679:
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668:
852:
48:
519:
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765:. The requirement to space these satellites apart, to avoid harmful radio-frequency interference during operations, means that there are a limited number of orbital slots available, and thus only a limited number of satellites can be operated in geostationary orbit. This has led to conflict between different countries wishing access to the same orbital slots (countries near the same
2127:
159:
1109:). There are two stable equilibrium points (at 75.3°E and 108°W) and two corresponding unstable points (at 165.3°E and 14.7°W). Any geostationary object placed between the equilibrium points would (without any action) be slowly accelerated towards the stable equilibrium position, causing a periodic longitude variation. The correction of this effect requires
4215:
3787:
957:
The orbital period is equal to exactly one sidereal day. This means that the satellite will return to the same point above the Earth's surface every (sidereal) day, regardless of other orbital properties. For a geostationary orbit in particular, it ensures that it holds the same longitude over time.
363:
becomes significant as it takes about 240 ms for a signal to pass from a ground based transmitter on the equator to the satellite and back again. This delay presents problems for latency-sensitive applications such as voice communication, so geostationary communication satellites are primarily
722:
Geostationary satellites are launched to the east into a prograde orbit that matches the rotation rate of the equator. The smallest inclination that a satellite can be launched into is that of the launch site's latitude, so launching the satellite from close to the equator limits the amount of
358:
Geostationary communication satellites are useful because they are visible from a large area of the earth's surface, extending 81° away in latitude and 77° in longitude. They appear stationary in the sky, which eliminates the need for ground stations to have movable antennas. This means that
2258:
The Moon's orbit is not perfectly circular, and is approximately 8.6 times further away from the Earth than the geostationary ring when the Moon is at perigee (363 104 km ÷ 42 164 km) and 9.6 times further away when the Moon is at apogee (405,696 km ÷ 42,164
2298:"(Korvus's message is sent) to a small, squat building at the outskirts of Northern Landing. It was hurled at the sky. ... It ... arrived at the relay station tired and worn, ... when it reached a space station only five hundred miles above the city of North Landing."
1058:
A geostationary orbit can be achieved only at an altitude very close to 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles) and directly above the equator. This equates to an orbital speed of 3.07 kilometres per second (1.91 miles per second) and an orbital period of 1,436 minutes, one
812:
It would hold its location over the dark side of the Earth at a latitude of approximately 30 degrees. A statite is stationary relative to the Earth and Sun system rather than compared to surface of the Earth, and could ease congestion in the geostationary ring.
727:
needed later. Additionally, launching from close to the equator allows the speed of the Earth's rotation to give the satellite a boost. A launch site should have water or deserts to the east, so any failed rockets do not fall on a populated area.
261:
By 1961, Rosen and his team had produced a cylindrical prototype with a diameter of 76 centimetres (30 in), height of 38 centimetres (15 in), weighing 11.3 kilograms (25 lb), light and small enough to be placed into orbit. It was
208:. The orbit, which Clarke first described as useful for broadcast and relay communications satellites, is sometimes called the Clarke orbit. Similarly, the collection of artificial satellites in this orbit is known as the Clarke Belt.
1638:
305:
in 1964. With its increased bandwidth, this satellite was able to transmit live coverage of the Summer
Olympics from Japan to America. Geostationary orbits have been in common use ever since, in particular for satellite television.
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1782:
257:
in 1962. Although these projects had difficulties with signal strength and tracking, issues that could be solved using geostationary orbits, the concept was seen as impractical, so Hughes often withheld funds and support.
367:
Geostationary satellites are directly overhead at the equator and appear lower in the sky to an observer nearer the poles. As the observer's latitude increases, communication becomes more difficult due to factors such as
376:, line-of-sight obstructions, and signal reflections from the ground or nearby structures. At latitudes above about 81°, geostationary satellites are below the horizon and cannot be seen at all. Because of this, some
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and other onboard systems often outlive the thruster fuel and by allowing the satellite to move naturally into an inclined geosynchronous orbit some satellites can remain in use, or else be elevated to a
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In the absence of servicing missions from the Earth or a renewable propulsion method, the consumption of thruster propellant for station-keeping places a limitation on the lifetime of the satellite.
1978:
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communications satellite was struck by an unknown object and rendered inoperable, although its engineers had enough contact time with the satellite to send it into a graveyard orbit. In 2017, both
485:
These satellites typically captures images in the visual and infrared spectrum with a spatial resolution between 0.5 and 4 square kilometres. The coverage is typically 70°, and in some cases less.
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An inclination of zero ensures that the orbit remains over the equator at all times, making it stationary with respect to latitude from the point of view of a ground observer (and in the
542:
error corrections (calculated from ground stations of a known position) and providing an additional reference signal. This improves position accuracy from approximately 5m to 1m or less.
226:, he wanted to use a geostationary satellite to globalise communications. Telecommunications between the US and Europe was then possible between just 136 people at a time, and reliant on
146:, and placed in a slot above a particular point on the Earth's surface. The orbit requires some stationkeeping to keep its position, and modern retired satellites are placed in a higher
1248:
51:
A 5° × 6° view of a part of the geostationary belt, showing several geostationary satellites. Those with inclination 0° form a diagonal belt across the image; a few objects with small
591:
504:, but due to their wide field of view, full-time monitoring and lower resolution, geostationary weather satellite images are primarily used for short-term and real-time forecasting.
2630:
1449:
324:), with telephone access covering 96% of the population and internet access 90%, some rural and remote areas in developed countries are still reliant on satellite communications.
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power to place a satellite in a geostationary orbit and it would not survive long enough to justify the expense, so early efforts were put towards constellations of satellites in
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789:, eight countries located on the Earth's equator claimed sovereignty over the geostationary orbits above their territory, but the claims gained no international recognition.
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422:
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113:, and so to ground observers it appears motionless, in a fixed position in the sky. The concept of a geostationary orbit was popularised by the science fiction writer
3441:"NOAA's Eyes in the Sky – After Five Decades of Weather Forecasting with Environmental Satellites, What Do Future Satellites Promise for Meteorologists and Society?"
3136:
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3106:
2333:"It is therefore quite possible that these stories influenced me subconsciously when ... I worked out the principles of synchronous communications satellites ...",
426:
3448:
583:
4044:
2373:
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837:. This process is becoming increasingly regulated and satellites must have a 90% chance of moving over 200 km above the geostationary belt at end of life.
2280:
1557:
2763:"In farm country, forget broadband. You might not have internet at all. 5G is around the corner, yet pockets of America still can't get basic internet access"
211:
In technical terminology the orbit is referred to as either a geostationary or geosynchronous equatorial orbit, with the terms used somewhat interchangeably.
1090:
of about 53 years and an initial inclination gradient of about 0.85° per year, achieving a maximal inclination of 15° after 26.5 years. To correct for this
1050:. This ensures that the satellite does not move closer or further away from the Earth, which would cause it to track backwards and forwards across the sky.
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2145:
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allows for collisions at up to 4 km/s. Although a collision is comparatively unlikely, GEO satellites have a limited ability to avoid any debris.
1714:
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3247:
1258:
874:
At geosynchronous altitude, objects less than 10 cm in diameter cannot be seen from the Earth, making it difficult to assess their prevalence.
3865:
3801:
4963:
3622:. International Cooperation in Satellite Communications, Proceedings of the AIAA/ESA Workshop. ESTEC, Noordwijk, the Netherlands. p. 101.
1105:
A second effect to be taken into account is the longitudinal drift, caused by the asymmetry of the Earth – the equator is slightly elliptical (
829:
406:
3037:
2713:
2346:
2318:
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with a dipole antenna producing a pancake shaped beam. In August 1961, they were contracted to begin building the real satellite. They lost
40:
3992:
5023:
170:
described both geosynchronous orbits in general and the special case of the geostationary Earth orbit in particular as useful orbits for
4274:
3755:
Oduntan, Gbenga. "The Never Ending
Dispute: Legal Theories on the Spatial Demarcation Boundary Plane between Airspace and Outer Space".
2740:
2638:
4116:
2903:
2762:
3581:
3222:
1813:
601:
215:
3600:
4126:
4090:
3669:
2962:
2473:
2054:
1895:
4080:
5018:
4898:
4317:
3996:
1996:
1479:
1030:
493:
478:
417:, and atmospheric tracking. As of 2019 there are 19 satellites in either operation or stand-by. These satellite systems include:
359:
Earth-based observers can erect small, cheap and stationary antennas that are always directed at the desired satellite. However,
3373:"Improved Characterisation of Vegetation and Land Surface Seasonal Dynamics in Central Japan with Himawari-8 Hypertemporal Data"
3027:
678:
131:
do not have to rotate to track them but can be pointed permanently at the position in the sky where the satellites are located.
4983:
4737:
4230:
3785:, Forward, Robert, "STATITE: SPACECRAFT THAT UTILIZES SIGHT PRESSURE AND METHOD OF USE", published February 2, 1993
3545:
557:
4224:
5056:
4695:
4686:
4423:
4105:
Edited by P. Kenneth
Seidelmann, "Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Almanac", University Science Books,1992, p. 700.
4053:
3010:
2980:"The Teledesic Network: Using Low-Earth-Orbit Satellites to Provide Broadband, Wireless, Real-Time Internet Access Worldwide"
2456:
Kidder, S.Q. (2015). "Satellites and satellite remote senssing: Orbits". In North, Gerald; Pyla, John; Zhang, Fuqing (eds.).
1919:
1155:
933:
500:
path prediction, and providing real time cloud coverage and other tracking data. Some information has been incorporated into
231:
95:
3719:
3301:
3926:
3315:
3143:
568:
550:
4253:
4169:
3692:
3345:
3114:
1130:, which are currently in use, have the potential to prolong the service life of a satellite by providing high-efficiency
5003:
4473:
736:
688:
657:
612:
501:
4290:
2787:
2366:
968:
4948:
4258:
1650:
1166:
1162:
1123:
also exert small forces on satellites: over time, these cause them to slowly drift away from their prescribed orbits.
594:
3887:
2555:
4928:
4755:
1463:
724:
2399:
5066:
3200:
2736:
1159:
3470:
5051:
4576:
1213:
1091:
339:
333:
124:
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since all GEO satellites orbit in the same plane, altitude and speed; however, the presence of satellites in
5061:
4369:
2816:
2150:
1142:
1110:
825:
821:
667:
5110:
4923:
4525:
4445:
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4269:
2891:
1414:
1379:
1170:
1095:
369:
283:
3585:
3251:
2661:
2608:
631:
364:
used for unidirectional entertainment and applications where low latency alternatives are not available.
5115:
5046:
4988:
4958:
4746:
4623:
4591:
4561:
4520:
4505:
4384:
3280:
2847:
2045:
By the same method, we can determine the orbital altitude for any similar pair of bodies, including the
1174:
1064:
878:
782:
436:
360:
302:
136:
3943:
3782:
3026:
History
Committee of the American Astronautical Society (August 23, 2010). Johnson, Stephen B. (ed.).
5071:
4893:
4677:
4566:
4535:
4463:
4438:
4413:
4374:
4355:
4310:
3623:
3505:
3384:
2950:
2589:
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1127:
1043:
868:
576:
464:
410:
316:
Although most populated land locations on the planet now have terrestrial communications facilities (
87:
31:
3962:"AMC 9 Satellite Anomaly associated with Energetic Event & sudden Orbit Change – Spaceflight101"
278:
still required moving antennas, it was able to relay TV transmissions, and allowed for US President
4933:
4728:
3371:
Miura, Tomoaki; Nagai, Shin; Takeuchi, Mika; Ichii, Kazuhito; Yoshioka, Hiroki (October 30, 2019).
3276:
1106:
894:
343:
99:
64:
52:
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2523:
2430:
4606:
4495:
4393:
3904:
3764:
2132:
1120:
802:
786:
756:
263:
246:
1063:. This ensures that the satellite will match the Earth's rotational period and has a stationary
616:
167:
4284:
4020:
Plasma propulsion for geostationary satellites fortelecommunication and interplanetary missions
3827:
828:
to keep their position, and once they run out of thruster fuel they are generally retired. The
17:
4973:
4871:
4801:
4556:
4510:
4428:
4122:
4086:
3523:
3418:
3400:
3033:
3006:
2958:
2895:
2469:
2342:
2314:
2081:
1190:
774:
747:. On-board satellite propulsion is then used to raise the perigee, circularise and reach GEO.
513:
400:
373:
179:
132:
2872:
2336:
2304:
4953:
4885:
4649:
4611:
4485:
4455:
4408:
4023:
3513:
3408:
3392:
2998:
2887:
2461:
2310:
1079:
856:
191:
114:
620:
4993:
4586:
4490:
4480:
4379:
4303:
4143:
3915:
3644:
Farber, Nicholas; Aresini, Andrea; Wauthier, Pascal; Francken, Philippe (September 2007).
2709:
2300:
1987:, 6,378 kilometres (3,963 miles), gives the altitude of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 miles).
1705:
890:
864:
834:
279:
242:
219:
187:
183:
147:
3927:"Notification for Express-AM11 satellite users in connection with the spacecraft failure"
3716:"Orbit/Spectrum Allocation Procedures Registration Mechanism under the Radio Regulations"
2945:
Wertz, James
Richard; Larson, Wiley J. (1999). Larson, Wiley J.; Wertz, James R. (eds.).
1633:{\displaystyle m_{\text{s}}{\frac {v^{2}}{r}}=G{\frac {M_{\text{E}}m_{\text{s}}}{r^{2}}}}
1113:
with a maximal delta-v of about 2 m/s per year, depending on the desired longitude.
4028:
3627:
3509:
3388:
3060:
2954:
2684:
2593:
1990:
The orbital speed is calculated by multiplying the angular speed by the orbital radius:
855:
A computer-generated image from 2005 showing the distribution of mostly space debris in
5089:
5041:
5033:
5028:
4913:
4908:
4839:
4819:
4810:
4403:
4389:
4365:
4360:
4335:
3983:
3413:
3372:
2465:
2155:
2140:
1371:
1087:
1047:
732:
450:
381:
310:
287:
275:
227:
200:
128:
106:
84:
3866:"Space debris threat to geosynchronous satellites has been drastically underestimated"
2497:
5104:
4943:
4938:
4857:
4500:
4418:
3645:
3323:
3082:
2979:
2820:
698:
554:
384:
171:
143:
110:
3846:
3768:
27:
Circular orbit above Earth's
Equator and following the direction of Earth's rotation
5008:
4918:
4792:
4775:
4633:
4530:
4398:
4234:
1984:
1254:
1060:
921:
863:
Space debris at geostationary orbits typically has a lower collision speed than at
846:
489:
414:
388:
250:
94:, 42,164 km (26,199 mi) in radius from Earth's center, and following the
59:
are visible above this line. The satellites are pinpoint, while stars have created
47:
39:
1983:
The resulting orbital radius is 42,164 kilometres (26,199 miles). Subtracting the
1894:
is known with much greater precision than either factor alone; it is known as the
1185:'s orbit is around 9 times larger (in radius and length) than geostationary orbit.
518:
3215:"China plans to launch additional nine Fengyun meteorological satellites by 2025"
5013:
4848:
4618:
4598:
4515:
4285:
Daily animation of the Earth, made by geostationary satellite 'Electro L' photos
4240:
624:
321:
135:
are also placed in this orbit for real-time monitoring and data collection, and
4043:
Kelly, Patrick; Erwin, Richard S.; Bevilacqua, Riccardo; Mazal, Leonel (2016).
3518:
3493:
3396:
2843:
1777:{\displaystyle \left({\frac {2\pi r}{T}}\right)^{2}=G{\frac {M_{\text{E}}}{r}}}
962:, is directly related to the semi-major axis of the orbit through the formula:
545:
Past and current navigation systems that use geostationary satellites include:
4581:
3349:
3002:
2737:"Australia was promised superfast broadband with the NBN. This is what we got"
2367:"Extraterrestrial Relays: Can Rocket Stations Give World-wide Radio Coverage?"
2122:
1116:
1083:
806:
60:
3404:
2899:
2407:
1067:
on the ground. All geostationary satellites have to be located on this ring.
196:
Extra-Terrestrial Relays – Can Rocket
Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?
4998:
4350:
4194:
3170:"Airbus Defence and Space supports South Korean weather satellite programme"
886:
882:
851:
770:
766:
457:
317:
254:
223:
118:
3527:
3422:
2581:
158:
3316:"NOAA Satellites, Scientists Monitor Mt. St. Helens for Possible Eruption"
761:
Satellites in geostationary orbit must all occupy a single ring above the
274:
was successfully placed into a geosynchronous orbit in 1963. Although its
3439:
Hanson, Derek; Peronto, James; Hilderbrand, Douglas (November 12, 2015).
1459:
902:
877:
Despite efforts to reduce risk, spacecraft collisions have occurred. The
859:
with two areas of concentration: geostationary orbit and low Earth orbit.
635:
446:
440:
432:
117:
in the 1940s as a way to revolutionise telecommunications, and the first
4121:. Vol. 1. New Delhi: Pitambar Publishing Company. pp. 6–8.19.
2873:"Determination of Look Angles To Geostationary Communication Satellites"
2053:, if it is assumed that it is spherical (which it is not entirely). The
4903:
4295:
3733:
3647:
A general approach to the geostationary transfer orbit mission recovery
1326:{\displaystyle F_{\text{g}}=G{\frac {M_{\text{E}}m_{\text{s}}}{r^{2}}}}
1151:
1099:
798:
762:
497:
471:
91:
56:
2431:"Orbit Wars: Arthur C. Clarke and the Global Communications Satellite"
3620:
Ten Years of
Experience with A Commercial Satellite Navigation System
2498:"Communications: Harold Rosen – The Seer of Geostationary Satellites"
377:
298:
271:
267:
238:
204:
magazine. Clarke acknowledged the connection in his introduction to
4264:
3650:. 20th International Symposium on Space Flight Dynamics. p. 2.
2582:"Chapter 6: NASA Experimental Communications Satellites, 1958-1995"
496:, measuring land temperature and vegetation coverage, facilitating
237:
Conventional wisdom at the time was that it would require too much
4708:
4327:
3250:. Indian Space Research Organisation. July 2, 2019. Archived from
1178:
1141:
898:
850:
744:
740:
712:
639:
605:
587:
517:
291:
175:
157:
46:
38:
4046:
Solar radiation pressure applications on geostationary satellites
3985:
1086:
motion of the orbital plane of any geostationary object, with an
3087:
2766:
2403:
2191:
Orbital periods and speeds are calculated using the relations 4π
2050:
1877:{\displaystyle r={\sqrt{\frac {GM_{\text{E}}T^{2}}{4\pi ^{2}}}}}
1182:
1071:
946:
527:
347:
4299:
3802:"Science: Polar 'satellite' could revolutionise communications"
3494:"Latest US weather satellite highlights forecasting challenges"
3091:
2993:
Freeman, Roger L. (July 22, 2002). "Satellite Communications".
2817:"Deployment of an SBAS system demonstration in Southern Africa"
2400:"Basics of Space Flight Section 1 Part 5, Geostationary Orbits"
1791:
is the orbital period (i.e. one sidereal day), and is equal to
1200:) is equal to the gravitational force acting on the satellite (
309:
Today there are hundreds of geostationary satellites providing
139:
to provide a known calibration point and enhance GPS accuracy.
2791:
2158:, which ultimately reaches to and beyond a geostationary orbit
1147:
1075:
194:
popularised and expanded the concept in a 1945 paper entitled
127:
are often placed in a geostationary orbit so that Earth-based
2586:
Beyond The Ionosphere: Fifty Years of Satellite Communication
522:
Service areas of satellite-based augmentation systems (SBAS).
439:
and operated by the European Weather Satellite Organization,
4022:. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering.
3888:"ExoAnalytic video shows Telkom-1 satellite erupting debris"
913:
A typical geostationary orbit has the following properties:
3471:"GOES-R: Today's Satellite for Tomorrow's Forecast Dataset"
3201:"Japan lofts Himawari 8 weather satellite via H-IIA rocket"
2030:{\displaystyle v=\omega r\quad \approx 3074.6~{\text{m/s}}}
1526:{\displaystyle F_{\text{c}}=m_{\text{s}}{\frac {v^{2}}{r}}}
572:
488:
Geostationary satellite imagery has been used for tracking
413:
of Earth's surface and atmosphere for weather observation,
391:
orbits, which have excellent visibility at high latitudes.
2282:
Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums: Der Raketen-Motor
2107:). Using these values, Mars' orbital altitude is equal to
90:
35,786 km (22,236 mi) in altitude above Earth's
3029:
Space Exploration and Humanity: A Historical Encyclopedia
2288:. Berlin: Richard Carl Schmidt & Co. pp. 98–100.
121:
to be placed in this kind of orbit was launched in 1963.
3137:"Satellite Launches for the Middle East and South Korea"
3032:. Vol. 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 416.
297:
The first satellite placed in a geostationary orbit was
178:
in popular literature was in October 1942, in the first
1973:{\displaystyle r={\sqrt{\frac {\mu T^{2}}{4\pi ^{2}}}}}
1344:
is the gravitational force acting between two objects,
3560:"Satellite Based Augmentation System test-bed project"
2844:"Satellites, Geo-stationary orbits and Solar Eclipses"
4052:. Proceedings of the 2016 AAS GP & C Conference.
2710:"ITU releases 2018 global and regional ICT estimates"
1999:
1922:
1816:
1717:
1653:
1560:
1482:
1417:
1270:
1216:
971:
492:, measuring cloud top temperatures and water vapour,
282:
in Washington D.C., to phone Nigerian prime minister
4018:
Dundeck, M; Doveil, F; Arcis, N; Zurbach, S (2012).
4972:
4884:
4828:
4764:
4717:
4657:
4648:
4544:
4454:
4343:
4334:
4287:
Satellite shoots 48 images of the planet every day.
2995:
Reference Manual for Telecommunications Engineering
2949:. Microcosm Press and Kluwer Academic Publishers.
2372:. Arthur C. Clarke Institute for Space Education.
2029:
1972:
1876:
1776:
1689:
1632:
1525:
1443:
1325:
1242:
1005:
214:The first geostationary satellite was designed by
3248:"RAPID: Gateway to Indian Weather Satellite Data"
2631:"World's First Geosynchronous Satellite Launched"
2556:"How a satellite called Syncom changed the world"
1006:{\displaystyle T=2\pi {\sqrt {a^{3} \over \mu }}}
565:European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service
249:Earth orbit. The first of these were the passive
3302:"Coverage of a geostationary satellite at Earth"
2871:Soler, Tomás; Eisemann, David W. (August 1994).
1690:{\displaystyle v^{2}=G{\frac {M_{\text{E}}}{r}}}
526:Geostationary satellites can be used to augment
3977:
3975:
3693:"How to get a satellite to geostationary orbit"
735:place geostationary satellites directly into a
3578:"GAGAN System Certified for RNP0.1 Operations"
592:Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport
584:Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System
43:Two geostationary satellites in the same orbit
4311:
4254:How to get a satellite to geostationary orbit
2182:are used somewhat interchangeably in sources.
1146:Comparison of geostationary Earth orbit with
889:on August 11, 1993 and eventually moved to a
186:, but Smith did not go into details. British
8:
3542:"Satellite Navigation – WAAS – How It Works"
1408:, of a body moving in a circle is given by:
1023:is the length of the orbit's semi-major axis
350:satellites operate in geostationary orbits.
162:Syncom 2, the first geosynchronous satellite
142:Geostationary satellites are launched via a
3995:. Jerusalem, Israel. IAC-15,A6,7,3,x27478.
3718:. Space Services Department. Archived from
3599:Radhakrishnan, S. Anil (January 11, 2014).
2866:
2864:
777:. These disputes are addressed through the
5085:
4654:
4340:
4318:
4304:
4296:
4291:Orbital Mechanics for Engineering Students
2146:List of satellites in geosynchronous orbit
687:An example of a transition from temporary
174:. The first appearance of a geostationary
4265:List of satellites in geostationary orbit
4027:
3944:"Do we care about orbital debris at all?"
3517:
3412:
2022:
1998:
1963:
1955:
1940:
1929:
1921:
1867:
1859:
1844:
1834:
1823:
1815:
1763:
1757:
1745:
1723:
1716:
1706:speed of an object moving around a circle
1676:
1670:
1658:
1652:
1622:
1611:
1601:
1594:
1577:
1571:
1565:
1559:
1512:
1506:
1500:
1487:
1481:
1430:
1424:
1416:
1315:
1304:
1294:
1287:
1275:
1269:
1243:{\displaystyle F_{\text{c}}=F_{\text{g}}}
1234:
1221:
1215:
991:
984:
970:
4074:
4072:
4070:
3930:Russian Satellite Communications Company
3881:
3879:
2460:(2 ed.). Elsiver. pp. 95–106.
2360:
2358:
1462:(i.e. the speed) of the satellite. From
1098:maneuvers are necessary, amounting to a
109:equal to Earth's rotational period, one
30:For broader coverage of this topic, see
4085:. Oxford University Press. p. 72.
3639:
3637:
3434:
3432:
3271:
3269:
3242:
3240:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2934:
2932:
2930:
2928:
2926:
2924:
2892:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9453(1994)120:3(115)
2637:. Foxtel. June 19, 2016. Archived from
2271:
2168:
1189:For circular orbits around a body, the
1102:of approximately 50 m/s per year.
407:geostationary meteorological satellites
4964:Transposition, docking, and extraction
4280:Geostationary satellite orbit overview
4013:
4011:
4009:
3942:Dunstan, James E. (January 30, 2018).
3562:. Geoscience Australia. Archived from
2811:
2809:
2549:
2547:
2545:
2543:
801:is a hypothetical satellite that uses
4063:from the original on October 9, 2022.
4002:from the original on October 9, 2022.
3864:Marric Stephens (December 12, 2017).
3168:Heinrich, Ralph (September 9, 2014).
2714:International Telecommunication Union
2496:McClintock, Jack (November 9, 2003).
779:International Telecommunication Union
7:
3993:International Astronautical Congress
3982:Anderson, Paul; et al. (2015).
2909:from the original on October 9, 2022
2683:Howell, Elizabeth (April 24, 2015).
2554:Vartabedian, Ralph (July 26, 2013).
2522:Perkins, Robert (January 31, 2017).
2491:
2489:
2487:
2485:
2458:Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences
2379:from the original on October 9, 2022
1444:{\displaystyle a={\frac {v^{2}}{r}}}
1177:orbits, and the nominal size of the
847:Space debris § Characterization
3601:"GAGAN system ready for operations"
3221:. November 15, 2018. Archived from
3199:Graham, William (October 6, 2014).
3063:. World Meteorological Organization
1404:The magnitude of the acceleration,
905:broke apart from an unknown cause.
739:(GTO), an elliptical orbit with an
405:A worldwide network of operational
380:communication satellites have used
3582:Indian Space Research Organisation
2761:Tibken, Shara (October 22, 2018).
2735:Thompson, Geoff (April 24, 2019).
2466:10.1016/B978-0-12-382225-3.00362-5
2341:. Contemporary Books. p. 54.
2217:is the radius of orbit in metres;
781:'s allocation mechanism under the
602:GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation
105:An object in such an orbit has an
25:
5121:Satellites in geostationary orbit
5024:Kepler's laws of planetary motion
4082:Advanced Physics Through Diagrams
3584:. January 3, 2014. Archived from
3492:Tollefson, Jeff (March 2, 2018).
3445:World Meteorological Organization
3322:. October 6, 2004. Archived from
2947:Space Mission Analysis and Design
2685:"What Is a Geosynchronous Orbit?"
2365:Arthur C. Clarke (October 1945).
2221:, the orbital period in seconds;
2180:Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit
1896:geocentric gravitational constant
604:(GAGAN) system being operated by
5084:
5019:Interplanetary Transport Network
4899:Collision avoidance (spacecraft)
4218: This article incorporates
4213:
3847:"Where old satellites go to die"
3691:Jason Davis (January 17, 2014).
3277:"About environmental satellites"
2880:Journal of Surveying Engineering
2125:
1193:required to maintain the orbit (
1031:standard gravitational parameter
677:
666:
502:meteorological prediction models
4984:Astronomical coordinate systems
4738:Longitude of the ascending node
4275:3D Real Time Satellite Tracking
4270:Clarke Belt Snapshot Calculator
4231:General Services Administration
3886:Caleb Henry (August 30, 2017).
2229:, the gravitational constant ≈
2012:
558:Federal Aviation Administration
409:is used to provide visible and
77:geosynchronous equatorial orbit
18:Geosynchronous equatorial orbit
5057:Retrograde and prograde motion
4170:"Stationkeeping in Mars orbit"
4054:American Astronautical Society
3808:. No. 1759. March 9, 1991
2978:Kohn, Daniel (March 6, 2016).
2429:Mills, Mike (August 3, 1997).
2306:The Complete Venus Equilateral
1366:is the mass of the satellite,
930:Argument of perigee: undefined
206:The Complete Venus Equilateral
1:
4261:(Rocket and Space Technology)
4029:10.1088/1757-899X/29/1/012010
3618:Ott, L. E. Mattok, C. (ed.).
3142:. Arianespace. Archived from
2982:. Teledesic Corporation, USA.
2584:. In Andrew J Butrica (ed.).
1803:. This gives an equation for
1464:Newton's second law of motion
551:Wide Area Augmentation System
5004:Equatorial coordinate system
2435:The Washington Post Magazine
2225:, the orbital speed in m/s;
2064:) for Mars has the value of
2049:of an object in relation to
1370:is the distance between the
1259:universal law of gravitation
1160:Compass (medium Earth orbit)
737:geostationary transfer orbit
658:Geostationary transfer orbit
270:to electronics failure, but
4118:Basic Principles of Physics
3914:September 11, 2007, at the
2997:. American Cancer Society.
2072:, its equatorial radius is
1167:International Space Station
1163:satellite navigation system
595:Japan Civil Aviation Bureau
5137:
4756:Longitude of the periapsis
4168:Lakdawalla, Emily (2013).
3845:EUMETSAT (April 3, 2017).
3828:"Inclined orbit operation"
3519:10.1038/d41586-018-02630-w
3397:10.1038/s41598-019-52076-x
2279:Noordung, Hermann (1929).
1704:with the equation for the
1351:is the mass of the Earth,
1046:is zero, which produces a
947:Earth-centered Earth-fixed
920:Period: 1436 minutes (one
893:, and in 2006 the Russian
844:
754:
655:
613:StarFire navigation system
511:
398:
331:
301:, which was launched by a
29:
5080:
5067:Specific angular momentum
4148:The Physics Hypertextbook
4115:Mohindroo, K. K. (1997).
3757:Hertfordshire Law Journal
3734:"Space Services Division"
3003:10.1002/0471208051.fre018
2660:David R. Williams (ed.).
2607:David R. Williams (ed.).
2580:Daniel R. Glover (1997).
1985:Earth's equatorial radius
1111:station-keeping maneuvers
567:(EGNOS), operated by the
453:multi mission satellites.
340:communications satellites
125:Communications satellites
3304:. The Planetary Society.
1466:, the centripetal force
1458:is the magnitude of the
822:Geostationary satellites
743:at GEO height and a low
553:(WAAS), operated by the
435:series, launched by the
334:Geosynchronous satellite
218:while he was working at
75:, also referred to as a
5062:Specific orbital energy
4195:"Solar System Dynamics"
4079:Pople, Stephen (2001).
3695:. The Planetary Society
2525:Harold Rosen, 1926–2017
2151:Orbital station-keeping
1372:centers of their masses
1107:equatorial eccentricity
1080:flattening of the Earth
805:from the sun against a
623:Positioning Solutions (
251:Echo balloon satellites
4474:Geostationary transfer
4226:Federal Standard 1037C
4220:public domain material
3662:"Launching Satellites"
3348:. NASA. Archived from
3203:. NASASpaceFlight.com.
2398:Phillips Davis (ed.).
2335:McAleer, Neil (1992).
2241:, the mass of Earth ≈
2055:gravitational constant
2031:
1974:
1878:
1778:
1691:
1634:
1527:
1445:
1380:gravitational constant
1327:
1244:
1186:
1171:Hubble Space Telescope
1096:orbital stationkeeping
1082:at its poles causes a
1007:
860:
523:
445:the Republic of Korea
370:atmospheric refraction
284:Abubakar Tafawa Balewa
163:
68:
44:
5047:Orbital state vectors
4989:Characteristic energy
4959:Trans-lunar injection
4747:Argument of periapsis
4424:Prograde / Retrograde
4385:Hyperbolic trajectory
4239: (in support of
4174:The Planetary Society
4144:"Orbital Mechanics I"
4142:Elert, Glenn (2019).
3905:"The Olympus failure"
3783:US patent 5183225
3326:on September 10, 2012
2032:
1975:
1879:
1779:
1692:
1635:
1528:
1446:
1328:
1245:
1175:Iridium constellation
1145:
1128:Hall-effect thrusters
1008:
958:This orbital period,
879:European Space Agency
865:low Earth orbit (LEO)
854:
809:to modify its orbit.
521:
512:Further information:
437:European Space Agency
253:in 1960, followed by
222:in 1959. Inspired by
161:
150:to avoid collisions.
137:navigation satellites
50:
42:
4894:Bi-elliptic transfer
4414:Parabolic trajectory
4237:on January 22, 2022.
3910:, August 26, 1993.
3672:on December 21, 2019
3481:. November 14, 2016.
3451:on December 18, 2023
3254:on December 25, 2019
3180:on December 26, 2019
2410:on December 12, 2012
2047:areostationary orbit
1997:
1920:
1814:
1715:
1651:
1558:
1480:
1415:
1268:
1214:
969:
638:system, operated by
586:(MSAS), operated by
530:systems by relaying
425:series, operated by
344:broadcast satellites
313:and communications.
294:on August 23, 1963.
88:geosynchronous orbit
32:Geosynchronous orbit
4934:Low-energy transfer
3628:1995ESASP.372..101O
3588:on January 3, 2014.
3510:2018Natur.555..154T
3475:Science On a Sphere
3389:2019NatSR...915692M
3117:on January 14, 2020
2955:1999smad.book.....W
2641:on December 7, 2019
2594:1997bify.book.....B
2176:Geostationary orbit
2088:) of the planet is
1132:electric propulsion
1033:of the central body
632:Starfix DGPS System
421:the United States'
73:geostationary orbit
4929:Inclination change
4577:Distant retrograde
3966:spaceflight101.com
3722:on March 27, 2009.
3377:Scientific Reports
3061:"Satellite Status"
2842:Richard Thompson.
2716:. December 7, 2018
2133:Spaceflight portal
2027:
1970:
1874:
1774:
1687:
1630:
1523:
1441:
1323:
1240:
1187:
1121:radiation pressure
1003:
949:reference frame).
881:telecom satellite
861:
817:Retired satellites
803:radiation pressure
787:Bogota Declaration
757:Bogota Declaration
725:inclination change
524:
164:
133:Weather satellites
129:satellite antennas
69:
45:
5098:
5097:
5072:Two-line elements
4880:
4879:
4802:Eccentric anomaly
4644:
4643:
4511:Orbit of the Moon
4370:Highly elliptical
4259:Orbital Mechanics
3932:, April 19, 2006.
3908:ESA press release
3580:(Press release).
3039:978-1-85109-514-8
2794:. October 4, 2018
2560:Los Angeles Times
2502:Discover Magazine
2348:978-0-809-24324-2
2320:978-0-345-28953-7
2163:Explanatory notes
2082:rotational period
2025:
2021:
1968:
1962:
1872:
1866:
1837:
1772:
1766:
1739:
1685:
1679:
1628:
1614:
1604:
1586:
1568:
1521:
1503:
1490:
1439:
1321:
1307:
1297:
1278:
1237:
1224:
1191:centripetal force
1078:gravity, and the
1070:A combination of
1001:
1000:
783:Radio Regulations
775:radio frequencies
514:GNSS augmentation
401:Weather satellite
180:Venus Equilateral
16:(Redirected from
5128:
5088:
5087:
5029:Lagrangian point
4924:Hohmann transfer
4869:
4855:
4846:
4837:
4817:
4808:
4799:
4790:
4786:
4782:
4773:
4753:
4744:
4735:
4726:
4706:
4702:
4693:
4684:
4675:
4655:
4624:Heliosynchronous
4573:Lagrange points
4526:Transatmospheric
4341:
4320:
4313:
4306:
4297:
4244:
4238:
4233:. Archived from
4217:
4216:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4202:
4191:
4185:
4184:
4182:
4180:
4165:
4159:
4158:
4156:
4154:
4139:
4133:
4132:
4112:
4106:
4103:
4097:
4096:
4076:
4065:
4064:
4062:
4051:
4040:
4034:
4033:
4031:
4015:
4004:
4003:
4001:
3990:
3979:
3970:
3969:
3968:. June 20, 2017.
3958:
3952:
3951:
3939:
3933:
3924:
3918:
3902:
3896:
3895:
3883:
3874:
3873:
3861:
3855:
3854:
3842:
3836:
3835:
3824:
3818:
3817:
3815:
3813:
3798:
3792:
3791:
3790:
3786:
3779:
3773:
3772:
3752:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3741:
3730:
3724:
3723:
3711:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3688:
3682:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3668:. Archived from
3658:
3652:
3651:
3641:
3632:
3631:
3615:
3609:
3608:
3596:
3590:
3589:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3566:on July 7, 2019.
3556:
3550:
3549:
3548:. June 12, 2019.
3538:
3532:
3531:
3521:
3489:
3483:
3482:
3467:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:
3447:. Archived from
3436:
3427:
3426:
3416:
3368:
3362:
3361:
3359:
3357:
3352:on June 24, 2021
3342:
3336:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3312:
3306:
3305:
3298:
3292:
3291:
3289:
3287:
3273:
3264:
3263:
3261:
3259:
3244:
3235:
3234:
3232:
3230:
3211:
3205:
3204:
3196:
3190:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3176:. Archived from
3165:
3159:
3158:
3156:
3154:
3148:
3141:
3133:
3127:
3126:
3124:
3122:
3113:. Archived from
3103:
3097:
3096:
3083:"Our Satellites"
3079:
3073:
3072:
3070:
3068:
3057:
3051:
3050:
3048:
3046:
3023:
3017:
3016:
2990:
2984:
2983:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2942:
2919:
2918:
2916:
2914:
2908:
2877:
2868:
2859:
2858:
2856:
2854:
2839:
2833:
2832:
2830:
2828:
2823:. August 6, 2016
2813:
2804:
2803:
2801:
2799:
2784:
2778:
2777:
2775:
2773:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2749:
2747:
2732:
2726:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2697:
2695:
2680:
2674:
2673:
2671:
2669:
2657:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2646:
2627:
2621:
2620:
2618:
2616:
2604:
2598:
2597:
2577:
2571:
2570:
2568:
2566:
2551:
2538:
2537:
2535:
2533:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2508:
2493:
2480:
2479:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2444:
2442:
2437:. pp. 12–13
2426:
2420:
2419:
2417:
2415:
2406:. Archived from
2395:
2389:
2388:
2386:
2384:
2378:
2371:
2362:
2353:
2352:
2338:Arthur C. Clarke
2331:
2325:
2324:
2313:. pp. 3–4.
2311:Ballantine Books
2301:Smith, George O.
2296:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2276:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2248:
2246:
2236:
2234:
2189:
2183:
2173:
2135:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2114:
2112:
2106:
2104:
2098:
2097: Earth days
2096:
2093:
2079:
2077:
2071:
2069:
2041:In other planets
2036:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2026:
2023:
2019:
1979:
1977:
1976:
1971:
1969:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1959:
1946:
1945:
1944:
1931:
1930:
1912:
1911:0.0008 km s
1910:
1906:
1883:
1881:
1880:
1875:
1873:
1871:
1865:
1864:
1863:
1850:
1849:
1848:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1825:
1824:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1783:
1781:
1780:
1775:
1773:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1758:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1740:
1735:
1724:
1696:
1694:
1693:
1688:
1686:
1681:
1680:
1677:
1671:
1663:
1662:
1639:
1637:
1636:
1631:
1629:
1627:
1626:
1617:
1616:
1615:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1602:
1595:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1572:
1570:
1569:
1566:
1532:
1530:
1529:
1524:
1522:
1517:
1516:
1507:
1505:
1504:
1501:
1492:
1491:
1488:
1450:
1448:
1447:
1442:
1440:
1435:
1434:
1425:
1400:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1387:
1358:
1356:
1332:
1330:
1329:
1324:
1322:
1320:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1308:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1295:
1288:
1280:
1279:
1276:
1249:
1247:
1246:
1241:
1239:
1238:
1235:
1226:
1225:
1222:
1165:orbits with the
1028:
1022:
1012:
1010:
1009:
1004:
1002:
996:
995:
986:
985:
936:: 42,164 km
885:was struck by a
869:eccentric orbits
857:geocentric orbit
793:Statite proposal
751:Orbit allocation
715:
710:
701:
696:
681:
670:
374:thermal emission
338:Most commercial
192:Arthur C. Clarke
115:Arthur C. Clarke
100:Earth's rotation
65:Earth's rotation
21:
5136:
5135:
5131:
5130:
5129:
5127:
5126:
5125:
5101:
5100:
5099:
5094:
5076:
4994:Escape velocity
4975:
4968:
4949:Rocket equation
4876:
4868:
4862:
4853:
4844:
4835:
4824:
4815:
4806:
4797:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4771:
4760:
4751:
4742:
4733:
4724:
4713:
4704:
4700:
4696:Semi-minor axis
4691:
4687:Semi-major axis
4682:
4673:
4667:
4640:
4562:Areosynchronous
4546:
4540:
4521:Sun-synchronous
4506:Near-equatorial
4450:
4330:
4324:
4250:
4223:
4214:
4212:
4210:
4200:
4198:
4193:
4192:
4188:
4178:
4176:
4167:
4166:
4162:
4152:
4150:
4141:
4140:
4136:
4129:
4114:
4113:
4109:
4104:
4100:
4093:
4078:
4077:
4068:
4060:
4049:
4042:
4041:
4037:
4017:
4016:
4007:
3999:
3988:
3981:
3980:
3973:
3960:
3959:
3955:
3941:
3940:
3936:
3925:
3921:
3916:Wayback Machine
3903:
3899:
3885:
3884:
3877:
3863:
3862:
3858:
3844:
3843:
3839:
3826:
3825:
3821:
3811:
3809:
3800:
3799:
3795:
3788:
3781:
3780:
3776:
3754:
3753:
3749:
3739:
3737:
3732:
3731:
3727:
3713:
3712:
3708:
3698:
3696:
3690:
3689:
3685:
3675:
3673:
3660:
3659:
3655:
3643:
3642:
3635:
3617:
3616:
3612:
3598:
3597:
3593:
3576:
3575:
3571:
3558:
3557:
3553:
3540:
3539:
3535:
3491:
3490:
3486:
3469:
3468:
3464:
3454:
3452:
3438:
3437:
3430:
3370:
3369:
3365:
3355:
3353:
3344:
3343:
3339:
3329:
3327:
3314:
3313:
3309:
3300:
3299:
3295:
3285:
3283:
3275:
3274:
3267:
3257:
3255:
3246:
3245:
3238:
3228:
3226:
3225:on July 2, 2019
3213:
3212:
3208:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3183:
3181:
3167:
3166:
3162:
3152:
3150:
3149:on July 4, 2010
3146:
3139:
3135:
3134:
3130:
3120:
3118:
3105:
3104:
3100:
3081:
3080:
3076:
3066:
3064:
3059:
3058:
3054:
3044:
3042:
3040:
3025:
3024:
3020:
3013:
2992:
2991:
2987:
2977:
2976:
2972:
2965:
2944:
2943:
2922:
2912:
2910:
2906:
2875:
2870:
2869:
2862:
2852:
2850:
2841:
2840:
2836:
2826:
2824:
2815:
2814:
2807:
2797:
2795:
2786:
2785:
2781:
2771:
2769:
2760:
2759:
2755:
2745:
2743:
2734:
2733:
2729:
2719:
2717:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2693:
2691:
2682:
2681:
2677:
2667:
2665:
2659:
2658:
2654:
2644:
2642:
2635:History Channel
2629:
2628:
2624:
2614:
2612:
2606:
2605:
2601:
2579:
2578:
2574:
2564:
2562:
2553:
2552:
2541:
2531:
2529:
2521:
2520:
2516:
2506:
2504:
2495:
2494:
2483:
2476:
2455:
2454:
2450:
2440:
2438:
2428:
2427:
2423:
2413:
2411:
2397:
2396:
2392:
2382:
2380:
2376:
2369:
2364:
2363:
2356:
2349:
2334:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2299:
2297:
2293:
2285:
2278:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2263:
2257:
2253:
2244:
2242:
2232:
2230:
2190:
2186:
2174:
2170:
2165:
2131:
2126:
2124:
2121:
2110:
2108:
2102:
2100:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2075:
2073:
2067:
2065:
2043:
1995:
1994:
1951:
1947:
1936:
1932:
1918:
1917:
1908:
1904:
1902:
1893:
1855:
1851:
1840:
1830:
1826:
1812:
1811:
1798:
1794:
1792:
1759:
1725:
1719:
1718:
1713:
1712:
1672:
1654:
1649:
1648:
1618:
1607:
1597:
1596:
1573:
1561:
1556:
1555:
1550:
1543:
1508:
1496:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1472:
1426:
1413:
1412:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1365:
1354:
1352:
1350:
1343:
1311:
1300:
1290:
1289:
1271:
1266:
1265:
1230:
1217:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1199:
1140:
1056:
1040:
1026:
1020:
987:
967:
966:
955:
943:
934:Semi-major axis
927:Eccentricity: 0
917:Inclination: 0°
911:
891:graveyard orbit
849:
843:
835:graveyard orbit
826:station keeping
819:
795:
759:
753:
733:launch vehicles
720:
719:
718:
717:
708:
707:
694:
693:
692:
684:
683:
682:
673:
672:
671:
660:
654:
649:
630:The commercial
611:The commercial
516:
510:
411:infrared images
403:
397:
356:
336:
330:
280:John F. Kennedy
264:spin stabilised
220:Hughes Aircraft
198:, published in
188:science fiction
184:George O. Smith
168:Herman Potočnik
156:
148:graveyard orbit
144:temporary orbit
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5134:
5132:
5124:
5123:
5118:
5113:
5103:
5102:
5096:
5095:
5093:
5092:
5090:List of orbits
5081:
5078:
5077:
5075:
5074:
5069:
5064:
5059:
5054:
5049:
5044:
5042:Orbit equation
5039:
5031:
5026:
5021:
5016:
5011:
5006:
5001:
4996:
4991:
4986:
4980:
4978:
4970:
4969:
4967:
4966:
4961:
4956:
4951:
4946:
4941:
4936:
4931:
4926:
4921:
4916:
4914:Gravity assist
4911:
4909:Delta-v budget
4906:
4901:
4896:
4890:
4888:
4882:
4881:
4878:
4877:
4875:
4874:
4866:
4860:
4851:
4842:
4840:Orbital period
4832:
4830:
4826:
4825:
4823:
4822:
4820:True longitude
4813:
4811:Mean longitude
4804:
4795:
4778:
4768:
4766:
4762:
4761:
4759:
4758:
4749:
4740:
4731:
4721:
4719:
4715:
4714:
4712:
4711:
4698:
4689:
4680:
4670:
4668:
4666:
4665:
4662:
4658:
4652:
4646:
4645:
4642:
4641:
4639:
4638:
4637:
4636:
4628:
4627:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4615:
4614:
4601:
4596:
4595:
4594:
4589:
4584:
4579:
4571:
4570:
4569:
4567:Areostationary
4564:
4559:
4550:
4548:
4542:
4541:
4539:
4538:
4536:Very low Earth
4533:
4528:
4523:
4518:
4513:
4508:
4503:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4478:
4477:
4476:
4471:
4464:Geosynchronous
4460:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4449:
4448:
4446:Transfer orbit
4443:
4442:
4441:
4436:
4426:
4421:
4416:
4411:
4406:
4404:Lagrange point
4401:
4396:
4387:
4382:
4377:
4372:
4363:
4358:
4353:
4347:
4345:
4338:
4332:
4331:
4326:Gravitational
4325:
4323:
4322:
4315:
4308:
4300:
4294:
4293:
4288:
4282:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4256:
4249:
4248:External links
4246:
4209:
4208:
4186:
4160:
4134:
4127:
4107:
4098:
4091:
4066:
4035:
4005:
3971:
3953:
3934:
3919:
3897:
3875:
3856:
3837:
3819:
3793:
3774:
3747:
3725:
3706:
3683:
3653:
3633:
3610:
3591:
3569:
3551:
3533:
3484:
3462:
3428:
3363:
3337:
3307:
3293:
3265:
3236:
3206:
3191:
3160:
3128:
3098:
3074:
3052:
3038:
3018:
3011:
2985:
2970:
2963:
2920:
2860:
2834:
2805:
2779:
2753:
2727:
2701:
2675:
2652:
2622:
2599:
2572:
2539:
2514:
2481:
2474:
2448:
2421:
2390:
2354:
2347:
2326:
2319:
2291:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2262:
2261:
2251:
2184:
2167:
2166:
2164:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2156:Space elevator
2153:
2148:
2143:
2141:List of orbits
2137:
2136:
2120:
2117:
2080:and the known
2042:
2039:
2038:
2037:
2018:
2015:
2011:
2008:
2005:
2002:
1981:
1980:
1966:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1928:
1925:
1891:
1885:
1884:
1870:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1847:
1843:
1833:
1829:
1822:
1819:
1785:
1784:
1771:
1762:
1756:
1753:
1748:
1743:
1738:
1734:
1731:
1728:
1722:
1698:
1697:
1684:
1675:
1669:
1666:
1661:
1657:
1642:
1641:
1625:
1621:
1610:
1600:
1593:
1590:
1585:
1580:
1576:
1564:
1548:
1541:
1535:
1534:
1520:
1515:
1511:
1499:
1495:
1486:
1470:
1452:
1451:
1438:
1433:
1429:
1423:
1420:
1399:10 m kg s
1363:
1348:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1318:
1314:
1303:
1293:
1286:
1283:
1274:
1251:
1250:
1233:
1229:
1220:
1204:
1197:
1139:
1136:
1088:orbital period
1055:
1052:
1048:circular orbit
1039:
1036:
1035:
1034:
1024:
1014:
1013:
999:
994:
990:
983:
980:
977:
974:
954:
951:
942:
939:
938:
937:
931:
928:
925:
918:
910:
907:
845:Main article:
842:
839:
818:
815:
794:
791:
785:. In the 1976
769:but differing
752:
749:
686:
685:
676:
675:
674:
665:
664:
663:
662:
661:
653:
650:
648:
647:Implementation
645:
644:
643:
628:
615:, operated by
609:
598:
580:
571:(on behalf of
561:
509:
506:
483:
482:
475:
468:
461:
454:
443:
429:
396:
393:
355:
354:Communications
352:
329:
326:
311:remote sensing
303:Delta D rocket
288:USNS Kingsport
276:inclined orbit
232:undersea cable
230:radios and an
228:high frequency
201:Wireless World
172:space stations
155:
152:
107:orbital period
26:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5133:
5122:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5112:
5111:Astrodynamics
5109:
5108:
5106:
5091:
5083:
5082:
5079:
5073:
5070:
5068:
5065:
5063:
5060:
5058:
5055:
5053:
5050:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5040:
5038:
5037:-body problem
5036:
5032:
5030:
5027:
5025:
5022:
5020:
5017:
5015:
5012:
5010:
5007:
5005:
5002:
5000:
4997:
4995:
4992:
4990:
4987:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4979:
4977:
4971:
4965:
4962:
4960:
4957:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4947:
4945:
4942:
4940:
4939:Oberth effect
4937:
4935:
4932:
4930:
4927:
4925:
4922:
4920:
4917:
4915:
4912:
4910:
4907:
4905:
4902:
4900:
4897:
4895:
4892:
4891:
4889:
4887:
4883:
4873:
4865:
4861:
4859:
4858:Orbital speed
4852:
4850:
4843:
4841:
4834:
4833:
4831:
4827:
4821:
4814:
4812:
4805:
4803:
4796:
4794:
4779:
4777:
4770:
4769:
4767:
4763:
4757:
4750:
4748:
4741:
4739:
4732:
4730:
4723:
4722:
4720:
4716:
4710:
4699:
4697:
4690:
4688:
4681:
4679:
4672:
4671:
4669:
4663:
4660:
4659:
4656:
4653:
4651:
4647:
4635:
4632:
4631:
4629:
4625:
4622:
4620:
4617:
4613:
4612:Earth's orbit
4610:
4609:
4608:
4605:
4604:
4602:
4600:
4597:
4593:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4583:
4580:
4578:
4575:
4574:
4572:
4568:
4565:
4563:
4560:
4558:
4555:
4554:
4552:
4551:
4549:
4543:
4537:
4534:
4532:
4529:
4527:
4524:
4522:
4519:
4517:
4514:
4512:
4509:
4507:
4504:
4502:
4499:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4469:Geostationary
4467:
4466:
4465:
4462:
4461:
4459:
4457:
4453:
4447:
4444:
4440:
4437:
4435:
4432:
4431:
4430:
4427:
4425:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4415:
4412:
4410:
4407:
4405:
4402:
4400:
4397:
4395:
4391:
4388:
4386:
4383:
4381:
4378:
4376:
4373:
4371:
4367:
4364:
4362:
4359:
4357:
4354:
4352:
4349:
4348:
4346:
4342:
4339:
4337:
4333:
4329:
4321:
4316:
4314:
4309:
4307:
4302:
4301:
4298:
4292:
4289:
4286:
4283:
4281:
4278:
4276:
4273:
4271:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4260:
4257:
4255:
4252:
4251:
4247:
4245:
4242:
4236:
4232:
4228:
4227:
4221:
4201:September 30,
4196:
4190:
4187:
4179:September 30,
4175:
4171:
4164:
4161:
4153:September 30,
4149:
4145:
4138:
4135:
4130:
4128:81-209-0199-1
4124:
4120:
4119:
4111:
4108:
4102:
4099:
4094:
4092:0-19-914199-1
4088:
4084:
4083:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4067:
4059:
4055:
4048:
4047:
4039:
4036:
4030:
4025:
4021:
4014:
4012:
4010:
4006:
3998:
3994:
3987:
3986:
3978:
3976:
3972:
3967:
3963:
3957:
3954:
3949:
3948:SpaceNews.com
3945:
3938:
3935:
3931:
3928:
3923:
3920:
3917:
3913:
3909:
3906:
3901:
3898:
3893:
3892:SpaceNews.com
3889:
3882:
3880:
3876:
3871:
3870:Physics World
3867:
3860:
3857:
3852:
3848:
3841:
3838:
3833:
3829:
3823:
3820:
3807:
3806:New Scientist
3803:
3797:
3794:
3784:
3778:
3775:
3770:
3766:
3762:
3758:
3751:
3748:
3735:
3729:
3726:
3721:
3717:
3714:Henri, Yvon.
3710:
3707:
3694:
3687:
3684:
3671:
3667:
3663:
3657:
3654:
3649:
3648:
3640:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3625:
3621:
3614:
3611:
3606:
3602:
3595:
3592:
3587:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3555:
3552:
3547:
3543:
3537:
3534:
3529:
3525:
3520:
3515:
3511:
3507:
3504:(7695): 154.
3503:
3499:
3495:
3488:
3485:
3480:
3476:
3472:
3466:
3463:
3450:
3446:
3442:
3435:
3433:
3429:
3424:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3406:
3402:
3398:
3394:
3390:
3386:
3382:
3378:
3374:
3367:
3364:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3338:
3325:
3321:
3317:
3311:
3308:
3303:
3297:
3294:
3282:
3278:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3253:
3249:
3243:
3241:
3237:
3224:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3202:
3195:
3192:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3164:
3161:
3145:
3138:
3132:
3129:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3102:
3099:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3084:
3078:
3075:
3062:
3056:
3053:
3041:
3035:
3031:
3030:
3022:
3019:
3014:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2989:
2986:
2981:
2974:
2971:
2966:
2964:1-881883-10-8
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2933:
2931:
2929:
2927:
2925:
2921:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2885:
2881:
2874:
2867:
2865:
2861:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2835:
2822:
2818:
2812:
2810:
2806:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2780:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2754:
2742:
2738:
2731:
2728:
2715:
2711:
2705:
2702:
2690:
2686:
2679:
2676:
2668:September 29,
2663:
2656:
2653:
2640:
2636:
2632:
2626:
2623:
2615:September 29,
2610:
2603:
2600:
2595:
2591:
2587:
2583:
2576:
2573:
2561:
2557:
2550:
2548:
2546:
2544:
2540:
2527:
2526:
2518:
2515:
2503:
2499:
2492:
2490:
2488:
2486:
2482:
2477:
2475:9780123822253
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2449:
2436:
2432:
2425:
2422:
2409:
2405:
2401:
2394:
2391:
2375:
2368:
2361:
2359:
2355:
2350:
2344:
2340:
2339:
2330:
2327:
2322:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2307:
2302:
2295:
2292:
2284:
2283:
2275:
2272:
2266:
2255:
2252:
2240:
2235:10 Nm/kg
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2209: =
2208:
2205:
2201:
2198:
2195: =
2194:
2188:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2172:
2169:
2162:
2157:
2154:
2152:
2149:
2147:
2144:
2142:
2139:
2138:
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4678:Eccentricity
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4394:Non-inclined
4235:the original
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3111:EUMETSAT.int
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1252:
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1092:perturbation
1069:
1061:sidereal day
1057:
1044:eccentricity
1041:
1038:Eccentricity
1015:
959:
956:
944:
922:sidereal day
912:
895:Express-AM11
876:
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841:Space debris
830:transponders
820:
811:
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494:oceanography
490:volcanic ash
487:
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415:oceanography
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357:
337:
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260:
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216:Harold Rosen
213:
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4849:Mean motion
4729:Inclination
4718:Orientation
4619:Mars cycler
4557:Areocentric
4429:Synchronous
4241:MIL-STD-188
2078:.50 km
941:Inclination
625:Oceaneering
540:ionospheric
395:Meteorology
322:fiber-optic
286:aboard the
61:star trails
5105:Categories
4954:Rendezvous
4650:Parameters
4486:High Earth
4456:Geocentric
4409:Osculating
4366:Elliptical
3832:SatSig.net
3812:October 2,
3699:October 2,
3356:August 25,
3107:"Meteosat"
3012:0471208051
2886:(3): 123.
2853:October 1,
2827:October 1,
2798:October 1,
2772:August 25,
2746:August 25,
2720:August 25,
2694:August 25,
2662:"Syncom 3"
2645:August 25,
2609:"Syncom 2"
2565:August 25,
2532:August 25,
2507:August 25,
2441:August 25,
2414:August 25,
2383:January 1,
2267:References
2247:10 kg
2105:.66 s
2070: km s
1708:produces:
1700:Replacing
1357:10 kg
1138:Derivation
1117:Solar wind
1094:, regular
1084:precession
909:Properties
807:solar sail
755:See also:
656:See also:
617:John Deere
508:Navigation
460:satellites
399:See also:
382:elliptical
372:, Earth's
332:See also:
290:docked in
4999:Ephemeris
4976:mechanics
4886:Maneuvers
4829:Variation
4592:Libration
4587:Lissajous
4491:Low Earth
4481:Graveyard
4380:Horseshoe
3763:(2): 75.
3605:The Hindu
3405:2045-2322
3045:April 17,
2913:April 16,
2900:0733-9453
2689:Space.com
2528:. Caltech
2014:≈
2007:ω
1953:π
1934:μ
1857:π
1730:π
1074:gravity,
1065:footprint
1054:Stability
998:μ
982:π
887:meteoroid
883:Olympus-1
771:latitudes
767:longitude
536:ephemeris
458:Elektro-L
318:microwave
255:Telstar 1
224:Sputnik 1
182:story by
166:In 1929,
119:satellite
96:direction
4765:Position
4390:Inclined
4361:Circular
4058:Archived
3997:Archived
3912:Archived
3851:phys.org
3769:10047170
3740:July 26,
3676:July 22,
3666:Eumetsat
3528:29517031
3423:31666582
3320:SpaceRef
3153:June 26,
3093:(NESDIS)
2904:Archived
2788:"Orbits"
2588:. NASA.
2374:Archived
2303:(1976).
2213:, where
2119:See also
2113: km
1913:. Hence
1644:so that
1460:velocity
903:Telkom-1
636:OmniSTAR
477:India's
470:Chinese
465:Himawari
441:EUMETSAT
433:Meteosat
299:Syncom 3
272:Syncom 2
268:Syncom 1
85:circular
83:), is a
4974:Orbital
4944:Phasing
4904:Delta-v
4709:Apsides
4703:,
4501:Molniya
4419:Parking
4356:Capture
4344:General
3991:. 66th
3624:Bibcode
3506:Bibcode
3455:July 2,
3414:6821777
3385:Bibcode
3330:July 1,
3286:July 6,
3258:July 2,
3229:July 2,
3219:GBTimes
3184:July 2,
3121:July 1,
3067:July 6,
2951:Bibcode
2590:Bibcode
1801: s
1378:is the
1156:Galileo
1152:GLONASS
1100:delta-v
1029:is the
1016:where:
799:statite
763:equator
745:perigee
691:to GSO.
597:(JCAB);
498:cyclone
472:Fengyun
385:Molniya
378:Russian
361:latency
190:author
154:History
92:equator
63:due to
57:Equator
55:to the
4630:Other
4531:Tundra
4399:Kepler
4375:Escape
4328:orbits
4125:
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3498:Nature
3421:
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3403:
3346:"GOCI"
3174:Airbus
3036:
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2611:. NASA
2472:
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2017:3074.6
1787:where
1454:where
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1353:5.9736
1337:where
1181:. The
953:Period
773:) and
741:apogee
711:
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704:·
702:
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652:Launch
560:(FAA);
481:series
474:series
467:series
447:COMS-1
389:Tundra
247:medium
239:rocket
4872:Epoch
4661:Shape
4599:Lunar
4553:Mars
4545:About
4516:Polar
4336:Types
4222:from
4061:(PDF)
4050:(PDF)
4000:(PDF)
3989:(PDF)
3765:S2CID
3736:. ITU
3147:(PDF)
3140:(PDF)
2907:(PDF)
2876:(PDF)
2377:(PDF)
2370:(PDF)
2286:(PDF)
2231:6.673
2090:1.025
1907:.4418
1391:0.000
1253:From
1179:Earth
1076:solar
1072:lunar
899:AMC-9
731:Most
713:Earth
706:
640:Fugro
621:C-Nav
606:India
588:Japan
532:clock
479:INSAT
451:GK-2A
292:Lagos
176:orbit
4664:Size
4603:Sun
4582:Halo
4434:semi
4203:2019
4181:2019
4155:2019
4123:ISBN
4087:ISBN
3814:2019
3742:2019
3701:2019
3678:2019
3524:PMID
3479:NOAA
3457:2019
3419:PMID
3401:ISSN
3358:2019
3332:2019
3288:2019
3260:2019
3231:2019
3186:2019
3155:2010
3123:2019
3088:NOAA
3069:2019
3047:2019
3034:ISBN
3007:ISBN
2959:ISBN
2915:2019
2896:ISSN
2855:2019
2829:2019
2800:2019
2774:2019
2767:CNET
2748:2019
2722:2019
2696:2019
2670:2019
2647:2019
2617:2019
2567:2019
2534:2019
2509:2019
2470:ISBN
2443:2019
2416:2019
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2385:2021
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2315:ISBN
2259:km).
2243:5.98
2202:and
2178:and
2051:Mars
1797:.090
1183:Moon
1173:and
1158:and
1119:and
1042:The
901:and
634:and
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600:The
582:The
569:ESSP
563:The
549:The
538:and
528:GNSS
449:and
431:the
427:NOAA
423:GOES
387:and
348:SBAS
346:and
328:Uses
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1232:F
1228:=
1223:c
1219:F
1205:g
1202:F
1198:c
1195:F
1027:μ
1021:a
993:3
989:a
979:2
976:=
973:T
960:T
924:)
716:.
642:.
608:.
79:(
67:.
34:.
20:)
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