66:
505:
362:
2534:
1357:
1452:
656:
1033:
1224:
24:
212:
1412:
At the present time, due to
Scotland's continuing to rise as a result of the weight of Devensian ice being lifted, England is sinking. This is generally estimated at 1 mm (1/25 inch) per year, with the London area sinking at double the speed partly due to the continuing compression of the recent
302:
movements. The igneous activity had started by 730 million years ago and continued until around 570 million years ago, resulting in a region of volcanic islands within a shallow sea. The remains of these islands underlie much of central
England with small outcrops visible in various places.
1334:, with the ice sheet itself reaching south to Birmingham. It is thought that the country was eventually abandoned as the ice sheet reached its peak, being recolonised as it retreated. By 5,000 years ago it is thought that the British Isles were warmer than they are at present.
1262:, with ice up to 1,000 m (3300 ft) thick in the northwest which thinned considerably as it reached as far south as London and Bristol. This glaciation took place between about 500,000 to 400,000 years ago, and was responsible for the diversion of the
101:
marks the division between younger, softer and low-lying rocks in the south east and the generally older and harder rocks of the north and west which give rise to higher relief in those regions. The geology of
England is recognisable in the landscape of its
1219:
period, further uplift and erosion occurred, particularly in the
Pennines. Plant and animal types developed into their modern forms, and by about 2 million years ago the landscape would have been broadly recognisable today.
1554:, drifted in from Gondwana, trapping Avalonia between it and the continent so adding Iberia/Armorica to Euramerica. This was followed up by the arrival of Gondwana. The effects of these collisions are seen in Europe as the
878:
period, England moved away from the equator until it was between 20° and 30° north. Red beds, including sandstones and red mudstones form the main sediments of the New Red
Sandstone. The remnants of the Variscan uplands in
1068:. The high sea levels left only small areas of land exposed. This caused the general lack of land-origin sand, mud or clay sediments around this time – some of the late Cretaceous strata are almost pure chalk.
1179:. Much of the Midlands and north of England may have been covered by Jurassic and Cretaceous deposits at the start of the Palaeogene, but lost them through erosion. By 35 million years ago, the landscape included
486:
period, northern
England was a region uplifted by the Caledonian Orogeny. The uplifted regions were gradually eroded down, resulting in the deposition of numerous sedimentary rock layers in lowlands and seas. The
1330:, which is thought to have started around 75,000 years ago, peaked around 20,000 years ago and ended a mere 11,500 years ago. The valleys of the Lake District and parts of the Pennines were further eroded by
491:
was deposited across much of central and southern
England. Sea levels varied considerably at this time with the coastline advancing and retreating from north to south across England. The Old Red Sandstone of
245:
Former ice caps did not reach south of the line running from
Bristol to London, so this area has only been impacted by fluvio-glacial deposition which is represented in gravel beds around rivers such as the
1430:
The
British Isles continue to be subject to several very minor earthquakes each month, and occasional light to moderate ones. During the 20th century 25 earthquakes with a magnitude of 4.5 to 6.1 on the
158:
in the geologically recent past. "Drift" geology is often more important than "solid" geology when considering building works, drainage, siting water boreholes, soil fertility, and many other issues.
354:
of
England were eroded as the land became flooded by a rise in sea level, and new layers of sediment were laid down. Cambrian shales laid down in a shallow sea are exposed in the Midlands at
1455:
The remaining rocks of Avalonia within Europe. It indicates the part which collided with Baltica in the upper Ordovician and that which collided with Laurentia in the Silurian.
826:(southwest England and adjacent areas in the present-day English Channel). Later, much of England was submerged in shallow waters as the polar ice sheets melted and the
1420:
appear likely to make low-lying areas of land increasingly susceptible to flooding, while in some areas the coastline continues to erode at a geologically rapid rate.
1500:, a continental plate occupying the latitudes from about 30°S to 55°S, as the latter slowly rotated anticlockwise towards it. This happened at the end of the
686:(mountain building period) caused major deformation in south west England. The general region of Variscan folding was south of an east–west line roughly from
208:
soils. This unconsolidated material (it is not stuck tightly together) is very easily eroded hence the rapid rate of retreat of the coastline of this region.
122:
consists of many layers formed over vast periods of time. These were laid down in various climates as the global climate changed, the landmasses moved due to
1912:
2175:
1663:
298:
continent. Some material may have accreted from volcanic island arcs which formed further out in the ocean and later collided with Gondwana as a result of
172:
has had a major impact on the landscape of England covering many areas with a veneer of glacial till in the lower lying areas north of a line running from
3028:
1866:
45:
32:
1824:
902:
Rock fragments found near Bristol appear to indicate that in 214 million years ago England was showered with a fine layer of debris from an
1643:
150:
Overlain on this bedrock or "solid" geology is a somewhat variable distribution of soils and fragmental material deposited by glaciers (
2732:
1648:
1048:
period, the seas started to flood the land again until much of England was again below the sea, though sea levels frequently changed.
1558:
folding. In North America it shows as later phases of the Acadian orogeny. This was happening at around the Equator during the later
1478:. England was almost entirely contained within the Avalonian block, as shown in the map, and thus shares its geolocation chronology.
3194:
2235:
1409:. Large quantities of stone, gravel and clay are extracted each year, and by 2000 11% of England was covered by roads or buildings.
1905:
3073:
2168:
1092:
In the early Palaeogene period between 63 and 52 million years ago, the last igneous rocks in England were formed. The granite
65:
1496:. This independent movement of Avalonia started from a latitude of about 60° South. The eastern end of Avalonia collided with
1300:, between about 352,000 to 132,000 years ago. Thought to have peaked around 150,000 years ago, it was named after the town of
234:
in the north produces a headland relatively resistant to coastal erosion whilst the coastline south of this at such places as
1163:
long before. The uplifted areas were then eroded, and further sediments were deposited over southern England, including the
883:
to the south were eroded down, resulting in layers of the New Red Sandstone being deposited across central England, and in
2825:
2604:
2476:
2255:
1616:
1523:, beginning with the long extremity of Avalonia which is now attached to America. The result of this was the formation of
1281:
repeatedly opened and closed during this period, causing Britain to become an island from time to time. The oldest human
3133:
2775:
2760:
2294:
2265:
2027:
1598:
1424:
322:
The Phanerozoic comprises the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic eras, each of which are represented in English geology.
126:, and the land and sea levels rose or fell. From time to time horizontal forces caused the rock to undergo considerable
2127:
3189:
2486:
1898:
310:(mountain building period) created mountains in what would subsequently become England, along with much of north west
447:
were deposited in some parts of England. Volcanic ashes and lavas deposited during the period are still found in the
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2384:
2161:
2007:
2002:
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2805:
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1952:
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and overlain with other layers. To further complicate the geology, the land has also been subject to periods of
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2137:
2112:
2042:
2022:
1967:
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2017:
2122:
1937:
1746:
3143:
2712:
2077:
2047:
1432:
517:
37:
358:. Much of central England formed a stable block of crust which has remained largely undeformed ever since.
2717:
2649:
2461:
2132:
2117:
1992:
1942:
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climate, with frequent flash floods leaving deposits that formed red beds, somewhat similar to the later,
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504:
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2431:
2379:
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2334:
2220:
2087:
2052:
2037:
1972:
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1037:
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occurred within and around England, prior to the breakup of the super-continent in the Jurassic period.
389:
127:
70:
1858:
822:
period was characterised for 30 million years by arid desert and erosion of the areas uplifted in the
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2142:
2012:
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1551:
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361:
3128:
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3015:
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2506:
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2192:
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1962:
1957:
1929:
1816:
1758:
1722:
1626:
978:
974:
959:
702:
250:. As the ice caps retreated northwards, more fluvio-glacial deposition occurred for example in the
103:
1020:
deposits formed as the seas fell to form the swamps and salty lakes and lagoons that were home to
914:(when both areas were parts of the Pangaea supercontinent), although this is still being debated.
3153:
3033:
2875:
2687:
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2614:
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2250:
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1987:
1820:
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There is extensive evidence in the form of stone tools that southern England was colonised by
951:
807:
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488:
155:
123:
94:
3001:
1470:
whose history formed much of the older rocks of Western Europe. The name is derived from the
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consist of metamorphosed marine sediments laid down on the northern margin of Avalonia.
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2908:
2900:
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2835:
2750:
2727:
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1683:
1486:
1463:
1417:
1382:, as well as in coastal areas that have recently been artificially drained such as the
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1130:
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that took place from about 50 million years ago was responsible for the shaping of the
1104:
970:
947:
931:
587:
582:
The formation of Carboniferous Limestone was followed by the deposition of dark marine
1566:
in such a way that Avalonia was near its centre but partially flooded by shallow sea.
742:
3183:
3168:
3108:
3093:
3063:
3038:
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period, England was lying at the equator, covered by the warm shallow waters of the
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287:
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189:
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period that followed the glaciation of the Anglian Stage. It is possible that the
938:
were deposited and can now be found underlying much of southern England from the
3138:
2948:
2943:
2870:
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1528:
1413:
clay deposits. A contributory factor is the draining of many stretches of land.
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1239:
1164:
1126:
1122:
1013:
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671:
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contains a waterfall disappearing underground into the Carboniferous limestone.
576:
552:
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275:
193:
1839:
1807:
Huggett, Richard John (2011) . "Landscape evolution: Long term geomorphology".
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1977:
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of metal-rich fluids in the cooling rock provided the source of the extensive
655:
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568:
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has led to very distinctive scenery. Particularly notable is the area around
544:
540:
462:
around 425 million years ago, joining the southern and northern halves of the
381:
331:
227:
181:
161:
135:
78:
1885:
1378:
epoch the most significant new geological features have been the deposits of
1008:
below the mud of the sea floor during this time resulted in the formation of
733:
form important elements in the landscape in these areas. Metamorphism of the
3043:
2860:
2765:
1520:
1398:
1350:
1345:(blocks of rock) that have been transported by ice, including some from the
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1192:
1118:
1005:
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943:
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Around 280 million years ago, at the close of the Carboniferous period, the
591:
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440:
420:
365:
235:
223:
139:
107:
1435:
were felt, many of them originating within England itself. Notable was the
1223:
866:
comprises the Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous periods (252–66 Ma).
334:
comprises six periods from the Cambrian to the Permian (539–252 Ma).
23:
531:. During this time Carboniferous Limestone was deposited, as found in the
3048:
2971:
1574:
1570:
1516:
1512:
1493:
1489:
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1387:
1375:
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1077:
1021:
990:
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863:
851:
773:
718:
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548:
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474:-style mountain range. England lay on the southern fringe of this range.
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185:
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1527:. At the completion of this stage, the site of Britain was at 30°S and
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1406:
1331:
1301:
1255:
1216:
1208:
927:
819:
706:
664:
455:
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covered the Lake District, still seen in the form of mountains such as
347:
266:
No rocks earlier than the Proterozoic occur at surface within England.
239:
173:
131:
119:
1875:
934:
to between 30° and 40° north. With much of England under water again,
211:
1890:
1282:
1137:
963:
911:
880:
843:
769:
750:
556:
311:
130:, folding the layers of rock to form mountains which have since been
2153:
1450:
1355:
1320:
1285:
in these islands also date from this time, including the skull of
1270:
1222:
1180:
1115:
1053:
1049:
1031:
1001:
835:
710:
694:, though lesser folding took place as far north as Derbyshire and
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503:
493:
360:
279:
210:
74:
64:
1519:, the combined Baltica and Avalonia collided progressively, with
1311:
The Wolstonian Stage was followed by interglacial climate of the
930:
began to break up and sea levels rose, as England drifted on the
602:
protruding up above the Carboniferous Limestone landscape below.
2697:
1379:
1364:
1346:
1176:
1056:
were deposited over much of England, now notably exposed at the
1017:
955:
896:
847:
810:. The country rock is Lower Carboniferous limestone and shales.
691:
629:
625:
471:
412:
205:
2157:
1894:
1880:
1853:
1155:. Some of this uplift was along old lines of weakness from the
698:. The main tectonic pressure was from the south or south-west.
1184:
1121:
to the south. This orogeny also led to the development of the
17:
1423:
Recent flooding events leave geological evidence such as the
1308:
which is considered to mark the southern limit of the ice.
985:. A particularly interesting Jurassic site is on the North
782:
After the end of the Carboniferous period, an intrusion of
753:
which has been excavated as it is an important source of
745:
deposits of the region (primarily copper and tin). Later
590:, notably in the area later uplifted to form the Pennine
1706:
1704:
1577:
and Gondwana, with Avalonia as part of Laurasia. In the
1084:, Neogene and Quaternary periods (66 Ma–present).
97:, progressing in age in a north westerly direction. The
725:
and several other exposures in Cornwall, including the
640:
and northern England. One of the best exposures of the
215:
Hornsea where soft glacial deposits are suffering from
106:, the building materials of its towns and its regional
850:, before finally receding to leave a flat desert with
1771:
Carboniferous review by NE England Geological Society
1535:
folding or in North America as an early phase in the
1416:
In addition, rises in sea level thought to be due to
609:
formed and the sediments deposited were colonised by
1531:
at about 45°S. This collision is represented by the
701:
Towards the end of the orogeny the emplacement of a
3014:
2957:
2894:
2784:
2741:
2668:
2550:
2541:
2191:
1928:
1234:and the rest of the Lake District were affected by
1492:broke up and Avalonia drifted off northwards from
1397:Since humans began clearing the forest during the
1337:Among the features left behind by the ice are the
93:. The youngest rocks are in the south east around
1881:Southampton University Geology of the South Coast
768:By the end of the period, England had a hot arid
286:, including England, is believed to have been in
242:with their soft glacial deposits are vulnerable.
1759:Devonian period by North East Geological Society
1326:The most recent glaciations occurred during the
1254:epoch have been brought about by several recent
1040:carved in the chalk downland of southern England
1795:North east Jurassic coast by NE Geology society
1374:Over the last twelve thousand years during the
1016:, much of it trapped in overlying sandstone by
454:Avalonia had now joined with the continent of
200:. Indeed, most of East Anglia is covered with
2169:
1906:
1733:Woodcock, N. & Strachan, R., eds, (2000)
8:
1151:leading to erosion and the formation of the
636:; though coal has largely been mined in the
384:period, southern Britain, the east coast of
1664:Coal Seams of the South Yorkshire Coalfield
761:used in the production of such products as
282:). The early geological development of the
2547:
2176:
2162:
2154:
1913:
1899:
1891:
586:, siltstones and coarse sandstones of the
458:, and the combined landmass collided with
1735:Geological History of Britain and Ireland
1546:, the new continent and another terrane,
1747:Geological Society of North East England
1319:are known to have lived as far north as
1289:from 250,000 years ago, and the earlier
523:Around 360 million years ago during the
368:, a remnant of volcanic activity in the
48:of all important aspects of the article.
1700:
1136:, and the near-vertical folds in south
632:with deposits stretching northwards to
380:Five hundred million years ago, in the
617:. It was in this environment that the
44:Please consider expanding the lead to
1349:region and deposited on the coast of
1296:Multiple glaciations occurred during
7:
1815:(3rd ed.). Routledge. pp.
1405:, speeding the natural processes of
184:in north west England the resulting
1783:Permian times by NE Geology society
1644:List of geology of English counties
644:is on the north east coast between
594:. This sequence can be seen in the
551:. The erosion of this landscape by
222:A similar situation exists in east
1649:Geological groups of Great Britain
1589:with Avalonia split between them.
1044:After 20 million years during the
749:of the granite led to deposits of
306:Around 600 million years ago, the
14:
717:. This granite is now exposed as
2532:
1401:, most of the land has now been
22:
230:district. The chalk outcrop at
36:may be too short to adequately
1147:During the period England was
874:As Pangaea drifted during the
46:provide an accessible overview
1:
2826:European Cenozoic Rift System
1811:Fundamentals of Geomorphology
1617:Geology of southern North Sea
1250:The major changes during the
628:can be found as far south as
411:Large quantities of volcanic
1599:Geological Society of London
1273:populations during the warm
204:which has produced its rich
3016:UNESCO World Heritage Sites
1876:UK Geology/Fossil locations
891:. A basin developed in the
709:occurred below what is now
3211:
1840:Information on Earthquakes
1339:glaciated U-shaped valleys
1258:. The most severe was the
765:and shiny printing paper.
496:gave the period its name.
2530:
1689:Woolwich-and-Reading Beds
1604:British Geological Survey
1581:, Laurasia broke up into
1341:of the Lake District and
1266:onto its present course.
908:Manicouagan Impact Crater
895:region around this time.
508:Limestone pavement above
396:to form the continent of
170:fluvio-glacial deposition
3195:Geology of Great Britain
2934:Jan Mayen Microcontinent
1864:Northern Ireland Geology
1859:UK Peak District Geology
1679:Geology of Alderley Edge
1622:Geology of Great Britain
1100:dates from this period.
739:hydrothermal circulation
670:on the southern edge of
466:together. The resulting
2876:Peri-Caspian Depression
2605:Hallandian-Danopolonian
1737:, Blackwell, pp 127-139
518:Carboniferous limestone
278:lasted from (2,500–541
2718:Scandinavian Mountains
2236:Bosnia and Herzegovina
2128:West Midlands (County)
1711:Southampton University
1456:
1441:2002 Dudley earthquake
1425:Bristol Channel floods
1371:
1242:
1041:
806:is also seen again at
674:
520:
372:
219:
82:
2886:White Sea Rift System
1886:Geology map of Europe
1573:, Pangaea split into
1454:
1447:Tectonics of Avalonia
1437:Colchester earthquake
1359:
1226:
1153:Sub-Paleogene surface
1058:White Cliffs of Dover
1038:Uffington White Horse
1035:
658:
507:
415:and ash known as the
364:
294:on the margin of the
214:
188:are clearly visible.
154:, and other forms of
108:extractive industries
71:White Cliffs of Dover
68:
2992:Fennoscandian Craton
2987:East European Craton
1361:St Mary in the Marsh
1175:and river deposited
500:Carboniferous period
417:Borrowdale Volcanics
262:Precambrian supereon
146:Superficial deposits
2881:Timan-Pechora Basin
2816:Dnieper–Donets Rift
2733:Western Carpathians
1627:Geology of Scotland
1064:, and also forming
979:Vale of White Horse
975:corallian limestone
834:formed, depositing
794:flows over this at
565:limestone pavements
3190:Geology of England
3034:Calanques de Piana
2788:basins and grabens
2008:Greater Manchester
1922:Geology of England
1869:2009-01-31 at the
1659:Geologic timescale
1639:Geology of Ireland
1457:
1372:
1243:
1195:trees, along with
1161:Variscan orogenies
1042:
696:Berwick-upon-Tweed
675:
521:
468:Caledonian Orogeny
373:
257:Geological history
220:
176:to London. In the
164:and the resulting
87:geology of England
83:
3177:
3176:
3114:Monte San Giorgio
3010:
3009:
2967:Armorican terrane
2771:Mediterranean Sea
2185:Geology of Europe
2151:
2150:
1826:978-0-203-86008-3
1797:retrieved 21/1/07
1785:retrieved 21/1/07
1773:retrieved 21/1/07
1761:retrieved 21/1/07
1749:retrieved 21/1/07
1713:retrieved 21/1/07
1028:Cretaceous period
936:sedimentary rocks
777:New Red Sandstone
547:and the northern
489:Old Red Sandstone
376:Ordovician period
124:continental drift
63:
62:
3202:
3074:Jungfrau-Aletsch
3059:Giant's Causeway
2997:Sarmatian Craton
2914:Aegean Sea Plate
2811:Central Lowlands
2806:Baltic Sea Basin
2786:Intracontinental
2548:
2543:Geologic regions
2536:
2487:Northern Ireland
2178:
2171:
2164:
2155:
2063:Northamptonshire
1915:
1908:
1901:
1892:
1842:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1814:
1804:
1798:
1792:
1786:
1780:
1774:
1768:
1762:
1756:
1750:
1744:
1738:
1731:
1725:
1723:Virtual Explorer
1720:
1714:
1708:
1632:Geology of Wales
1472:Avalon Peninsula
1439:in 1884 and the
1313:Ipswichian Stage
1298:Wolstonian Stage
983:Isle of Portland
926:period started,
824:Variscan Orogeny
684:Variscan orogeny
678:Variscan Orogeny
392:broke away from
308:Cadomian Orogeny
284:Avalonia terrane
232:Flamborough Head
198:terminal moraine
73:, Kent, made of
58:
55:
49:
26:
18:
3210:
3209:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3201:
3200:
3199:
3180:
3179:
3178:
3173:
3024:Aeolian Islands
3006:
2953:
2919:Anatolian Plate
2901:microcontinents
2899:
2896:Tectonic plates
2890:
2866:Pannonian Basin
2856:North Sea Basin
2831:Hellenic Trench
2796:Aquitaine Basin
2787:
2780:
2737:
2670:Mountain ranges
2664:
2537:
2528:
2390:North Macedonia
2187:
2182:
2152:
2147:
2073:Nottinghamshire
2003:Gloucestershire
1948:Buckinghamshire
1924:
1919:
1871:Wayback Machine
1850:
1845:
1838:
1834:
1827:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1793:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1753:
1745:
1741:
1732:
1728:
1721:
1717:
1709:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1669:Chalk Formation
1612:
1595:
1550:which included
1537:Acadian orogeny
1504:and during the
1462:was an ancient
1449:
1384:Somerset Levels
1328:Devensian Stage
1315:, during which
1279:English Channel
1248:
1205:
1169:English Channel
1098:Bristol Channel
1090:
1074:
1066:Salisbury Plain
1030:
940:Cleveland Hills
920:
918:Jurassic period
904:asteroid impact
872:
870:Triassic period
860:
816:
784:quartz dolerite
727:Isles of Scilly
703:large batholith
680:
596:Yorkshire Dales
561:Yorkshire Dales
514:Yorkshire Dales
512:in part of the
502:
480:
478:Devonian period
433:
431:Silurian period
388:and south-east
378:
340:
338:Cambrian period
328:
320:
318:Phanerozoic eon
292:subduction zone
272:
270:Proterozoic eon
264:
259:
217:coastal erosion
148:
116:
59:
53:
50:
43:
31:This article's
27:
12:
11:
5:
3208:
3206:
3198:
3197:
3192:
3182:
3181:
3175:
3174:
3172:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3156:
3151:
3146:
3141:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3079:Jurassic Coast
3076:
3071:
3066:
3061:
3056:
3054:Geirangerfjord
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3020:
3018:
3012:
3011:
3008:
3007:
3005:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2989:
2984:
2979:
2974:
2969:
2963:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2952:
2951:
2946:
2941:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2924:Eurasian Plate
2921:
2916:
2911:
2909:Adriatic Plate
2905:
2903:
2892:
2891:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2868:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2848:
2843:
2838:
2836:Limagne Graben
2833:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2792:
2790:
2782:
2781:
2779:
2778:
2773:
2768:
2763:
2758:
2753:
2751:Atlantic Ocean
2747:
2745:
2743:Oceanic basins
2739:
2738:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2720:
2715:
2710:
2705:
2703:Massif Central
2700:
2695:
2690:
2685:
2680:
2674:
2672:
2666:
2665:
2663:
2662:
2657:
2652:
2650:Sveconorwegian
2647:
2642:
2637:
2632:
2627:
2622:
2617:
2612:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2592:
2587:
2582:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2556:
2554:
2545:
2539:
2538:
2531:
2529:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2477:United Kingdom
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2408:
2407:
2402:
2392:
2387:
2382:
2377:
2372:
2367:
2362:
2357:
2352:
2347:
2342:
2337:
2332:
2322:
2317:
2312:
2307:
2302:
2297:
2292:
2287:
2286:
2285:
2275:
2270:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2256:Czech Republic
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2208:
2203:
2197:
2195:
2189:
2188:
2183:
2181:
2180:
2173:
2166:
2158:
2149:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2138:Worcestershire
2135:
2130:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2070:
2068:Northumberland
2065:
2060:
2055:
2050:
2045:
2043:Leicestershire
2040:
2035:
2030:
2025:
2020:
2015:
2010:
2005:
2000:
1995:
1990:
1985:
1980:
1975:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1955:
1953:Cambridgeshire
1950:
1945:
1940:
1934:
1932:
1926:
1925:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1910:
1903:
1895:
1889:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1873:
1861:
1856:
1854:UK Earthquakes
1849:
1848:External links
1846:
1844:
1843:
1832:
1825:
1799:
1787:
1775:
1763:
1751:
1739:
1726:
1715:
1699:
1697:
1694:
1692:
1691:
1686:
1684:Lizard complex
1681:
1676:
1671:
1666:
1661:
1656:
1651:
1646:
1641:
1636:
1635:
1634:
1629:
1619:
1613:
1611:
1608:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1594:
1591:
1506:Early Silurian
1487:supercontinent
1464:microcontinent
1448:
1445:
1418:global warming
1291:Clactonian Man
1287:Swanscombe Man
1247:
1244:
1215:epochs of the
1204:
1201:
1131:Chiltern Hills
1105:Alpine Orogeny
1089:
1086:
1080:comprises the
1073:
1070:
1029:
1026:
1000:The burial of
989:coast between
971:Cotswold Hills
958:, sandstones,
948:Jurassic Coast
932:Eurasian Plate
919:
916:
871:
868:
859:
856:
815:
814:Permian period
812:
808:Hadrian's Wall
679:
676:
624:were formed.
588:Millstone Grit
501:
498:
479:
476:
432:
429:
402:Skiddaw slates
377:
374:
339:
336:
327:
326:Palaeozoic era
324:
319:
316:
300:plate tectonic
271:
268:
263:
260:
258:
255:
147:
144:
115:
112:
61:
60:
40:the key points
30:
28:
21:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3207:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3187:
3185:
3170:
3167:
3165:
3162:
3160:
3157:
3155:
3152:
3150:
3147:
3145:
3142:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3109:Monte Perdido
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3070:
3067:
3065:
3062:
3060:
3057:
3055:
3052:
3050:
3047:
3045:
3042:
3040:
3039:Curonian Spit
3037:
3035:
3032:
3030:
3027:
3025:
3022:
3021:
3019:
3017:
3013:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2993:
2990:
2988:
2985:
2983:
2980:
2978:
2975:
2973:
2970:
2968:
2965:
2964:
2962:
2960:
2956:
2950:
2947:
2945:
2942:
2940:
2939:Moesian Plate
2937:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2929:Iberian Plate
2927:
2925:
2922:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2906:
2904:
2902:
2897:
2893:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2872:
2869:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2859:
2857:
2854:
2852:
2849:
2847:
2846:Molasse Basin
2844:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2801:Barents Basin
2799:
2797:
2794:
2793:
2791:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2776:Norwegian Sea
2774:
2772:
2769:
2767:
2764:
2762:
2761:Bay of Biscay
2759:
2757:
2754:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2746:
2744:
2740:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2708:Ore Mountains
2706:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2694:
2691:
2689:
2686:
2684:
2681:
2679:
2676:
2675:
2673:
2671:
2667:
2661:
2658:
2656:
2653:
2651:
2648:
2646:
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2626:
2623:
2621:
2618:
2616:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2596:
2593:
2591:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2581:
2578:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2557:
2555:
2553:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2535:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2479:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2406:
2403:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2396:
2393:
2391:
2388:
2386:
2383:
2381:
2378:
2376:
2373:
2371:
2368:
2366:
2363:
2361:
2358:
2356:
2353:
2351:
2350:Liechtenstein
2348:
2346:
2343:
2341:
2338:
2336:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2323:
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2311:
2308:
2306:
2303:
2301:
2298:
2296:
2293:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2283:Ă…land Islands
2281:
2280:
2279:
2276:
2274:
2271:
2267:
2266:Faroe Islands
2264:
2263:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2202:
2199:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2190:
2186:
2179:
2174:
2172:
2167:
2165:
2160:
2159:
2156:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2113:Tyne and Wear
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2098:Staffordshire
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2029:
2028:Isle of Wight
2026:
2024:
2023:Hertfordshire
2021:
2019:
2018:Herefordshire
2016:
2014:
2011:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1996:
1994:
1991:
1989:
1986:
1984:
1981:
1979:
1976:
1974:
1971:
1969:
1968:County Durham
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1916:
1911:
1909:
1904:
1902:
1897:
1896:
1893:
1887:
1884:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1852:
1851:
1847:
1841:
1836:
1833:
1828:
1822:
1818:
1813:
1812:
1803:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1788:
1784:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1767:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1730:
1727:
1724:
1719:
1716:
1712:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1665:
1662:
1660:
1657:
1655:
1652:
1650:
1647:
1645:
1642:
1640:
1637:
1633:
1630:
1628:
1625:
1624:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1614:
1609:
1605:
1602:
1600:
1597:
1596:
1592:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1583:North America
1580:
1576:
1572:
1567:
1565:
1561:
1560:Carboniferous
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1540:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1526:
1522:
1518:
1514:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1481:In the early
1479:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1453:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1438:
1434:
1433:Richter scale
1428:
1426:
1421:
1419:
1414:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1399:New Stone Age
1395:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1367:landscape of
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1335:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1294:
1292:
1288:
1284:
1280:
1276:
1275:Hoxnian Stage
1272:
1267:
1265:
1261:
1260:Anglian Stage
1257:
1253:
1245:
1241:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1171:consisted of
1170:
1166:
1162:
1158:
1154:
1150:
1145:
1143:
1142:Isle of Wight
1139:
1135:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1120:
1117:
1113:
1110:
1106:
1101:
1099:
1095:
1087:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1071:
1069:
1067:
1063:
1062:Seven Sisters
1059:
1055:
1051:
1047:
1039:
1034:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1011:
1010:North Sea oil
1007:
1003:
998:
996:
995:Port Mulgrave
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
925:
917:
915:
913:
909:
905:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
877:
869:
867:
865:
857:
855:
853:
849:
845:
841:
837:
833:
832:Zechstein Sea
829:
825:
821:
813:
811:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
780:
778:
775:
771:
766:
764:
760:
756:
752:
748:
744:
743:metalliferous
740:
736:
735:country rocks
732:
728:
724:
720:
716:
712:
708:
704:
699:
697:
693:
689:
685:
677:
673:
669:
666:
662:
657:
653:
651:
650:Seaton Sluice
647:
643:
642:Coal Measures
639:
635:
634:Tyne and Wear
631:
627:
623:
622:coal measures
620:
616:
612:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
580:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
546:
542:
538:
537:Peak District
534:
530:
526:
525:Carboniferous
519:
515:
511:
506:
499:
497:
495:
490:
485:
477:
475:
473:
469:
465:
464:British Isles
461:
457:
452:
450:
446:
442:
438:
430:
428:
426:
422:
418:
414:
409:
407:
406:Lake District
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
386:North America
383:
375:
371:
370:Lake District
367:
363:
359:
357:
353:
349:
345:
342:In the early
337:
335:
333:
325:
323:
317:
315:
313:
309:
304:
301:
297:
293:
289:
288:volcanic arcs
285:
281:
277:
269:
267:
261:
256:
254:
253:
249:
243:
241:
237:
233:
229:
225:
218:
213:
209:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
163:
159:
157:
156:glacial drift
153:
145:
143:
141:
137:
133:
129:
125:
121:
113:
111:
109:
105:
100:
99:Tees–Exe line
96:
92:
88:
80:
76:
72:
67:
57:
47:
41:
39:
34:
29:
25:
20:
19:
16:
3159:Stevns Klint
3002:Volgo–Uralia
2851:Moscow Basin
2756:Arctic Ocean
2693:Dinaric Alps
2645:Svecofennian
2481:
2123:Warwickshire
2048:Lincolnshire
1938:Bedfordshire
1921:
1835:
1810:
1802:
1790:
1778:
1766:
1754:
1742:
1734:
1729:
1718:
1593:Institutions
1568:
1541:
1511:In the late
1510:
1480:
1476:Newfoundland
1458:
1429:
1422:
1415:
1411:
1396:
1392:Romney Marsh
1373:
1369:Romney Marsh
1363:on the flat
1360:
1336:
1325:
1317:hippopotamus
1310:
1295:
1268:
1264:River Thames
1249:
1206:
1167:, while the
1146:
1109:London Basin
1102:
1094:Lundy Island
1091:
1075:
1072:Cenozoic era
1043:
999:
954:, including
921:
901:
873:
861:
858:Mesozoic era
828:Tethys Ocean
817:
800:Alston Block
781:
767:
700:
681:
607:river deltas
604:
600:Ingleborough
581:
533:Mendip Hills
522:
481:
470:produced an
453:
449:Mendip Hills
434:
425:Scafell Pike
410:
394:Gondwanaland
390:Newfoundland
379:
341:
329:
321:
305:
273:
265:
252:Vale of York
244:
221:
202:glacial till
190:Cromer Ridge
160:
152:boulder clay
149:
117:
86:
84:
51:
35:
33:lead section
15:
3169:Thingvellir
3139:Rhine Gorge
2949:Tisza Plate
2944:Pelso Plate
2871:Paris Basin
2841:Mezen Basin
2590:Dalslandian
2522:Isle of Man
2462:Switzerland
2385:Netherlands
2118:West Sussex
2078:Oxfordshire
1993:East Sussex
1529:Nova Scotia
1252:Pleistocene
1240:Pleistocene
1165:London Clay
1134:escarpments
1127:South Downs
1123:North Downs
1014:natural gas
786:formed the
723:Bodmin Moor
672:Bodmin Moor
661:Cheesewring
646:Whitley Bay
615:rain forest
577:Gaping Gill
573:shake holes
553:carbonation
529:Rheic Ocean
510:Malham Cove
346:period the
276:Proterozoic
194:East Anglia
136:earthquakes
128:deformation
91:sedimentary
3184:Categories
3124:Nærøyfjord
3119:Mount Etna
3099:Messel Pit
3069:High Coast
2821:Ebro Basin
2615:Laxfordian
2585:Carpathian
2580:Caledonian
2570:Belomorian
2432:San Marino
2380:Montenegro
2360:Luxembourg
2335:Kazakhstan
2221:Azerbaijan
2088:Shropshire
2053:Merseyside
2038:Lancashire
1978:Derbyshire
1696:References
1674:Gault Clay
1579:Cretaceous
1562:, forming
1533:Caledonian
1525:Euramerica
1515:and lower
1502:Ordovician
1403:deforested
1306:Birmingham
1246:Quaternary
1236:glaciation
1157:Caledonian
1088:Palaeogene
1082:Palaeogene
1046:Cretaceous
960:greensands
887:basins in
796:High Force
792:River Tees
755:china clay
747:weathering
729:. Granite
569:sink holes
545:Lancashire
541:Derbyshire
516:formed of
441:sandstones
382:Ordovician
332:Palaeozoic
228:Holderness
182:Lancashire
162:Glaciation
142:activity.
89:is mainly
79:Cretaceous
54:March 2021
3044:Dolomites
2861:Oslo Rift
2766:Black Sea
2683:Apennines
2502:Gibraltar
2400:Jan Mayen
2355:Lithuania
2193:Countries
2143:Yorkshire
2133:Wiltshire
2013:Hampshire
1943:Berkshire
1521:Laurentia
1427:in 1607.
1351:Yorkshire
1304:south of
1197:grassland
1173:mud flats
1119:anticline
1022:dinosaurs
987:Yorkshire
967:limestone
944:Yorkshire
893:Hampshire
852:salt pans
840:limestone
804:Whin Sill
788:Whin Sill
763:porcelain
759:ball clay
592:anticline
563:with its
535:, in the
460:Laurentia
445:mudstones
421:Helvellyn
366:Helvellyn
352:mountains
348:volcanoes
236:Mappleton
224:Yorkshire
38:summarize
3154:St Kilda
3144:Scandola
3134:Plitvice
3049:Durmitor
3029:Aggtelek
2982:Cimmeria
2972:Avalonia
2959:Terranes
2713:Pyrenees
2688:Caucasus
2660:Variscan
2640:Timanide
2635:Scourian
2630:Scandian
2610:Hellenic
2600:Grampian
2575:Cadomian
2512:Guernsey
2507:Alderney
2492:Scotland
2447:Slovenia
2442:Slovakia
2417:Portugal
2405:Svalbard
2241:Bulgaria
2093:Somerset
1963:Cornwall
1958:Cheshire
1930:Counties
1867:Archived
1610:See also
1575:Laurasia
1571:Jurassic
1556:Variscan
1548:Armorica
1517:Devonian
1513:Silurian
1494:Gondwana
1490:Pannotia
1483:Cambrian
1460:Avalonia
1388:The Fens
1376:Holocene
1343:erratics
1332:glaciers
1256:ice ages
1232:Ill Crag
1213:Pliocene
1149:uplifted
1140:and the
1114:and the
1112:syncline
1078:Cenozoic
1060:and the
1006:bacteria
991:Staithes
981:and the
924:Jurassic
889:Cheshire
876:Triassic
864:Mesozoic
774:Triassic
719:Dartmoor
715:Cornwall
638:Midlands
549:Pennines
543:, north
484:Devonian
439:period,
437:Silurian
398:Avalonia
356:Nuneaton
344:Cambrian
296:Gondwana
186:drumlins
180:valley,
140:volcanic
104:counties
3164:Surtsey
3149:Ĺ kocjan
3104:Meteora
3094:Laponia
3089:Kvarken
2977:Baltica
2723:Sudetes
2655:Uralian
2625:Saamian
2595:Gothian
2560:Acadian
2552:Orogens
2482:England
2472:Ukraine
2422:Romania
2370:Moldova
2320:Ireland
2315:Iceland
2310:Hungary
2300:Germany
2295:Georgia
2278:Finland
2273:Estonia
2261:Denmark
2246:Croatia
2231:Belgium
2226:Belarus
2216:Austria
2211:Armenia
2206:Andorra
2201:Albania
2103:Suffolk
2083:Rutland
2058:Norfolk
1973:Cumbria
1587:Eurasia
1569:In the
1564:Pangaea
1544:Permian
1542:In the
1498:Baltica
1468:terrane
1407:erosion
1302:Wolston
1283:fossils
1238:in the
1228:Eskdale
1217:Neogene
1209:Miocene
1207:In the
1203:Neogene
1189:redwood
1096:in the
977:of the
969:of the
964:oolitic
946:to the
928:Pangaea
922:As the
906:at the
897:Rifting
885:faulted
820:Permian
798:on the
707:granite
665:granite
605:Later,
559:in the
482:In the
456:Baltica
435:In the
404:of the
290:near a
240:Hornsea
226:in the
174:Bristol
166:glacial
120:bedrock
114:Bedrock
3064:Glarus
2620:Lopian
2565:Alpine
2517:Jersey
2467:Turkey
2457:Sweden
2437:Serbia
2427:Russia
2412:Poland
2395:Norway
2375:Monaco
2345:Latvia
2340:Kosovo
2329:Sicily
2305:Greece
2290:France
2251:Cyprus
2108:Surrey
1988:Dorset
1823:
1819:–446.
1552:Iberia
1485:, the
1138:Dorset
1054:flints
952:Dorset
912:Canada
881:France
846:, and
844:gravel
790:. The
770:desert
751:kaolin
619:cyclic
611:swamps
584:shales
557:Malham
472:Alpine
400:. The
312:Europe
248:Thames
178:Ribble
132:eroded
95:London
3129:Pirin
2728:Urals
2497:Wales
2452:Spain
2365:Malta
2325:Italy
1998:Essex
1983:Devon
1654:Stone
1321:Leeds
1271:human
1230:from
1181:beech
1177:sands
1116:Weald
1050:Chalk
1002:algae
956:clays
836:shale
711:Devon
598:with
494:Devon
206:loamy
196:is a
75:chalk
3084:Komi
2698:Harz
2678:Alps
2033:Kent
1821:ISBN
1585:and
1390:and
1380:peat
1365:peat
1347:Oslo
1211:and
1193:palm
1191:and
1159:and
1129:and
1103:The
1076:The
1052:and
1036:The
1018:salt
1012:and
1004:and
993:and
862:The
848:marl
830:and
818:The
757:and
737:and
731:tors
713:and
692:Kent
688:Avon
663:, a
659:The
648:and
630:Kent
626:Coal
613:and
571:and
443:and
423:and
413:lava
350:and
330:The
274:The
238:and
168:and
138:and
118:The
85:The
69:The
2898:and
1817:442
1474:in
1466:or
1185:oak
950:in
942:of
910:in
705:of
690:to
668:tor
575:.
539:of
192:in
81:age
77:of
3186::
1703:^
1539:.
1508:.
1443:.
1394:.
1386:,
1353:.
1323:.
1293:.
1199:.
1187:,
1183:,
1144:.
1125:,
1024:.
997:.
973:,
962:,
854:.
842:,
838:,
802:.
779:.
721:,
652:.
567:,
451:.
427:.
314:.
280:Ma
110:.
2331:)
2327:(
2177:e
2170:t
2163:v
1914:e
1907:t
1900:v
1829:.
56:)
52:(
42:.
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