "An interpretation of the nitrogen deficiency in comets".
1637:
1344:
1255:
1198:
904:
858:
844:
816:
661:
596:
564:
552:
521:
255:
93:
81:
1917:
Jaschek, C.; Jaschek, M. (1992). "A southern be star survey : Spectra and envelope radii".
1617:
2924:
2810:
2662:
2621:
2580:
2494:
2171:
2146:
2111:
1660:
1598:
1247:
1190:
915:(sticking together) of gas hydrate crystals. These two kinds of inhibitors are also known as
911:
896:
881:
725:
699:
458:
275:
223:
101:
77:
66:
3303:
2854:
2802:
2763:
2736:
2697:
2652:
2611:
2572:
2529:
2486:
2443:
2408:
2331:
2251:
2222:
2214:
2163:
2103:
2068:
2064:
2025:
1972:
1930:
1903:
1864:
1814:
1783:
1711:
1629:
1588:
1578:
1521:
1462:
1427:
1423:
1336:
1293:
1239:
1180:
1170:
1138:
772:
647:
385:
204:
200:
150:
89:
3538:
2831:
531:
2953:
2899:
2138:
892:
580:
428:
299:
251:
247:
2850:
2693:
2568:
2482:
2439:
2304:
2210:
2159:
2099:
2021:
1968:
1860:
1779:
1752:
1697:
1574:
1458:
1363:
1332:
210:
Clathrates have been found to occur naturally in large quantities. Around 6.4 trillion (
3585:
3508:
3498:
3308:
2385:
2051:
Hersant, F (2004). "Enrichment in volatiles in the giant planets of the Solar System".
1622:
Zeitschrift für Elektrochemie, Berichte der Bunsengesellschaft für physikalische Chemie
1593:
1558:
1388:
820:
780:
741:
560:
466:
440:
267:
263:
235:
132:
30:
2701:
2447:
1715:
587:. 90% of the ice in the latter was found crystalline at temperature around 50 K.
3564:
3323:
3275:
3260:
3128:
2981:
2976:
2971:
2775:
2709:
2455:
2349:
2236:
1348:
1202:
514:
85:
2822:
2767:
2541:
2183:
2123:
2037:
1876:
1641:
1259:
3580:
3333:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3133:
3103:
2917:
2506:
1540:"NUS, Keppel, SLNG in tie-up to develop better cooling technology for data centres"
1466:
1340:
681:
628:
616:
548:
424:
1984:
34:
Methane clathrate block embedded in the sediment of hydrate ridge, off Oregon, USA
2858:
1525:
1052:
hydrates are more commonly used these days with its relevance in anthropogenic CO
3503:
3439:
3409:
3293:
3265:
3255:
3250:
3188:
3173:
3158:
3143:
3067:
3031:
832:
768:
713:
632:
486:
290:
227:
187:
1431:
939:
and, furthermore, (ii) the empty hydrate shows a negative thermal expansion at
3493:
3373:
3358:
3318:
3313:
3193:
3168:
3118:
3093:
3062:
2997:
2533:
2218:
2072:
920:
760:
717:
518:
239:
3163:
1633:
3465:
3455:
3434:
3363:
3208:
3183:
3098:
3088:
3057:
3052:
3017:
2167:
2107:
1583:
1099:
756:
752:
612:
17:
2814:
2666:
2625:
2584:
2498:
2175:
2115:
1602:
1251:
1194:
767:. However, natural gas hydrates do not contain only methane but also other
642:(2006) hypothesized that the geyser activity in the south polar region of
3475:
3470:
3460:
3429:
3393:
3388:
3378:
3230:
3178:
3153:
3012:
3007:
2012:
1959:
1851:
1743:
1282:"NMR and Viscosity Investigation of Clathrate Formation and Dissociation"
888:
576:
572:
563:
of water ice at 43 and 60 μm were found in the disk of the isolated
502:
179:
124:
115:
69:
27:
Crystalline solid containing molecules caged in a lattice of frozen water
2490:
1142:
815:
Thermodynamic conditions favouring hydrate formation are often found in
3485:
3383:
3353:
3298:
3288:
3113:
3047:
3042:
3027:
3022:
3002:
2904:– Background knowledge about gas hydrates, their prevention and removal
1175:
1158:
764:
734:
721:
579:). Crystalline ices were also detected in the proto-planetary disks of
451:
219:
195:
167:
141:
54:
2806:
2740:
2657:
2640:
2616:
2599:
2576:
2520:
Kosyakov V.I. (2009). "Structure Formation Under Negative Pressures".
2412:
2335:
2227:
1787:
1297:
1243:
1185:
427:(5) (which is not a regular dodecahedron) and the large one that of a
270:. Clathrates are suspected to occur in large quantities on some outer
3414:
3037:
900:
800:
In 2017, both Japan and China announced that attempts at large-scale
709:
643:
482:
271:
106:
2724:
2639:
Matsui T.; Hirata M.; Yagasaki T.; Matsumoto M.; Tanaka H. (2017).
2256:
2029:
1976:
1868:
3549:
3368:
3283:
3198:
3123:
2957:
2950:
1061:
hydrate crystallizes as one of two cubic hydrates composed of 46 H
793:
705:
676:
660:
is believed to play a major role in different processes on Mars.
568:
506:
289:
191:
173:
161:
97:
58:
29:
627:
had been trapped in the form of hydrates and incorporated in the
3203:
3148:
3108:
1620:[Solid gas hydrates II. Structure and space chemistry].
1389:"Clathrates: little known components of the global carbon cycle"
1104:
916:
2913:
2940:
2832:"Effect of gas hydrates melting on seafloor slope instability"
73:
62:
1481:"Drinkable water from cold energy | Engineers Australia"
509:, stated most of the conditions for hydrate formation in the
751:). The fast decomposition of such deposits is considered a
2830:
Sultan, N; Cochonat, P; Foucher, J.-P; Mienert, J (2004).
664:
is likely to form in condensation nebulae for gas giants.
258:, often resulting in obstructions. Deep sea deposition of
382:
respectively. A third hexagonal structure of space group
2139:"The Gravity Field and Interior Structure of Enceladus"
827:
Hydrate formation, prevention and mitigation philosophy
679:, the existence of which is suggested by data from the
2909:
1495:"Eco-friendly ways to harness natural gas efficiently"
1082:
hydrates. The utilization of additives to shift the CO
534:
388:
352:
316:
2883:
The SUGAR Project (Submarine Gas Hydrate Reservoirs)
3484:
3448:
3402:
3346:
3274:
3217:
3076:
2990:
2964:
712:, in ocean sediments, in deep lake sediments (e.g.
294:
Cages building the different gas hydrate structures
595:, as the one around the 5-million-year-old B9.5Ve
540:
411:
374:
338:
469:(56). Type II hydrates are formed by gases like O
1680:Iro, Nicolas; Gautier, Daniel; Hersant, Franck;
1559:"Clathrate hydrates in interstellar environment"
2324:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
1563:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
1131:Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research
2641:"Hypothetical Ultralow-density Ice Polymorphs"
2350:"China claims breakthrough in 'flammable ice'"
1618:"Feste Gashydrate II. Struktur und Raumchemie"
1368:. Quarterly Journal of Science. pp. 81–84
1129:Englezos, Peter (1993). "Clathrate hydrates".
790:are frequently observed in polar ice samples.
2925:
2273:"Ice that burns could be a green fossil fuel"
887:The most common thermodynamic inhibitors are
439:. Typical guests forming Type I hydrates are
262:has been proposed as a method to remove this
8:
2598:Jacobson L.C.; Hujo W.; Molinero V. (2009).
1919:Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series
435:(56). Together, they form a version of the
302:cubic structures: structure (Type) I (named
583:and the isolated Fe star HD 142527 in
282:, binding gas at fairly high temperatures.
3223:
2932:
2918:
2910:
2656:
2615:
2255:
2226:
2011:
1958:
1850:
1742:
1705:
1616:Stackelberg, M. v; Müller, H. R. (1954).
1592:
1582:
1233:
1218:"NMR MRI Study of Gas Hydrate Mechanisms"
1184:
1174:
533:
395:
387:
359:
351:
323:
315:
92:. In other words, clathrate hydrates are
882:Kinetic inhibitors and anti-agglomerants
182:
153:
144:
135:
127:
118:
109:
2906:(by manufacturer of hydrate autoclaves)
1159:"Gas hydrates in sustainable chemistry"
1121:
234:in the northern headwall flank of the
740:is a more potent greenhouse gas than
7:
3534:
2887:Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences
2877:Leibniz Institute of Marine Sciences
854:in order to avoid hydrate formation;
230:. Such deposits can be found on the
2729:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B
2271:Marshall, Michael (26 March 2009).
1657:Clathrate hydrates of natural gases
1280:Gao S; Chapman WG; House W (2005).
1222:The Journal of Physical Chemistry B
1216:Gao S; House W; Chapman WG (2005).
1090:viable in shallower subsea depths.
1040:Clathrate hydrate, which encaged CO
831:Hydrates have a strong tendency to
755:, due to its potential to trigger
607:proposed an interpretation of the
375:{\displaystyle Fd{\overline {3}}m}
339:{\displaystyle Pm{\overline {3}}n}
25:
2702:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.9b00009
2448:10.1021/acsearthspacechem.9b00009
1044:as guest molecule is termed as CO
708:gas hydrates can be found on the
611:enrichment, observed in the four
591:demonstrated that relatively old
433:hexagonal truncated trapezohedron
306:) and structure (Type) II (named
80:molecules with large hydrophobic
3544:
3533:
3523:
3522:
575:(the Bug or Butterfly nebula in
266:from the atmosphere and control
2768:10.1021/acs.energyfuels.0c02309
899:(DEG), commonly referred to as
724:potentially trapped in natural
419:may also be observed (Type H).
238:. Clathrates can also exist as
1467:10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.12.061
1387:Ellen Thomas (November 2004).
1341:10.1016/j.chemphys.2018.08.036
298:Gas hydrates usually form two
96:in which the host molecule is
84:are trapped inside "cages" of
1:
2682:ACS Earth and Space Chemistry
2428:ACS Earth and Space Chemistry
1716:10.1016/S0019-1035(02)00038-6
917:low dosage hydrate inhibitors
201:first order phase transitions
2859:10.1016/j.margeo.2004.10.015
1526:10.1016/j.energy.2015.03.103
1105:Star formation and evolution
950:O at negative pressures and
619:, with respect to the Solar
364:
328:
2053:Planetary and Space Science
559:(ISO). For instance, broad
232:Norwegian continental shelf
3612:
2293:AGU Fall Meeting Abstracts
1892:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1803:Astronomy and Astrophysics
1682:Bockelée-Morvan, Dominique
1432:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.09.005
697:
557:Infrared Space Observatory
515:pre-main and main sequence
501:, trying to interpret the
222:is trapped in deposits of
3517:
3329:Short-track speed skating
3226:
2947:
2534:10.1007/s10947-009-0190-0
2219:10.1038/s41561-019-0369-8
2073:10.1016/j.pss.2003.12.011
1839:The Astrophysical Journal
1659:. CRC Press. p. 45.
811:Gas hydrates in pipelines
1947:The Astronomical Journal
1634:10.1002/bbpc.19540580105
1362:Michael Faraday (1859).
1163:Chemical Society Reviews
1110:Clathrate gun hypothesis
927:Empty clathrate hydrates
878:Thermodynamic inhibitors
731:clathrate gun hypothesis
658:Carbon dioxide clathrate
493:Hydrates in the universe
448:carbon dioxide clathrate
260:carbon dioxide clathrate
2168:10.1126/science.1250551
2108:10.1126/science.1133519
2065:2004P&SS...52..623H
1931:1992A&AS...95..535J
1904:1999A&A...345..181M
1815:1998A&A...332L..25M
1584:10.1073/pnas.1814293116
1424:2004E&PSL.227..185B
1412:Earth Planet. Sci. Lett
720:regions. The amount of
601:proto-planetary nebulae
437:Weaire–Phelan structure
280:trans-Neptunian objects
244:Mallik gas hydrate site
186:as well as some higher
1768:Protostars and Planets
1731:Protostars and Planets
1365:On Hydrate of Chlorine
1026:r(̅O H) = 0.25 nm
673:University of Hokkaido
542:
511:protoplanetary nebulae
413:
412:{\displaystyle P6/mmm}
376:
340:
295:
61:physically resembling
35:
2893:Gas hydrates in video
2000:Astrophysical Journal
1391:. Wesleyan University
716:), as well as in the
543:
541:{\displaystyle \tau }
414:
377:
341:
293:
33:
1048:hydrate. The term CO
852:operating conditions
694:Natural gas hydrates
532:
386:
350:
314:
3425:Iceman (occupation)
2889:, Kiel (IFM-GEOMAR)
2879:, Kiel (IFM-GEOMAR)
2851:2004MGeol.213..379S
2801:(41): 19090–19093.
2694:2019ESC.....3..789C
2610:(30): 10298–10307.
2569:2009JChPh.131c4510C
2491:10.1038/nature14014
2483:2014Natur.516..231F
2440:2019ESC.....3..789C
2305:2005AGUFM.C11A1069U
2211:2019NatGe..12..407K
2160:2014Sci...344...78I
2100:2006Sci...314.1764K
2094:(5806): 1764–1766.
2022:2003ApJ...594..987L
1969:2003AJ....126..385C
1861:2003ApJ...598L..51L
1780:2000prpl.conf..559N
1753:2000prpl.conf..533B
1698:2003Icar..161..511I
1575:2019PNAS..116.1526G
1459:2016ApEn..162.1633C
1333:2019CP....516....6C
1286:Ind. Eng. Chem. Res
1228:(41): 19090–19093.
1143:10.1021/ie00019a001
893:monoethylene glycol
850:Temporarily change
802:resource extraction
749:Atmospheric methane
623:. They assumed the
593:circumstellar disks
526:circumstellar discs
94:clathrate compounds
3571:Clathrate hydrates
2977:Crystalline phases
2898:2016-03-21 at the
2762:(9): 10529–10546.
2401:Energy & Fuels
1546:. 22 October 2019.
1176:10.1039/C8CS00989A
912:kinetic inhibitors
905:Triethylene glycol
869:Hydrate inhibitors
845:glycol dehydration
771:gases, as well as
662:Hydrogen clathrate
553:Herbig Ae/Be stars
538:
513:, surrounding the
409:
372:
336:
310:) of space groups
296:
39:Clathrate hydrates
36:
3576:Phase transitions
3558:
3557:
3539:Wikimedia Commons
3342:
3341:
2807:10.1021/jp052071w
2741:10.1021/jp027391j
2735:(23): 5529–5539.
2658:10.1063/1.4994757
2617:10.1021/jp903439a
2577:10.1063/1.3182727
2477:(7530): 231–234.
2413:10.1021/ef800189k
2336:10.1021/ie801351e
2199:Nature Geoscience
1666:978-0-8493-9078-4
1544:The Straits Times
1499:The Straits Times
1298:10.1021/ie050464b
1292:(19): 7373–7379.
1244:10.1021/jp052071w
1169:(15): 5225–5309.
1065:O molecules (or D
897:diethylene glycol
700:Methane clathrate
689:Hydrates on Earth
635:' feeding zones.
597:Herbig Ae/Be star
565:Herbig Ae/Be star
459:methane clathrate
431:, specifically a
367:
331:
224:methane clathrate
65:, in which small
16:(Redirected from
3603:
3591:Industrial gases
3548:
3537:
3536:
3526:
3525:
3224:
2934:
2927:
2920:
2911:
2862:
2845:(1–4): 379–401.
2836:
2826:
2795:J. Phys. Chem. B
2780:
2779:
2751:
2745:
2744:
2720:
2714:
2713:
2677:
2671:
2670:
2660:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2619:
2604:J. Phys. Chem. B
2595:
2589:
2588:
2552:
2546:
2545:
2517:
2511:
2510:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2423:
2417:
2416:
2407:(5): 3150–3153.
2396:
2390:
2389:
2386:"Web of Science"
2382:
2376:
2375:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2330:(8): 4045–4050.
2315:
2309:
2308:
2287:
2281:
2280:
2268:
2262:
2261:
2259:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2230:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2143:
2134:
2128:
2127:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2048:
2042:
2041:
2015:
2013:astro-ph/0311070
1995:
1989:
1988:
1962:
1960:astro-ph/0303605
1941:
1935:
1934:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1887:
1881:
1880:
1854:
1852:astro-ph/0311069
1834:
1828:
1825:
1819:
1818:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1763:
1757:
1756:
1746:
1744:astro-ph/9902241
1726:
1720:
1719:
1709:
1677:
1671:
1670:
1652:
1646:
1645:
1613:
1607:
1606:
1596:
1586:
1569:(5): 1526–1531.
1554:
1548:
1547:
1536:
1530:
1529:
1509:
1503:
1502:
1491:
1485:
1484:
1477:
1471:
1470:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1418:(3–4): 185–199.
1407:
1401:
1400:
1398:
1396:
1384:
1378:
1377:
1375:
1373:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1321:Chemical Physics
1315:
1309:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1277:
1271:
1270:
1268:
1266:
1237:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1188:
1178:
1153:
1147:
1146:
1137:(7): 1251–1274.
1126:
1027:
994:
986:
975:
974:= 252 ± 2 K
968:
967:= 245 ± 2 K
956:
945:
938:
547:
545:
544:
539:
418:
416:
415:
410:
399:
381:
379:
378:
373:
368:
360:
345:
343:
342:
337:
332:
324:
300:crystallographic
250:of northwestern
217:
215:
205:Sir Humphry Davy
185:
176:
170:
164:
157:
147:
138:
130:
121:
112:
21:
3611:
3610:
3606:
3605:
3604:
3602:
3601:
3600:
3561:
3560:
3559:
3554:
3513:
3480:
3444:
3398:
3338:
3270:
3219:
3213:
3084:Albedo feedback
3072:
2986:
2972:Amorphous solid
2960:
2943:
2938:
2900:Wayback Machine
2869:
2834:
2829:
2792:
2789:
2787:Further reading
2784:
2783:
2753:
2752:
2748:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2679:
2678:
2674:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2597:
2596:
2592:
2554:
2553:
2549:
2522:J. Struct. Chem
2519:
2518:
2514:
2468:
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2463:
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2424:
2420:
2398:
2397:
2393:
2384:
2383:
2379:
2366:
2365:
2361:
2348:
2347:
2343:
2321:
2317:
2316:
2312:
2289:
2288:
2284:
2270:
2269:
2265:
2249:
2248:
2244:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2154:(6179): 78–80.
2141:
2136:
2135:
2131:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2006:(2): 987–1010.
1997:
1996:
1992:
1943:
1942:
1938:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1889:
1888:
1884:
1836:
1835:
1831:
1826:
1822:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1765:
1764:
1760:
1728:
1727:
1723:
1679:
1678:
1674:
1667:
1654:
1653:
1649:
1615:
1614:
1610:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1538:
1537:
1533:
1511:
1510:
1506:
1501:. 30 June 2017.
1493:
1492:
1488:
1479:
1478:
1474:
1444:
1443:
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1404:
1394:
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1371:
1369:
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1356:
1317:
1316:
1312:
1302:
1300:
1279:
1278:
1274:
1264:
1262:
1235:10.1.1.175.9193
1215:
1214:
1210:
1155:
1154:
1150:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1118:
1096:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1077:
1072:
1069:O) and eight CO
1068:
1064:
1060:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1038:
1035:
1025:
989:100 kPa ≤
988:
980:
970:
963:
960:
951:
949:
940:
933:
929:
871:
829:
813:
784:
776:
746:
739:
726:methane hydrate
702:
696:
691:
530:
529:
495:
476:
472:
455:
444:
429:tetradecahedron
384:
383:
348:
347:
312:
311:
288:
252:Canadian Arctic
248:Mackenzie Delta
213:
211:
184:
178:
172:
166:
160:
155:
151:
146:
142:
137:
133:
129:
123:
120:
114:
111:
105:
90:water molecules
86:hydrogen bonded
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3609:
3607:
3599:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3563:
3562:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3552:
3541:
3530:
3518:
3515:
3514:
3512:
3511:
3509:Snowball Earth
3506:
3501:
3499:Little Ice Age
3496:
3490:
3488:
3482:
3481:
3479:
3478:
3473:
3468:
3463:
3458:
3452:
3450:
3446:
3445:
3443:
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3399:
3397:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3350:
3348:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3339:
3337:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3309:Figure skating
3306:
3301:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3280:
3278:
3272:
3271:
3269:
3268:
3263:
3258:
3253:
3248:
3243:
3238:
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3227:
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3215:
3214:
3212:
3211:
3206:
3201:
3196:
3191:
3186:
3181:
3176:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3094:Circle or disc
3091:
3086:
3080:
3078:
3074:
3073:
3071:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3045:
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3015:
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3005:
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2994:
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2988:
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2979:
2974:
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2890:
2880:
2868:
2867:External links
2865:
2864:
2863:
2839:Marine Geology
2827:
2788:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2746:
2715:
2688:(5): 789–799.
2672:
2631:
2590:
2547:
2512:
2461:
2434:(5): 789–799.
2418:
2391:
2377:
2374:. 19 May 2017.
2359:
2356:. 19 May 2017.
2341:
2319:
2310:
2282:
2263:
2257:10.3133/cir825
2242:
2205:(6): 407–410.
2189:
2129:
2078:
2059:(7): 623–641.
2043:
2030:10.1086/376939
1990:
1977:10.1086/375460
1953:(1): 385–392.
1936:
1909:
1882:
1869:10.1086/380495
1845:(1): L51–L54.
1829:
1820:
1793:
1758:
1721:
1707:10.1.1.487.722
1692:(2): 511–532.
1672:
1665:
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1531:
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1486:
1472:
1447:Applied Energy
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1095:
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1079:
1078:in the form CO
1075:
1070:
1066:
1062:
1058:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1030:
993:≤ 500 MPa
958:
947:
944:< 55 K
928:
925:
885:
884:
879:
870:
867:
863:
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855:
848:
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821:flow assurance
812:
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782:
774:
744:
737:
698:Main article:
695:
692:
690:
687:
671:(2019) of the
631:flying in the
561:emission bands
537:
505:deficiency in
494:
491:
474:
470:
467:hexadecahedron
453:
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268:climate change
264:greenhouse gas
236:Storegga Slide
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3347:Constructions
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2870:
2866:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2844:
2840:
2833:
2828:
2824:
2820:
2816:
2812:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2791:
2790:
2786:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
2757:
2750:
2747:
2742:
2738:
2734:
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2719:
2716:
2711:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2695:
2691:
2687:
2683:
2676:
2673:
2668:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2651:(9): 091101.
2650:
2646:
2645:J. Chem. Phys
2642:
2635:
2632:
2627:
2623:
2618:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2594:
2591:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2563:(3): 034510.
2562:
2558:
2557:J. Chem. Phys
2551:
2548:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2516:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2492:
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2476:
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2462:
2457:
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2449:
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2429:
2422:
2419:
2414:
2410:
2406:
2402:
2395:
2392:
2387:
2381:
2378:
2373:
2372:National Post
2369:
2363:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2345:
2342:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2314:
2311:
2306:
2302:
2299:: C11A–1069.
2298:
2294:
2286:
2283:
2278:
2277:New Scientist
2274:
2267:
2264:
2258:
2253:
2246:
2243:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2193:
2190:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2149:
2148:
2140:
2133:
2130:
2125:
2121:
2117:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2093:
2089:
2082:
2079:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2047:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1994:
1991:
1986:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1961:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1940:
1937:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1920:
1913:
1910:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1886:
1883:
1878:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1853:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1833:
1830:
1824:
1821:
1816:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1797:
1794:
1789:
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1777:
1773:
1769:
1762:
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1754:
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1687:
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1673:
1668:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1648:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1624:(in German).
1623:
1619:
1612:
1609:
1604:
1600:
1595:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1553:
1550:
1545:
1541:
1535:
1532:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1508:
1505:
1500:
1496:
1490:
1487:
1482:
1476:
1473:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1453:: 1633–1652.
1452:
1448:
1441:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1413:
1406:
1403:
1390:
1383:
1380:
1367:
1366:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1314:
1311:
1299:
1295:
1291:
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1283:
1276:
1273:
1261:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1245:
1241:
1236:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1212:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1187:
1182:
1177:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1152:
1149:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1115:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1097:
1093:
1091:
1031:
1029:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1006:
1002:
998:
992:
984:
981:100 K ≤
977:
973:
966:
954:
943:
936:
926:
924:
922:
918:
913:
908:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
883:
880:
877:
876:
875:
868:
866:
860:
856:
853:
849:
846:
842:
841:
840:
837:
834:
826:
824:
822:
818:
810:
808:
805:
803:
798:
795:
791:
789:
785:
778:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
743:
736:
732:
727:
723:
719:
715:
711:
707:
704:Naturally on
701:
693:
688:
686:
684:
683:
678:
674:
670:
665:
663:
659:
655:
653:
649:
645:
641:
636:
634:
630:
629:planetesimals
626:
622:
618:
614:
613:giant planets
610:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
567:HD 100546 in
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
535:
527:
523:
520:
516:
512:
508:
504:
500:
492:
490:
488:
484:
478:
468:
462:
460:
456:
449:
445:
438:
434:
430:
426:
420:
406:
403:
400:
396:
392:
389:
369:
361:
356:
353:
333:
325:
320:
317:
309:
305:
301:
292:
285:
283:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
256:gas pipelines
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
221:
208:
206:
202:
197:
193:
189:
181:
175:
169:
163:
158:
148:
139:
126:
117:
108:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
48:
44:
40:
32:
19:
3334:Tour skating
3134:Frost flower
2965:Major phases
2873:Gas hydrates
2842:
2838:
2798:
2794:
2759:
2756:Energy Fuels
2755:
2749:
2732:
2728:
2718:
2685:
2681:
2675:
2648:
2644:
2634:
2607:
2603:
2593:
2560:
2556:
2550:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2474:
2470:
2464:
2431:
2427:
2421:
2404:
2400:
2394:
2380:
2371:
2362:
2353:
2344:
2327:
2323:
2313:
2296:
2292:
2285:
2276:
2266:
2245:
2202:
2198:
2192:
2151:
2145:
2132:
2091:
2087:
2081:
2056:
2052:
2046:
2003:
1999:
1993:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1922:
1918:
1912:
1895:
1891:
1885:
1842:
1838:
1832:
1823:
1806:
1802:
1796:
1771:
1767:
1761:
1734:
1730:
1724:
1689:
1685:
1675:
1656:
1650:
1628:(1): 25–39.
1625:
1621:
1611:
1566:
1562:
1552:
1543:
1534:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1498:
1489:
1475:
1450:
1446:
1440:
1415:
1411:
1405:
1393:. Retrieved
1382:
1370:. Retrieved
1364:
1357:
1324:
1320:
1313:
1301:. Retrieved
1289:
1285:
1275:
1263:. Retrieved
1225:
1221:
1211:
1166:
1162:
1151:
1134:
1130:
1124:
1039:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1004:
1000:
996:
990:
985:≤ 220 K
982:
978:
971:
964:
955:≤ 300 K
952:
941:
937:≥ 145 K
934:
930:
921:zwitterionic
909:
886:
872:
864:
838:
830:
814:
806:
799:
792:
788:Air hydrates
703:
682:New Horizons
680:
668:
666:
656:
652:Tiger Stripe
639:
637:
633:protoplanets
617:Solar System
604:
498:
496:
487:hydrocarbons
479:
463:
425:dodecahedron
421:
307:
303:
297:
242:, as at the
226:on the deep
218:) tonnes of
209:
194:, will form
188:hydrocarbons
57:water-based
50:
46:
43:gas hydrates
42:
38:
37:
18:Gas hydrates
3596:Natural gas
3504:Pleistocene
3218:Ice-related
3129:Frost heave
3063:Stalactites
1809:: L25–L28.
1520:: 261–279.
1395:13 December
910:The use of
895:(MEG), and
833:agglomerate
769:hydrocarbon
761:earthquakes
733:", because
714:Lake Baikal
519:radiometric
228:ocean floor
72:(typically
55:crystalline
3565:Categories
3550:Wiktionary
3494:Glaciology
3449:Other uses
3319:Ice racing
3314:Ice hockey
3289:Iceboating
3220:activities
2991:Formations
2982:Superionic
2228:2115/76168
1788:2014/17884
1186:1912/26136
1116:References
859:inhibitors
757:landslides
718:permafrost
621:abundances
603:, Hersant
240:permafrost
47:clathrates
3261:Sculpture
3077:Phenomena
2776:225428567
2710:140362440
2528:: 60–65.
2456:140362440
2237:182346067
1702:CiteSeerX
1349:106222519
1303:August 3,
1265:August 3,
1230:CiteSeerX
1203:219971360
1100:Clathrate
817:pipelines
753:geohazard
648:Enceladus
625:volatiles
581:ε-Eridani
536:τ
522:continuum
365:¯
329:¯
286:Structure
88:, frozen
70:molecules
67:non-polar
3528:Category
3486:Ice ages
3440:Yakhchāl
3420:Icehouse
3246:Climbing
3241:Blocking
3236:Blasting
3154:Hair ice
3104:Crystals
2896:Archived
2823:18762205
2815:16853461
2667:28886658
2626:19585976
2585:19624212
2542:97767359
2499:25503235
2354:BBC News
2184:28990283
2176:24700854
2124:41743663
2116:17170301
2038:14852254
1877:16191976
1642:93862670
1603:30630945
1327:: 6–14.
1260:18762205
1252:16853461
1195:32567615
1094:See also
889:methanol
765:tsunamis
646:'s moon
638:Kieffer
609:volatile
577:Scorpius
573:NGC 6302
503:nitrogen
196:hydrates
82:moieties
51:hydrates
3410:Cutting
3384:Pykrete
3304:Cycling
3299:Curling
3294:Cricket
3266:Skating
3256:Rafting
3251:Fishing
3231:Bathing
3174:Nucleus
3159:Jacking
3138:sea ice
3136: (
3068:Volcano
3032:calving
3030: (
3028:Iceberg
3023:Glacier
2885:, from
2875:, from
2847:Bibcode
2690:Bibcode
2565:Bibcode
2507:4464711
2479:Bibcode
2436:Bibcode
2301:Bibcode
2207:Bibcode
2156:Bibcode
2147:Science
2096:Bibcode
2088:Science
2061:Bibcode
2018:Bibcode
1965:Bibcode
1927:Bibcode
1925:: 535.
1900:Bibcode
1898:: 181.
1857:Bibcode
1811:Bibcode
1776:Bibcode
1774:: 559.
1749:Bibcode
1737:: 533.
1694:Bibcode
1594:6358667
1571:Bibcode
1455:Bibcode
1420:Bibcode
1372:8 April
1329:Bibcode
1036:hydrate
1020:,
1012:,
722:methane
685:probe.
667:Kamata
615:of the
528:around
272:planets
246:in the
220:methane
102:lattice
3543:
3532:
3521:
3415:Icebox
3374:Palace
3359:Bridge
3276:Sports
3194:Slurry
3169:Needle
3119:Frazil
3038:Icicle
2998:Anchor
2821:
2813:
2774:
2708:
2665:
2624:
2583:
2540:
2505:
2497:
2471:Nature
2454:
2235:
2182:
2174:
2122:
2114:
2036:
1985:243393
1983:
1875:
1704:
1686:Icarus
1663:
1640:
1601:
1591:
1514:Energy
1347:
1258:
1250:
1232:
1201:
1193:
901:glycol
794:Pingos
710:seabed
669:et al.
644:Saturn
640:et al.
605:et al.
549:-Tauri
507:comets
499:et al.
483:butane
192:freons
177:, and
59:solids
53:, are
3586:Gases
3466:Cream
3456:Chips
3435:Trade
3369:Igloo
3364:Hotel
3284:Bandy
3209:Storm
3199:Slush
3189:Shuga
3184:Shove
3144:Glaze
3124:Frost
3099:Clear
3089:Black
3058:Spike
3053:Sheet
3018:Field
2958:water
2954:state
2951:solid
2835:(PDF)
2819:S2CID
2772:S2CID
2706:S2CID
2538:S2CID
2503:S2CID
2452:S2CID
2233:S2CID
2180:S2CID
2142:(PDF)
2120:S2CID
2034:S2CID
2008:arXiv
1981:S2CID
1955:arXiv
1873:S2CID
1847:arXiv
1739:arXiv
1638:S2CID
1345:S2CID
1256:S2CID
1199:S2CID
747:(see
706:Earth
677:Pluto
585:Lupus
569:Musca
473:and N
276:moons
98:water
78:polar
76:) or
74:gases
49:, or
41:, or
3476:Pack
3471:Cube
3461:Core
3430:Pick
3403:Work
3394:Road
3389:Rink
3379:Pier
3204:Snow
3179:Rime
3164:Névé
3149:Hail
3109:Firn
3013:Dune
3008:Cave
2949:The
2902:and
2811:PMID
2663:PMID
2622:PMID
2581:PMID
2495:PMID
2297:2005
2172:PMID
2112:PMID
1661:ISBN
1599:PMID
1397:2007
1374:2024
1305:2009
1267:2009
1248:PMID
1191:PMID
987:and
969:and
779:and
763:and
551:and
497:Iro
450:and
346:and
278:and
190:and
3581:Ice
3354:Bar
3114:Fog
3048:Sea
3043:Jam
3003:Cap
2956:of
2941:Ice
2855:doi
2843:213
2803:doi
2799:109
2764:doi
2737:doi
2733:107
2698:doi
2653:doi
2649:147
2612:doi
2608:113
2573:doi
2561:131
2530:doi
2487:doi
2475:516
2444:doi
2409:doi
2332:doi
2252:doi
2223:hdl
2215:doi
2164:doi
2152:344
2104:doi
2092:314
2069:doi
2026:doi
2004:594
1973:doi
1951:126
1896:345
1865:doi
1843:598
1807:332
1784:hdl
1712:doi
1690:161
1630:doi
1589:PMC
1579:doi
1567:116
1522:doi
1463:doi
1451:162
1428:doi
1416:227
1337:doi
1325:516
1294:doi
1240:doi
1226:109
1181:hdl
1171:doi
1139:doi
589:HST
524:of
457:in
446:in
308:sII
212:6.4
63:ice
3567::
2853:.
2841:.
2837:.
2817:.
2809:.
2797:.
2770:.
2760:34
2758:.
2731:.
2727:.
2704:.
2696:.
2684:.
2661:.
2647:.
2643:.
2620:.
2606:.
2602:.
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2571:.
2559:.
2536:.
2526:50
2524:.
2501:.
2493:.
2485:.
2473:.
2450:.
2442:.
2430:.
2405:22
2403:.
2370:.
2352:.
2328:48
2326:.
2295:.
2275:.
2231:.
2221:.
2213:.
2203:12
2201:.
2178:.
2170:.
2162:.
2150:.
2144:.
2118:.
2110:.
2102:.
2090:.
2067:.
2057:52
2055:.
2032:.
2024:.
2016:.
2002:.
1979:.
1971:.
1963:.
1949:.
1923:95
1921:.
1894:.
1871:.
1863:.
1855:.
1841:.
1805:.
1782:.
1772:IV
1770:.
1747:.
1735:IV
1733:.
1710:.
1700:.
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1626:58
1597:.
1587:.
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1565:.
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1542:.
1518:85
1516:.
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1449:.
1426:.
1414:.
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1335:.
1323:.
1290:44
1288:.
1284:.
1254:.
1246:.
1238:.
1224:.
1220:.
1197:.
1189:.
1179:.
1167:49
1165:.
1161:.
1135:32
1133:.
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1057:CO
1032:CO
1028:.
891:,
786:.
781:CO
759:,
742:CO
735:CH
485:,
477:.
461:.
452:CH
441:CO
304:sI
274:,
216:10
180:Cl
174:Xe
171:,
168:Kr
165:,
162:Ar
159:,
149:,
143:CH
140:,
134:CO
131:,
122:,
113:,
45:,
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2933:e
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2861:.
2857::
2849::
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2712:.
2700::
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2686:3
2669:.
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2628:.
2614::
2587:.
2575::
2567::
2544:.
2532::
2509:.
2489::
2481::
2458:.
2446::
2438::
2432:3
2415:.
2411::
2388:.
2338:.
2334::
2320:2
2307:.
2303::
2279:.
2260:.
2254::
2239:.
2225::
2217::
2209::
2186:.
2166::
2158::
2126:.
2106::
2098::
2075:.
2071::
2063::
2040:.
2028::
2020::
2010::
1987:.
1975::
1967::
1957::
1933:.
1929::
1906:.
1902::
1879:.
1867::
1859::
1849::
1817:.
1813::
1790:.
1786::
1778::
1755:.
1751::
1741::
1718:.
1714::
1696::
1669:.
1644:.
1632::
1605:.
1581::
1573::
1528:.
1524::
1483:.
1469:.
1465::
1457::
1434:.
1430::
1422::
1399:.
1376:.
1351:.
1339::
1331::
1307:.
1296::
1269:.
1242::
1205:.
1183::
1173::
1145:.
1141::
1088:2
1084:2
1080:2
1076:2
1071:2
1067:2
1063:2
1059:2
1054:2
1050:2
1046:2
1042:2
1034:2
1022:T
1018:p
1014:T
1010:p
1005:T
1003:–
1001:V
999:–
997:p
991:p
983:T
972:T
965:T
959:2
953:T
948:2
942:T
935:T
861:)
847:;
783:2
777:S
775:2
773:H
745:2
738:4
729:"
475:2
471:2
454:4
443:2
407:m
404:m
401:m
397:/
393:6
390:P
370:m
362:3
357:d
354:F
334:n
326:3
321:m
318:P
214:×
183:2
156:S
154:2
152:H
145:4
136:2
128:2
125:N
119:2
116:H
110:2
107:O
20:)
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