Genomics - Knowledge (XXG)

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especially because the availability of large numbers of sequenced genomes and previously solved protein structures allow scientists to model protein structure on the structures of previously solved homologs. Structural genomics involves taking a large number of approaches to structure determination, including experimental methods using genomic sequences or modeling-based approaches based on sequence or

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acquisition can be performed at a delayed moment, allowing for very large arrays of DNA colonies to be captured by sequential images taken from a single camera. Decoupling the enzymatic reaction and the image capture allows for optimal throughput and theoretically unlimited sequencing capacity; with an optimal configuration, the ultimate throughput of the instrument depends only on the

625: 1310: 4837: 1146:. Multiple overlapping reads for the target DNA are obtained by performing several rounds of this fragmentation and sequencing. Computer programs then use the overlapping ends of different reads to assemble them into a continuous sequence. Shotgun sequencing is a random sampling process, requiring over-sampling to ensure a given 1251:

so that local clonal colonies, initially coined "DNA colonies", are formed. To determine the sequence, four types of reversible terminator bases (RT-bases) are added and non-incorporated nucleotides are washed away. Unlike pyrosequencing, the DNA chains are extended one nucleotide at a time and image

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Next-generation genomic technologies allow clinicians and biomedical researchers to drastically increase the amount of genomic data collected on large study populations. When combined with new informatics approaches that integrate many kinds of data with genomic data in disease research, this allows

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assembly paradigm there are two primary strategies for assembly, Eulerian path strategies, and overlap-layout-consensus (OLC) strategies. OLC strategies ultimately try to create a Hamiltonian path through an overlap graph which is an NP-hard problem. Eulerian path strategies are computationally more

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sequences and prophage-like elements. A detailed database mining of these sequences offers insights into the role of prophages in shaping the bacterial genome: Overall, this method verified many known bacteriophage groups, making this a useful tool for predicting the relationships of prophages from

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to get largely unbiased samples of all genes from all the members of the sampled communities. Because of its power to reveal the previously hidden diversity of microscopic life, metagenomics offers a powerful lens for viewing the microbial world that has the potential to revolutionize understanding

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for finding similarities, and then annotating genomes based on homologues. More recently, additional information is added to the annotation platform. The additional information allows manual annotators to deconvolute discrepancies between genes that are given the same annotation. Some databases use

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which sequence dozens of terabases a year, to local molecular biology core facilities) which contain research laboratories with the costly instrumentation and technical support necessary. As sequencing technology continues to improve, however, a new generation of effective fast turnaround benchtop

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infecting marine cyanobaceria. Thus, the growing body of genome information can also be tapped in a more general way to address global problems by applying a comparative approach. Some new and exciting examples of progress in this field are the identification of genes for regulatory RNAs, insights

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is that structural genomics attempts to determine the structure of every protein encoded by the genome, rather than focusing on one particular protein. With full-genome sequences available, structure prediction can be done more quickly through a combination of experimental and modeling approaches,

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or structures. Functional genomics attempts to answer questions about the function of DNA at the levels of genes, RNA transcripts, and protein products. A key characteristic of functional genomics studies is their genome-wide approach to these questions, generally involving high-throughput methods

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technology cannot read whole genomes as a continuous sequence, but rather reads small pieces of between 20 and 1000 bases, depending on the technology used. Third generation sequencing technologies such as PacBio or Oxford Nanopore routinely generate sequencing reads 10-100 kb in length; however,

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the sequencing process, producing thousands or millions of sequences at once. High-throughput sequencing is intended to lower the cost of DNA sequencing beyond what is possible with standard dye-terminator methods. In ultra-high-throughput sequencing, as many as 500,000 sequencing-by-synthesis

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in early 2001, creating much fanfare. This project, completed in 2003, sequenced the entire genome for one specific person, and by 2007 this sequence was declared "finished" (less than one error in 20,000 bases and all chromosomes assembled). In the years since then, the genomes of many other

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gel (called polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) and visualised using autoradiography. The procedure could sequence up to 80 nucleotides in one go and was a big improvement, but was still very laborious. Nevertheless, in 1977 his group was able to sequence most of the 5,386 nucleotides of the

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and his colleagues played a key role in the development of DNA sequencing techniques that enabled the establishment of comprehensive genome sequencing projects. In 1975, he and Alan Coulson published a sequencing procedure using DNA polymerase with radiolabelled nucleotides that he called the

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with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput

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Environmental Shotgun Sequencing (ESS) is a key technique in metagenomics. (A) Sampling from habitat; (B) filtering particles, typically by size; (C) Lysis and DNA extraction; (D) cloning and library construction; (E) sequencing the clones; (F) sequence assembly into contigs and

1815:. Several studies have demonstrated how these sequences could be used very successfully to infer important ecological and physiological characteristics of marine cyanobacteria. However, there are many more genome projects currently in progress, amongst those there are further 1766:. However, bacteriophage research did not lead the genomics revolution, which is clearly dominated by bacterial genomics. Only very recently has the study of bacteriophage genomes become prominent, thereby enabling researchers to understand the mechanisms underlying 1296: 829:, which has resulted in a pronounced bias in their phylogenetic distribution compared to the breadth of microbial diversity. Of the other sequenced species, most were chosen because they were well-studied model organisms or promised to become good models. Yeast ( 1770:

evolution. Bacteriophage genome sequences can be obtained through direct sequencing of isolated bacteriophages, but can also be derived as part of microbial genomes. Analysis of bacterial genomes has shown that a substantial amount of microbial DNA consists of

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analyses. However, the Sanger method remains in wide use, primarily for smaller-scale projects and for obtaining especially long contiguous DNA sequence reads (>500 nucleotides). Chain-termination methods require a single-stranded DNA template, a DNA

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An alternative approach, ion semiconductor sequencing, is based on standard DNA replication chemistry. This technology measures the release of a hydrogen ion each time a base is incorporated. A microwell containing template DNA is flooded with a single

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Rossi, M.J; Kuntala, P.K; Lai, W.K.M; Yamada, N; Badjatia, N; Mittal, C; Kuzu, G; Bocklund, K; Farrell, N.P; Blanda, T.R; Mairose, J.D; Basting, A.V; Mistretta, K.S; Rocco, D.J; Perkinson, E.S; Kellogg, G.D; Mahony, S; Pugh, B.F (March 2021).

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After an organism has been selected, genome projects involve three components: the sequencing of DNA, the assembly of that sequence to create a representation of the original chromosome, and the annotation and analysis of that representation.

1639:. Epigenetic modifications are reversible modifications on a cell's DNA or histones that affect gene expression without altering the DNA sequence (Russell 2010 p. 475). Two of the most characterized epigenetic modifications are 1137:

Shotgun sequencing is a sequencing method designed for analysis of DNA sequences longer than 1000 base pairs, up to and including entire chromosomes. It is named by analogy with the rapidly expanding, quasi-random firing pattern of a

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assembly, for genomes which are not similar to any sequenced in the past, and comparative assembly, which uses the existing sequence of a closely related organism as a reference during assembly. Relative to comparative assembly,

939:, which announced the sequencing of 1,092 genomes in October 2012. Completion of this project was made possible by the development of dramatically more efficient sequencing technologies and required the commitment of significant 6154: 2030:

has developed as a popular field of research, where genomic sequencing methods are used to conduct large-scale comparisons of DNA sequences among populations - beyond the limits of genetic markers such as short-range

1044:, among others) to claim that it has been oversold, it reflects the change in orientation towards the quantitative analysis of complete or near-complete assortment of all the constituents of a system. In the study of 1070:

Overview of a genome project. First, the genome must be selected, which involves several factors including cost and relevance. Second, the sequence is generated and assembled at a given sequencing center (such as

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Fiers W, Contreras R, Duerinck F, Haegeman G, Iserentant D, Merregaert J, et al. (April 1976). "Complete nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage MS2 RNA: primary and secondary structure of the replicase gene".

706:) of DNA sequencing, involving the preferential cleavage of DNA at known bases, a less efficient method. For their groundbreaking work in the sequencing of nucleic acids, Gilbert and Sanger shared half the 1980 3179:

Kaiser O, Bartels D, Bekel T, Goesmann A, Kespohl S, Pühler A, Meyer F (December 2003). "Whole genome shotgun sequencing guided by bioinformatics pipelines--an optimized approach for an established technique".

1439:, as opposed to manual annotation (a.k.a. curation) which involves human expertise and potential experimental verification. Ideally, these approaches co-exist and complement each other in the same annotation 1142:. Since gel electrophoresis sequencing can only be used for fairly short sequences (100 to 1000 base pairs), longer DNA sequences must be broken into random small segments which are then sequenced to obtain 686:), which formed the basis of the techniques of DNA sequencing, genome mapping, data storage, and bioinformatic analysis most widely used in the following quarter-century of research. In the same year 2100:

and to detect patterns in variation throughout a given population, conservationists can formulate plans to aid a given species without as many variables left unknown as those unaddressed by standard

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Ohyama K, Fukuzawa H, Kohchi T, Shirai H, Sano T, Sano S, et al. (1986). "Chloroplast gene organization deduced from complete sequence of liverwort Marchantia polymorpha chloroplast DNA".

461:, "gene" (gamma, epsilon, nu, epsilon) meaning "become, create, creation, birth", and subsequent variants: genealogy, genesis, genetics, genic, genomere, genotype, genus etc. While the word 1455:

genome context information, similarity scores, experimental data, and integrations of other resources to provide genome annotations through their Subsystems approach. Other databases (e.g.

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coat protein. Fiers' group expanded on their MS2 coat protein work, determining the complete nucleotide-sequence of bacteriophage MS2-RNA (whose genome encodes just four genes in 3569

1048:, for example, researchers which were once limited to the study of a single gene product can now simultaneously compare the total complement of several types of biological molecules. 4835:, Kawashima EH, Farinelli L, Mayer P, "Method of nucleic acid amplification", published 12 May 2005, issued 26 July 2011, assigned to Solexa Ltd Great Britain. 7317: 6586: 3555:

Fleischmann RD, Adams MD, White O, Clayton RA, Kirkness EF, Kerlavage AR, et al. (July 1995). "Whole-genome random sequencing and assembly of Haemophilus influenzae Rd".

776:(12.1 Mb), and since then genomes have continued being sequenced at an exponentially growing pace. As of October 2011, the complete sequences are available for: 2,719 1572: 1193:, normal deoxynucleosidetriphosphates (dNTPs), and modified nucleotides (dideoxyNTPs) that terminate DNA strand elongation. These chain-terminating nucleotides lack a 3'- 1276:

is present in the template sequence multiple nucleotides will be incorporated in a single flood cycle, and the detected electrical signal will be proportionally higher.

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researchers to better understand the genetic bases of drug response and disease. Early efforts to apply the genome to medicine included those by a Stanford team led by

6155:"Two Boston Health Systems Enter the Growing Direct-to-Consumer Gene Sequencing Market by Opening Preventative Genomics Clinics, but Can Patients Afford the Service?" 943:

resources from a large international collaboration. The continued analysis of human genomic data has profound political and social repercussions for human societies.

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Anderson S, Bankier AT, Barrell BG, de Bruijn MH, Coulson AR, Drouin J, et al. (April 1981). "Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome".

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research program aims to collect genome sequence data from 1 million participants to become a critical component of the precision medicine research platform.

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to a protein of known structure or based on chemical and physical principles for a protein with no homology to any known structure. As opposed to traditional

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Conservationists can use the information gathered by genomic sequencing in order to better evaluate genetic factors key to species conservation, such as the

7011: 3504:, van der Aart QJ, Agostoni-Carbone ML, Aigle M, Alberghina L, Alexandraki D, et al. (May 1992). "The complete DNA sequence of yeast chromosome III". 6272:

Luikart G, England PR, Tallmon D, Jordan S, Taberlet P (December 2003). "The power and promise of population genomics: from genotyping to genome typing".

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through a structural genomics effort often (but not always) comes before anything is known regarding the protein function. This raises new challenges in

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The DNA sequence assembly alone is of little value without additional analysis. Genome annotation is the process of attaching biological information to

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has come to refer generally to the study of large, comprehensive biological data sets. While the growth in the use of the term has led some scientists (

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to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes. Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and

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of a population or whether an individual is heterozygous for a recessive inherited genetic disorder. By using genomic data to evaluate the effects of

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Fiers W, Contreras R, Haegemann G, Rogiers R, Van de Voorde A, Van Heuverswyn H, et al. (May 1978). "Complete nucleotide sequence of SV40 DNA".

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The Illumina dye sequencing method is based on reversible dye-terminators and was developed in 1996 at the Geneva Biomedical Research Institute, by

7464: 1268:, if the nucleotide is complementary to the template strand it will be incorporated and a hydrogen ion will be released. This release triggers an 3128:

Sanger F, Air GM, Barrell BG, Brown NL, Coulson AR, Fiddes CA, et al. (February 1977). "Nucleotide sequence of bacteriophage phi X174 DNA".

1647:. Epigenetic modifications play an important role in gene expression and regulation, and are involved in numerous cellular processes such as in 1103:

sequencers has come within reach of the average academic laboratory. On the whole, genome sequencing approaches fall into two broad categories,

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Yue GH, Lo LC, Zhu ZY, Lin G, Feng F (April 2006). "The complete nucleotide sequence of the mitochondrial genome of Tetraodon nigroviridis".

3084: 2601: 2576: 2481: 2450: 1655:. The study of epigenetics on a global level has been made possible only recently through the adaptation of genomic high-throughput assays. 7780: 7322: 1201:

between two nucleotides, causing DNA polymerase to cease extension of DNA when a ddNTP is incorporated. The ddNTPs may be radioactively or

658:. This involved two closely related methods that generated short oligonucleotides with defined 3' termini. These could be fractionated by 8007: 7166: 2921:

Min Jou W, Haegeman G, Ysebaert M, Fiers W (May 1972). "Nucleotide sequence of the gene coding for the bacteriophage MS2 coat protein".

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Sams, K.L; Mukai, C; Marks, B.A; Mittal, C; Demeter, E.A; Nelissen, S; Grenier, J.K; Tate, A.E; Ahmed, F; Coonrod, S.A (October 2022).

7337: 7131: 6738: 7508: 4310:"A tale of three next generation sequencing platforms: comparison of Ion Torrent, Pacific Biosciences and Illumina MiSeq sequencers" 2130: 1962: 6683: 2811:

Holley RW, Apgar J, Everett GA, Madison JT, Marquisee M, Merrill SH, et al. (March 1965). "Structure of a Ribonucleic Acid".

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samples. The broad field may also be referred to as environmental genomics, ecogenomics or community genomics. While traditional

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Illumina Genome Analyzer II System. Illumina technologies have set the standard for high-throughput massively parallel sequencing.

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Gallego, L.D; Schneider, M; Mittal, C; Romanuska, Anete; Gudino Carrillo, R.M; Schubert, T; Pugh, B.F; Kohler, A (March 2020).

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is represented in the reconstructed sequence; the average number of reads by which a genome is over-sampled is referred to as

8000: 2337:"Rise, fall and resurrection of chromosome territories: a historical perspective. Part I. The rise of chromosome territories" 1974: 357: 4514:

Sanger F, Coulson AR (May 1975). "A rapid method for determining sequences in DNA by primed synthesis with DNA polymerase".

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The need for reproducibility and efficient management of the large amount of data associated with genome projects mean that

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for which a total genome sequence is available. 15 of these cyanobacteria come from the marine environment. These are six

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nucleotides, then the dye along with the terminal 3' blocker is chemically removed from the DNA, allowing the next cycle.

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of a human, providing a simplified overview of the human genome. It is a graphical representation of the idealized human

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who developed the first tools for the medical interpretation of a human genome. The Genomes2People research program at

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and Harvard Medical School was established in 2012 to conduct empirical research in translating genomics into health.

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For much of its history, the technology underlying shotgun sequencing was the classical chain-termination method or '

392:, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration. In contrast to 3606:

Goffeau A, Barrell BG, Bussey H, Davis RW, Dujon B, Feldmann H, et al. (October 1996). "Life with 6000 genes".

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An ABI PRISM 3100 Genetic Analyzer. Such capillary sequencers automated early large-scale genome sequencing efforts.

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The number of genome projects has increased as technological improvements continue to lower the cost of sequencing.

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The high demand for low-cost sequencing has driven the development of high-throughput sequencing technologies that

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and Laurent Farinelli. In this method, DNA molecules and primers are first attached on a slide and amplified with

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the genomes of various organisms, but the knowledge of full genomes has created the possibility for the field of

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they have a high error rate at approximately 1 percent. Typically the short fragments, called reads, result from

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Frankham R (1 September 2010). "Challenges and opportunities of genetic approaches to biological conservation".

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Satzinger H (March 2008). "Theodor and Marcella Boveri: chromosomes and cytoplasm in heredity and development".

1588:. This genome-based approach allows for a high-throughput method of structure determination by a combination of 643:

shared half of the 1980 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for Independently developing methods for the sequencing of DNA.

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of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism. Genes may direct the production of

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Gladyshev VN, Zhang Y (2013). "Chapter 16 Comparative Genomics Analysis of the Metallomes". In Banci L (ed.).

1209:. Typically, these machines can sequence up to 96 DNA samples in a single batch (run) in up to 48 runs a day. 758:(1.8 Mb [megabase]) in 1995. The following year a consortium of researchers from laboratories across 726:

The advent of these technologies resulted in a rapid intensification in the scope and speed of completion of

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genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of

7006: 6878: 2216: 2003: 1718: 1702: 1614: 1218: 1079:). Third, the genome sequence is annotated at several levels: DNA, protein, gene pathways, or comparatively. 845: 6686:

A free, self-study course in genomic medicine. Resources include audio lectures and selected lecture notes.

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Ankeny RA (June 2003). "Sequencing the genome from nematode to human: changing methods, changing science".

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Allendorf FW, Hohenlohe PA, Luikart G (October 2010). "Genomics and the future of conservation genetics".

5679: 5600:"Environmental shotgun sequencing: its potential and challenges for studying the hidden world of microbes" 3411:"The complete nucleotide sequence of the tobacco chloroplast genome: its gene organization and expression" 2140: 2089:

to use genomic methods to identify relationships between patterns of environmental and genetic variation.

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Finished genomes are defined as having a single contiguous sequence with no ambiguities representing each

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Multiple, fragmented sequence reads must be assembled together on the basis of their overlapping areas.

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Shinozaki K, Ohme M, Tanaka M, Wakasugi T, Hayashida N, Matsubayashi T, et al. (September 1986).

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Abecasis GR, Auton A, Brooks LD, DePristo MA, Durbin RM, Handsaker RE, et al. (November 2012).

3660: 1663: 8120: 8115: 7810: 7680: 7438: 7428: 7388: 7288: 7268: 7161: 7156: 6996: 6970: 6828: 6815: 6776: 5229:"Towards a comprehensive structural coverage of completed genomes: a structural genomics viewpoint" 5113: 2166: 2150: 2040: 2026: 1687: 1567: 1543: 1497: 1480: 1390: 1198: 876: 576: 292: 272: 237: 207: 164: 158: 149: 121: 6137:"Top U.S. medical centers roll out DNA sequencing clinics for healthy (and often wealthy) clients" 4973:

Chain PS, Grafham DV, Fulton RS, Fitzgerald MG, Hostetler J, Muzny D, et al. (October 2009).

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Mavromatis K, Land ML, Brettin TS, Quest DJ, Copeland A, Clum A, et al. (2012). Liu Z (ed.).

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Dewey FE, Chen R, Cordero SP, Ormond KE, Caleshu C, Karczewski KJ, et al. (September 2011).

5531: 5352: 5105: 5055: 4716: 3850: 3639: 3588: 3537: 3483: 3388: 3161: 3057: 3006: 2954: 2844: 2317: 2274: 2135: 2086: 2081: 1602: 1464: 1341: 1328: 1151: 1132: 695: 556: 505: 489: 287: 282: 257: 179: 20: 6660: 6611: 6603: 5551:"Impact of culture-independent studies on the emerging phylogenetic view of bacterial diversity" 8197: 8073: 8057: 7910: 7790: 7645: 7482: 7413: 7403: 7393: 7227: 7117: 7001: 6810: 6724: 6607: 6599: 6592: 6566: 6541: 6490: 6455: 6402: 6367: 6289: 6246: 6195: 6117: 6068: 6037:"Phased whole-genome genetic risk in a family quartet using a major allele reference sequence" 6017: 5968: 5919: 5878: 5835: 5810: 5759: 5734: 5683: 5654: 5631: 5580: 5523: 5488: 5437: 5378: 5344: 5309: 5260: 5209: 5199: 5168: 5097: 5047: 5012: 4875: 4814: 4765: 4708: 4665: 4590: 4531: 4496: 4442: 4393: 4341: 4259: 4202: 4122: 4095: 4042: 4016: 3967: 3908: 3842: 3782: 3743:

Wu D, Hugenholtz P, Mavromatis K, Pukall R, Dalin E, Ivanova NN, et al. (December 2009).

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Laird PW (March 2010). "Principles and challenges of genomewide DNA methylation analysis".

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Nirenberg M, Leder P, Bernfield M, Brimacombe R, Trupin J, Rottman F, O'Neal C (May 1965).

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that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects (such as

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to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.

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Dewey FE, Grove ME, Pan C, Goldstein BA, Bernstein JA, Chaib H, et al. (March 2014).

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An example of a protein structure determined by the Midwest Center for Structural Genomics

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Franklin RE, Gosling RG (April 1953). "Molecular configuration in sodium thymonucleate".

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of a population. Population genomic methods are used for many different fields including

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Most of the microorganisms whose genomes have been completely sequenced are problematic

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Quail MA, Smith M, Coupland P, Otto TD, Harris SR, Connor TR, et al. (July 2012).

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The growth of genomic knowledge has enabled increasingly sophisticated applications of

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The cost in USD to sequence a 3,000 Mb (human-sized) genome on a log-transformed scale.

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The field also includes studies of intragenomic (within the genome) phenomena such as

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Ashley EA, Butte AJ, Wheeler MT, Chen R, Klein TE, Dewey FE, et al. (May 2010).

5566: 5137:

Flicek P, Ahmed I, Amode MR, Barrell D, Beal K, Brent S, et al. (January 2013).

4527: 3643: 2186: 1937: 1863: 1829: 1823: 1796: 1785: 1763: 1743: 1206: 960: 896: 759: 735: 679: 668: 525: 6502: 6379: 5109: 5059: 4720: 3854: 3592: 2848: 2321: 536:

sequence of insulin in 1955, nucleic acid sequencing became a major target of early

7900: 7880: 7845: 7840: 7830: 7825: 7805: 7785: 7695: 7665: 7625: 7605: 7595: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7383: 7263: 6900: 6861: 6793: 6703: 6301: 5720: 5535: 5356: 3873:"Dog Genome Assembled: Canine Genome Now Available to Research Community Worldwide" 3541: 3487: 3392: 3165: 3061: 3010: 2958: 2278: 2181: 2068: 2052: 1941: 1714: 1691: 1673: 1531: 1408: 1295: 1244: 1202: 1005: 951: 927: 913: 752:(315 kb) was sequenced. The first free-living organism to be sequenced was that of 738:(16,568 bp, about 16.6 kb [kilobase]), was reported in 1981, and the first 572: 564: 560: 473: 267: 6562: 3193: 2832: 2703: 1335:

sequence in order to reconstruct the original sequence. This is needed as current

6625: 6336: 6053: 5616: 4575: 3627: 2864:"RNA codewords and protein synthesis, VII. On the general nature of the RNA code" 1315:

Paired end reads of next generation sequencing data mapped to a reference genome.

8141: 7950: 7945: 7915: 7870: 7815: 7755: 7740: 7735: 7700: 7660: 7550: 7540: 7535: 7363: 6873: 6805: 5954: 2155: 2145: 1958: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1626: 1301:

Overlapping reads form contigs; contigs and gaps of known length form scaffolds.

1273: 739: 707: 691: 612: 529: 6674:: Looks at the development and use of the science and technologies of genomics. 5473: 4832: 4800: 4751: 3280:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

3221:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2868:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2468: 2392: 2115: 770:

announced the completion of the first complete genome sequence of a eukaryote,

674:, completing the first fully sequenced DNA-based genome. The refinement of the 8156: 8151: 8044: 7935: 7930: 7875: 7860: 7800: 7765: 7760: 7730: 7690: 7670: 7600: 7580: 7368: 7237: 7217: 7192: 6958: 6905: 6895: 6890: 6441: 5423: 5195: 4245: 3838: 2196: 2176: 2111: 2056: 1904: 1835: 1632: 1551: 1539: 1265: 1248: 1147: 1098:, centralized facilities (ranging from large independent institutions such as 1021: 1001: 968: 743: 544:

and colleagues published the first nucleic acid sequence ever determined, the

533: 485: 429: 197: 111: 91: 66: 4326: 4126: 3723: 1381:

tractable because they try to find a Eulerian path through a deBruijn graph.

869:

is used for many developmental studies on the molecular level, and the plant

8048: 7850: 7835: 7820: 7770: 7745: 7017:

Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time of flight mass spectrometer

6885: 6637: 4998: 4428: 4222:"An interdependent metabolic patchwork in the nested symbiosis of mealybugs" 3576: 3241: 2336: 2171: 1998: 1925: 1911: 1900: 1888: 1845: 1636: 1435: 1045: 990: 789: 711: 671: 624: 592: 433: 425: 154: 7992: 6545: 6494: 6459: 6371: 6293: 6250: 6121: 6103: 6072: 6021: 5972: 5923: 5882: 5814: 5738: 5635: 5527: 5492: 5441: 5348: 5313: 5264: 5245: 5213: 5172: 5101: 5051: 5016: 4879: 4818: 4769: 4712: 4669: 4594: 4500: 4379: 4345: 4263: 4206: 4099: 4020: 3971: 3846: 3786: 3444: 3201: 2888: 2840: 2797: 2756: 2721: 2672: 2532: 2410: 2352: 2313: 2270: 1309: 5914: 5897: 5873: 5856: 5584: 5154: 4535: 4446: 4080: 3635: 3584: 3533: 3384: 3300: 3002: 2950: 2907: 8052: 7940: 7865: 7795: 7720: 7545: 7408: 7222: 7212: 7140: 6668:: The first Korean Genome published and the sequence is available freely. 6416: 5796: 4644:"Advanced sequencing technologies and their wider impact in microbiology" 4482: 4397: 4188: 3319: 3260: 3157: 3053: 2206: 1933: 1914:

chromosome pairs, both the female (XX) and male (XY) versions of the two

1772: 1747: 1683: 1376:), making it less favourable for short-read NGS technologies. Within the 1194: 1170: 1025: 1017: 972: 964: 850: 820: 785: 501: 405: 393: 96: 86: 41: 26:"Genome biology" redirects here. For the journal with the same name, see 6173:"NIH-funded genome centers to accelerate precision medicine discoveries" 3953: 3768: 384:

focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of

8136: 7955: 7685: 7555: 6846: 6527: 5295: 4785:"Massively parallel sequencing: the next big thing in genetic medicine" 4660: 4643: 4617:. San Diego, California, USA: Illumina, Inc. p. 12. Archived from 2514: 2064: 1892: 1705:, early environmental gene sequencing cloned specific genes (often the 1515: 1456: 1373: 1139: 781: 649:

In addition to his seminal work on the amino acid sequence of insulin,

584: 549: 7493: 6512:"Translating cancer genomes and transcriptomes for precision oncology" 1530:, as opposed to the static aspects of the genomic information such as 1161:', which is based on the selective incorporation of chain-terminating 7620: 7232: 7207: 6088:"Clinical interpretation and implications of whole-genome sequencing" 5340: 5043: 4011: 3986: 3525: 3479: 3376: 3149: 3045: 2994: 2942: 2772:"Nucleotide sequences in the yeast alanine transfer ribonucleic acid" 2617: 2262: 2044: 2008: 1759: 1585: 1419: 1344: 1181: 1013: 956: 763: 568: 441: 385: 106: 81: 6711: 6363: 6285: 6241: 6216: 5753: 5519: 5093: 5030:

Stein L (July 2001). "Genome annotation: from sequence to biology".

2369:"A high-resolution protein architecture of the budding yeast genome" 2305: 1012:

is used to address the objects of study of such fields, such as the

504:

on the mapping of the human genome in 1986. First as the name for a

6192:

Regenesis: how synthetic biology will reinvent nature and ourselves

5829: 5703:

Canchaya C, Proux C, Fournous G, Bruttin A, Brüssow H (June 2003).

1713:

in a natural sample. Such work revealed that the vast majority of

587:) were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for 5400:"Phase separation directs ubiquitination of gene-body nucleosomes" 3745:"A phylogeny-driven genomic encyclopaedia of Bacteria and Archaea" 1882: 1767: 1662: 1471:

consists of attaching biological information to genomic elements.

1269: 1234: 1122: 980: 950: 935:

individuals have been sequenced, partly under the auspices of the

798: 793: 777: 767: 580: 4413:"Shotgun DNA sequencing using cloned DNase I-generated fragments" 3930:"An integrated map of genetic variation from 1,092 human genomes" 3872: 3712:"Scientists Start a Genomic Catalog of Earth's Abundant Microbes" 2688:"A decade of GigaScience: A perspective on conservation genetics" 19:

This article is about the scientific field. For the journal, see

6426:"Genomics meets proteomics: identifying the culprits in disease" 6401:(3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. p. 544. 1755: 1511: 1415:

identifying portions of the genome that do not code for proteins

596: 552: 7996: 7497: 7113: 6720: 4975:"Genomics. Genome project standards in a new era of sequencing" 849:

has been a very important tool (notably in early pre-molecular

7202: 7197: 5190:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 453. pp. v–vi. 1635:

modifications on the genetic material of a cell, known as the

1463:

consists of the identification of genomic elements, primarily

1332: 389: 76: 71: 4115:"Here"s an Omical Tale: Scientists Discover Spreading Suffix" 3102:"Nobel lecture: Determination of nucleotide sequences in DNA" 1932:

Genomics has provided applications in many fields, including

1550:

during various conditions. The most important tools here are

5831:

The Cyanobacteria: Molecular Biology, Genomics and Evolution

5327:

Brenner SE (October 2001). "A tour of structural genomics".

4955: 811:

The cost in US Dollars (USD) to sequence one million bases.

807:

Exponential growth of genome sequence databases since 1995.

7109: 6716: 6217:"Synthetic genomes: The next step for the synthetic genome" 1997:

announced the creation of a partially synthetic species of

1592:. The principal difference between structural genomics and 996:

informally refers to a field of study in biology ending in

575:

and his team at the Laboratory of Molecular Biology of the

4364:"A strategy of DNA sequencing employing computer programs" 6654: 6177:

National Institutes of Health: All of Us Research Program

5937:

Lu YF, Goldstein DB, Angrist M, Cavalleri G (July 2014).

4467:"Genome assembly reborn: recent computational challenges" 2445:(10th ed.). San Francisco: Pearson Education. 2012. 1973:

opened a Preventive Genomics Clinic in August 2019, with

1746:

have played and continue to play a key role in bacterial

1363:

Assembly can be broadly categorized into two approaches:

567:

and were able to determine the sequences of 54 out of 64

4937: 4611:

An Introduction to Next-Generation Sequencing Technology

4064:"Badomics words and the power and peril of the ome-meme" 3903:

Drawing the map of life: inside the Human Genome Project

2647:"The wholeness in suffix -omics, -omes, and the word om" 1535:

rather than a more traditional "gene-by-gene" approach.

742:

genomes followed in 1986. In 1992, the first eukaryotic

6557:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 12. Springer. 2770:

Holley RW, Everett GA, Madison JT, Zamir A (May 1965).

923:) are all important model animals in medical research. 6648: 2476:. Macmillan Science Library. Macmillan Reference USA. 1450:

Traditionally, the basic level of annotation is using

1433:

Automatic annotation tools try to perform these steps

1176:. Recently, shotgun sequencing has been supplanted by 5988:"Clinical assessment incorporating a personal genome" 2499:"Genomics and proteomics in solving brain complexity" 8129: 8108: 8092: 8066: 7964: 7452: 7351: 7302: 7246: 7185: 7040: 6989: 6949: 6837: 6754: 6179:. National Institutes of Health. 25 September 2018. 5939:"Personalized medicine and human genetic diversity" 5676:

Metagenomics: Current Innovations and Future Trends

5549:Hugenholtz P, Goebel BM, Pace NR (September 1998). 4173:"Making the most of "omics" for symbiosis research" 1538:A major branch of genomics is still concerned with 1429:

attaching biological information to these elements.

1256:rate of the camera. The camera takes images of the 528:'s publication of the structure of DNA in 1953 and 4275: 4273: 3900: 3217:"DNA sequencing with chain-terminating inhibitors" 2564: 2467: 6585:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of September 2024 ( 6469:"Cancer genomics and pathology: all together now" 3215:Sanger F, Nicklen S, Coulson AR (December 1977). 520:'s confirmation of the helical structure of DNA, 5375:Epigenetics: the ultimate mystery of inheritance 3894: 3892: 1631:Epigenomics is the study of the complete set of 955:General schema showing the relationships of the 436:(hybrid vigour), and other interactions between 5368: 5366: 2624:(Third ed.). Oxford University Press. 2008 1180:methods, especially for large-scale, automated 875:is a model organism for flowering plants. The 6161:. The Dark Intelligence Group. 3 January 2020. 5651:Metagenomics: Theory, Methods and Applications 5227:Marsden RL, Lewis TA, Orengo CA (March 2007). 4783:Tucker T, Marra M, Friedman JM (August 2009). 4357: 4355: 4032: 4030: 3331: 3329: 3123: 3121: 2571:(2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. 2558: 2556: 2554: 2552: 2550: 2548: 2546: 2544: 2542: 2047:-wide effects to improve our understanding of 1758:structure and gene regulation. Also the first 8008: 7509: 7125: 6732: 5755:Bacteriophage: Genetics and Molecular Biology 4683:Church GM (January 2006). "Genomes for all". 2497:Kadakkuzha BM, Puthanveettil SV (July 2013). 1613:, i.e. determining protein function from its 678:method resulted in the chain-termination, or 496:), over beers with Jim Womack, Tom Shows and 358: 8: 6626:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4860:Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 4220:McCutcheon JP, von Dohlen CD (August 2011). 3987:"Genomics: In search of rare human variants" 508:and then as a whole new science discipline. 388:. A genome is an organism's complete set of 7012:Matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization 6684:MIT OpenCourseWare HST.512 Genomic Medicine 5943:Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine 4460: 4458: 4456: 2427:. World Health Organization. Archived from 1467:and their localisation, or gene structure. 899:compared to most species. The mammals dog ( 8100:International Society of Genetic Genealogy 8015: 8001: 7993: 7516: 7502: 7494: 7132: 7118: 7110: 7080: 6739: 6725: 6717: 5709:Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews 2425:"WHO definitions of genetics and genomics" 1580:Structural genomics seeks to describe the 730:. The first complete genome sequence of a 432:(one gene affecting more than one trait), 365: 351: 32: 7982:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry 6692:Machine learning approaches to genomics. 6535: 6484: 6449: 6240: 6111: 6062: 6052: 6011: 5962: 5913: 5872: 5804: 5728: 5625: 5615: 5574: 5482: 5472: 5431: 5303: 5254: 5244: 5162: 5006: 4808: 4759: 4659: 4584: 4574: 4490: 4436: 4387: 4335: 4325: 4253: 4196: 4089: 4079: 4010: 3961: 3776: 3434: 3309: 3299: 3250: 3240: 2897: 2887: 2787: 2711: 2662: 2522: 2400: 1754:. Historically, they were used to define 1483:have important applications in genomics. 1444: 1032:as used in molecular biology refers to a 5896:O'Donnell CJ, Nabel EG (December 2011). 5834:(1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. 5758:(1st ed.). Caister Academic Press. 5752:McGrath S, van Sinderen D, eds. (2007). 4853:"Next-generation DNA sequencing methods" 4734:ten Bosch JR, Grody WW (November 2008). 4041:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3869:National Human Genome Research Institute 1875:to the genomes that have been analyzed. 1571: 1065: 7465:List of genetics research organizations 6424:Stunnenberg HG, Hubner NC (June 2014). 5280:"Expectations from structural genomics" 3342:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2466:Culver KW, Labow MA (8 November 2002). 2233: 1871:, or estimation of the contribution of 1372:assembly is computationally difficult ( 1331:and merging fragments of a much longer 683: 40: 6704:Genomics: Scitable by nature education 6578: 6510:Roychowdhury S, Chinnaiyan AM (2016). 2567:Bioinformatics and functional genomics 1721:methods. Recent studies use "shotgun" 1197:group required for the formation of a 7977:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 7054:European Molecular Biology Laboratory 6661:JCVI Comprehensive Microbial Resource 5278:Brenner SE, Levitt M (January 2000). 4872:10.1146/annurev.genom.9.081307.164359 4171:Chaston J, Douglas AE (August 2012). 3274:Maxam AM, Gilbert W (February 1977). 1899:. It shows dark and white regions on 1094:Historically, sequencing was done in 7: 5898:"Genomics of cardiovascular disease" 5857:"Genomics, health care, and society" 4740:The Journal of Molecular Diagnostics 2021:Population and conservation genomics 1985:Synthetic biology and bioengineering 1903:. Each row is vertically aligned at 1590:experimental and modeling approaches 1584:of every protein encoded by a given 1546:, mainly concerned with patterns of 1411:, and consists of three main steps: 6699:Global map of genomics laboratories 5902:The New England Journal of Medicine 5861:The New England Journal of Medicine 4915:(September–October). Archived from 4648:The Journal of Experimental Biology 4608:Illumina, Inc. (28 February 2012). 3079:(7 ed.). London: McGraw Hill. 2776:The Journal of Biological Chemistry 1232:operations may be run in parallel. 746:, chromosome III of brewer's yeast 603:DNA-sequencing technology developed 563:revealed the triplet nature of the 6657:: US government's genome institute 5828:Herrero A, Flores E, eds. (2008). 4789:American Journal of Human Genetics 3427:10.1002/j.1460-2075.1986.tb04464.x 2651:Journal of Biomolecular Techniques 2594:Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon 2341:European Journal of Histochemistry 1843:-fixing filamentous cyanobacteria 1502:Functional genomics is a field of 1475:Sequencing pipelines and databases 859:is an often used simple model for 14: 5186:Keith JM (2008). Keith JM (ed.). 4705:10.1038/scientificamerican0106-46 3276:"A new method for sequencing DNA" 2131:Hi-C (genomic analysis technique) 1686:material recovered directly from 1594:traditional structural prediction 428:(effect of one gene on another), 380:is an interdisciplinary field of 8170: 8169: 7478: 7477: 7092: 7091: 7079: 6486:10.1111/j.1440-1827.2012.02855.x 5715:(2): 238–76, table of contents. 5567:10.1128/JB.180.18.4765-4774.1998 4909:"Powering Preventative Medicine" 4039:Genomes and what to make of them 2114: 1867:into the evolutionary origin of 1308: 1294: 623: 611: 599:in 1976 and 1978, respectively. 332: 331: 218: 217: 48: 7032:Chromosome conformation capture 6712:Learn All About Genetics Online 4146:Scudellari M (1 October 2011). 571:in their experiments. In 1972, 396:, which refers to the study of 6651:: An openfree genomics portal. 5721:10.1128/MMBR.67.2.238-276.2003 4282:"Benchtop sequencers ship off" 2158:, an mRNA profiling technology 2043:. Population genomics studies 1975:Massachusetts General Hospital 484:was coined by Tom Roderick, a 1: 7060:National Institutes of Health 6678:Institute for Genome Sciences 6563:10.1007/978-94-007-5561-10_16 6004:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)60452-7 4280:Baker M (14 September 2012). 3710:Zimmer C (29 December 2009). 3194:10.1016/j.jbiotec.2003.08.008 2833:10.1126/science.147.3664.1462 2789:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)97435-1 2749:10.1016/S0160-9327(03)00061-9 1993:. In 2010 researchers at the 1977:following a month later. The 1678:Metagenomics is the study of 835:) has long been an important 7424:Missing heritability problem 6337:10.1016/j.biocon.2010.05.011 6135:Robbins R (16 August 2019). 6054:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002280 5855:Hudson KL (September 2011). 5617:10.1371/journal.pbio.0050082 4960:Oxford Nanopore Technologies 4576:10.1371/journal.pone.0048837 4528:10.1016/0022-2836(75)90213-2 4516:Journal of Molecular Biology 3907:. New York NY: Basic Books. 3628:10.1126/science.274.5287.546 2592:Liddell HG, Scott R (2013). 1971:Brigham and Women's Hospital 1963:Brigham and Women’s Hospital 1730:of the entire living world. 1528:protein–protein interactions 1418:identifying elements on the 1327:Sequence assembly refers to 1223:Ion semiconductor sequencing 698:independently developed the 6976:Structure-based drug design 6640:: A BMC journal on Genomics 6227:(7347): 403, 405–403, 408. 6190:Church GM, Regis E (2012). 5955:10.1101/cshperspect.a008581 5149:(Database issue): D48–D55. 4471:Briefings in Bioinformatics 3801:"Human gene number slashed" 3686:"Genome Project Statistics" 3661:"Complete genomes: Viruses" 3614:(5287): 546, 563–546, 567. 3336:Darden L, Tabery J (2010). 2704:10.1093/gigascience/giac055 2335:Cremer T, Cremer C (2006). 1649:differentiation/development 1028:) respectively. The suffix 480:as early as 1926, the term 8214: 6467:Shibata T (October 2012). 5779:Fouts DE (November 2006). 5653:. Caister Academic Press. 5474:10.1186/s12958-022-01018-w 4801:10.1016/j.ajhg.2009.06.022 4752:10.2353/jmoldx.2008.080027 4113:Hotz RL (13 August 2012). 4037:Barnes B, Dupré J (2008). 3985:Nielsen R (October 2010). 2645:Yadav SP (December 2007). 2393:10.1038/s41586-021-03314-8 1923: 1895:karyotype, with annotated 1739:Viruses and bacteriophages 1671: 1624: 1565: 1508:genome sequencing projects 1495: 1400: 1283: 1216: 1213:High-throughput sequencing 1205:labelled for detection in 1178:high-throughput sequencing 1130: 1087: 1055: 978: 792:, of which about half are 728:genome sequencing projects 702:method (also known as the 25: 18: 8165: 8030: 7531: 7473: 7147: 7075: 7066:Wellcome Sanger Institute 6442:10.1007/s00439-013-1376-2 6194:. New York: Basic Books. 5424:10.1038/s41586-020-2097-z 5196:10.1007/978-1-60327-429-6 5073:Brent MR (January 2008). 4246:10.1016/j.cub.2011.06.051 3839:10.1080/10425170600700378 2622:Oxford English Dictionary 2162:Genomics of domestication 2051:so that we may learn the 1995:J. Craig Venter Institute 1611:structural bioinformatics 1605:, the determination of a 8024:Genealogical DNA testing 7022:Microfluidic-based tools 6867:Human Connectome Project 6799:Human Microbiome Project 6555:Metallomics and the Cell 6399:Introduction to Genomics 6352:Nature Reviews. Genetics 6274:Nature Reviews. Genetics 5508:Nature Reviews. Genetics 5329:Nature Reviews. Genetics 5082:Nature Reviews. Genetics 5032:Nature Reviews. Genetics 4411:Anderson S (July 1981). 4327:10.1186/1471-2164-13-341 3182:Journal of Biotechnology 2686:O'Brien SJ (June 2022). 2294:Nature Reviews. Genetics 1873:horizontal gene transfer 1803:Trichodesmium erythraeum 1784:At present there are 24 1036:of some sort; similarly 887:spotted green pufferfish 832:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 749:Saccharomyces cerevisiae 656:Plus and Minus technique 512:Early sequencing efforts 7007:Electrospray ionization 6879:Human Epigenome Project 6690:ENCODE threads explorer 6565:(inactive 2024-09-12). 6473:Pathology International 6317:Biological Conservation 5598:Eisen JA (March 2007). 5555:Journal of Bacteriology 5377:. New York: WW Norton. 4999:10.1126/science.1180614 4177:The Biological Bulletin 3649:(subscription required) 3577:10.1126/science.7542800 3398:(subscription required) 3242:10.1073/pnas.74.12.5463 2634:(subscription required) 2472:. In Robinson R (ed.). 2217:Whole genome sequencing 2004:Mycoplasma laboratorium 1582:3-dimensional structure 1481:computational pipelines 1219:Illumina dye sequencing 861:multicellular organisms 846:Drosophila melanogaster 555:. Extending this work, 7591:Biological engineering 7048:DNA Data Bank of Japan 6964:Human proteome project 6767:Computational genomics 6104:10.1001/jama.2014.1717 5785:Nucleic Acids Research 5680:Caister Academic Press 5461:Reprod Biol Endocrinol 5246:10.1186/1471-2105-8-86 5143:Nucleic Acids Research 4417:Nucleic Acids Research 4368:Nucleic Acids Research 4362:Staden R (June 1979). 4062:Eisen JA (July 2012). 3077:Principles of genetics 2889:10.1073/pnas.53.5.1161 2596:. Martino Fine Books. 2141:Computational genomics 2098:evolutionary processes 2039:traditionally used in 1929: 1794:strains, seven marine 1762:to be sequenced was a 1725:or massively parallel 1715:microbial biodiversity 1669: 1577: 1240: 1128: 1100:Joint Genome Institute 1080: 985:Human proteome project 976: 947:The "omics" revolution 892:Tetraodon nigroviridis 856:Caenorhabditis elegans 843:, while the fruit fly 826:Haemophilus influenzae 816: 755:Haemophilus influenzae 532:'s publication of the 16:Discipline in genetics 7676:Developmental biology 7651:Computational biology 7631:Cellular microbiology 7460:List of genetic codes 7027:Isotope affinity tags 6981:Expression proteomics 5915:10.1056/NEJMra1105239 5874:10.1056/NEJMra1010517 5674:Marco D, ed. (2011). 5649:Marco D, ed. (2010). 4429:10.1093/nar/9.13.3015 4081:10.1186/2047-217X-1-6 3690:Entrez Genome Project 3344:(Fall 2010 ed.). 3340:. In Zalta EN (ed.). 3301:10.1073/pnas.74.2.560 2014:Mycoplasma genitalium 1924:Further information: 1886: 1809:Crocosphaera watsonii 1698:rely upon cultivated 1666: 1575: 1469:Functional annotation 1461:Structural annotation 1258:fluorescently labeled 1238: 1126: 1069: 1008:. The related suffix 989:The English-language 954: 930:was completed by the 926:A rough draft of the 802: 500:at a meeting held in 318:Personalized medicine 312:Personalized medicine 175:Quantitative genetics 170:Mendelian inheritance 7896:Reproductive biology 7781:Mathematical biology 7706:Evolutionary biology 7656:Conservation biology 7359:Behavioural genetics 6787:Human Genome Project 6772:Comparative genomics 6680:: Genomics research. 6215:Baker M (May 2011). 4380:10.1093/nar/6.7.2601 4189:10.1086/BBLv223n1p21 2503:Molecular BioSystems 2443:Concepts of genetics 2077:fisheries management 2073:conservation biology 2061:evolutionary biology 1920:mitochondrial genome 1711:profile of diversity 1645:histone modification 1000:, such as genomics, 937:1000 Genomes Project 932:Human Genome Project 872:Arabidopsis thaliana 732:eukaryotic organelle 538:molecular biologists 238:Branches of genetics 8121:Surname DNA project 8116:Genographic Project 7681:Ecological genetics 7525:Branches of biology 7439:Population genomics 7429:Molecular evolution 7389:Genetic engineering 6997:2-D electrophoresis 6971:Call-map proteomics 6829:Structural genomics 6816:Population genomics 6777:Functional genomics 6329:2010BCons.143.1919F 6233:2011Natur.473..403B 5998:(9725): 1525–1535. 5705:"Prophage genomics" 5416:2020Natur.579..592G 5373:Francis RC (2011). 5155:10.1093/nar/gks1236 4991:2009Sci...326..236C 4697:2006SciAm.294a..46C 4685:Scientific American 4654:(Pt 9): 1518–1525. 4642:Hall N (May 2007). 4567:2012PLoSO...748837M 4465:Pop M (July 2009). 4238:2011CBio...21.1366M 4119:Wall Street Journal 4003:2010Natur.467.1050N 3997:(7319): 1050–1051. 3954:10.1038/nature11632 3946:2012Natur.491...56T 3899:McElheny V (2010). 3769:10.1038/nature08656 3761:2009Natur.462.1056W 3755:(7276): 1056–1060. 3620:1996Sci...274..546G 3569:1995Sci...269..496F 3518:1992Natur.357...38O 3472:1986Natur.322..572O 3369:1981Natur.290..457A 3338:"Molecular Biology" 3292:1977PNAS...74..560M 3233:1977PNAS...74.5463S 3142:1977Natur.265..687S 3075:Tamarin RH (2004). 3038:1978Natur.273..113F 2987:1976Natur.260..500F 2935:1972Natur.237...82J 2880:1965PNAS...53.1161N 2825:1965Sci...147.1462H 2819:(3664): 1462–1465. 2385:2021Natur.592..309R 2255:1953Natur.171..740F 2167:Genetics in fiction 2151:Functional genomics 2085:has developed from 2041:population genetics 2027:Population genomics 2007:, derived from the 1907:level. It shows 22 1897:bands and sub-bands 1776:bacterial genomes. 1717:had been missed by 1709:gene) to produce a 1599:structural homology 1568:Structural genomics 1562:Structural genomics 1544:functional genomics 1498:Functional genomics 1492:Functional genomics 1422:, a process called 1359:Assembly approaches 1199:phosphodiester bond 917:), and chimpanzee ( 877:Japanese pufferfish 577:University of Ghent 457:From the Greek ΓΕΝ 444:within the genome. 208:Genetic engineering 165:Population genetics 36:Part of a series on 7972:History of biology 7906:Structural biology 7891:Relational biology 7716:Generative biology 7711:Freshwater biology 7399:Genetic monitoring 6951:Structural biology 6762:Cognitive genomics 6631:2009-01-18 at the 6528:10.3322/caac.21329 5797:10.1093/nar/gkl732 5296:10.1110/ps.9.1.197 5233:BMC Bioinformatics 4851:Mardis ER (2008). 4661:10.1242/jeb.001370 4483:10.1093/bib/bbp026 3716:The New York Times 3667:. 17 November 2011 2563:Pevsner J (2009). 2515:10.1039/C3MB25391K 2136:Cognitive genomics 2102:genetic approaches 2087:landscape genetics 2082:landscape genomics 1930: 1922:(at bottom left). 1670: 1603:structural biology 1578: 1342:shotgun sequencing 1241: 1163:dideoxynucleotides 1133:Shotgun sequencing 1129: 1119:Shotgun sequencing 1096:sequencing centers 1081: 977: 817: 710:in chemistry with 696:Harvard University 595:[bp]) and 557:Marshall Nirenberg 490:Jackson Laboratory 180:Molecular genetics 139:History and topics 21:Genomics (journal) 8185: 8184: 8074:Bennett Greenspan 8058:Genetic genealogy 7990: 7989: 7911:Synthetic biology 7791:Molecular biology 7646:Cognitive biology 7491: 7490: 7414:He Jiankui affair 7404:Genetic genealogy 7394:Genetic diversity 7323:the British Isles 7228:Genetic variation 7107: 7106: 7002:Mass spectrometer 6811:Personal genomics 6597:978-94-007-5561-1 6572:978-94-007-5560-4 6408:978-0-19-107085-3 6201:978-0-465-02175-8 6098:(10): 1035–1045. 5908:(22): 2098–2109. 5867:(11): 1033–1041. 5841:978-1-904455-15-8 5791:(20): 5839–5851. 5765:978-1-904455-14-1 5689:978-1-904455-87-5 5660:978-1-904455-54-7 5561:(18): 4765–4774. 5410:(7800): 592–597. 5384:978-0-393-07005-7 5205:978-1-60327-428-9 4985:(5950): 236–237. 4907:Davies K (2011). 4423:(13): 3015–3027. 4232:(16): 1366–1372. 4048:978-0-226-17295-8 3914:978-0-465-04333-0 3807:. 20 October 2004 3563:(5223): 496–512. 3466:(6079): 572–574. 3363:(5806): 457–465. 3227:(12): 5463–5467. 3136:(5596): 687–695. 3100:Sanger F (1980). 3086:978-0-07-124320-9 3032:(5658): 113–120. 2981:(5551): 500–507. 2603:978-1-61427-397-4 2578:978-0-470-08585-1 2483:978-0-02-865606-9 2452:978-0-321-72412-0 2431:on June 30, 2004. 2379:(7853): 309–314. 2192:Personal genomics 2094:genetic diversity 1991:synthetic biology 1918:, as well as the 1859:Lyngbya majuscula 1853:Lyngbya aestuarii 1752:molecular biology 1723:Sanger sequencing 1719:cultivation-based 1696:genome sequencing 1607:protein structure 1504:molecular biology 1403:Genome annotation 1286:Sequence assembly 1272:ion sensor. If a 908:Rattus norvegicus 882:Takifugu rubripes 866:Brachydanio rerio 589:Bacteriophage MS2 518:Rosalind Franklin 494:Bar Harbor, Maine 382:molecular biology 375: 374: 102:Genetic variation 8205: 8173: 8172: 8017: 8010: 8003: 7994: 7636:Chemical biology 7518: 7511: 7504: 7495: 7481: 7480: 7444:Reverse genetics 7419:Medical genetics 7134: 7127: 7120: 7111: 7095: 7094: 7083: 7082: 6926:Pharmacogenomics 6921:Pharmacogenetics 6741: 6734: 6727: 6718: 6694:Nature (journal) 6644:Genomics journal 6591:electronic-book 6590: 6584: 6576: 6549: 6539: 6506: 6488: 6463: 6453: 6420: 6397:Lesk AM (2017). 6384: 6383: 6347: 6341: 6340: 6323:(9): 1922–1923. 6312: 6306: 6305: 6269: 6263: 6262: 6244: 6212: 6206: 6205: 6187: 6181: 6180: 6169: 6163: 6162: 6151: 6145: 6144: 6132: 6126: 6125: 6115: 6083: 6077: 6076: 6066: 6056: 6032: 6026: 6025: 6015: 5983: 5977: 5976: 5966: 5934: 5928: 5927: 5917: 5893: 5887: 5886: 5876: 5852: 5846: 5845: 5825: 5819: 5818: 5808: 5776: 5770: 5769: 5749: 5743: 5742: 5732: 5700: 5694: 5693: 5671: 5665: 5664: 5646: 5640: 5639: 5629: 5619: 5595: 5589: 5588: 5578: 5546: 5540: 5539: 5503: 5497: 5496: 5486: 5476: 5452: 5446: 5445: 5435: 5395: 5389: 5388: 5370: 5361: 5360: 5341:10.1038/35093574 5324: 5318: 5317: 5307: 5275: 5269: 5268: 5258: 5248: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5183: 5177: 5176: 5166: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5124: 5118: 5112:. 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Archived from 4857: 4848: 4842: 4841: 4840: 4836: 4829: 4823: 4822: 4812: 4780: 4774: 4773: 4763: 4731: 4725: 4724: 4680: 4674: 4673: 4663: 4639: 4633: 4632: 4630: 4629: 4623: 4616: 4605: 4599: 4598: 4588: 4578: 4546: 4540: 4539: 4511: 4505: 4504: 4494: 4462: 4451: 4450: 4440: 4408: 4402: 4401: 4391: 4374:(7): 2601–2610. 4359: 4350: 4349: 4339: 4329: 4305: 4299: 4298: 4296: 4295: 4289:Nature News Blog 4286: 4277: 4268: 4267: 4257: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4200: 4168: 4162: 4161: 4159: 4158: 4143: 4137: 4136: 4134: 4133: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4093: 4083: 4059: 4053: 4052: 4034: 4025: 4024: 4014: 4012:10.1038/4671050a 3982: 3976: 3975: 3965: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3906: 3896: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3883: 3871:(14 July 2004). 3865: 3859: 3858: 3822: 3816: 3815: 3813: 3812: 3797: 3791: 3790: 3780: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3730: 3707: 3701: 3700: 3698: 3697: 3692:. 7 October 2011 3682: 3676: 3675: 3673: 3672: 3657: 3651: 3650: 3647: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3526:10.1038/357038a0 3498: 3492: 3491: 3480:10.1038/322572a0 3455: 3449: 3448: 3438: 3421:(9): 2043–2049. 3415:The EMBO Journal 3406: 3400: 3399: 3396: 3377:10.1038/290457a0 3352: 3346: 3345: 3333: 3324: 3323: 3313: 3303: 3271: 3265: 3264: 3254: 3244: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3188:(2–3): 121–133. 3176: 3170: 3169: 3150:10.1038/265687a0 3125: 3116: 3115: 3113: 3112: 3107:. Nobelprize.org 3106: 3097: 3091: 3090: 3072: 3066: 3065: 3046:10.1038/273113a0 3021: 3015: 3014: 2995:10.1038/260500a0 2969: 2963: 2962: 2943:10.1038/237082a0 2918: 2912: 2911: 2901: 2891: 2874:(5): 1161–1168. 2859: 2853: 2852: 2808: 2802: 2801: 2791: 2782:(5): 2122–2128. 2767: 2761: 2760: 2732: 2726: 2725: 2715: 2683: 2677: 2676: 2666: 2642: 2636: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2629: 2614: 2608: 2607: 2589: 2583: 2582: 2570: 2560: 2537: 2536: 2526: 2509:(7): 1807–1821. 2494: 2488: 2487: 2471: 2463: 2457: 2456: 2439: 2433: 2432: 2421: 2415: 2414: 2404: 2363: 2357: 2356: 2332: 2326: 2325: 2289: 2283: 2282: 2263:10.1038/171740a0 2238: 2124: 2119: 2118: 1952:Genomic medicine 1349:gene transcripts 1312: 1298: 902:Canis familiaris 863:. The zebrafish 722:Complete genomes 667:single-stranded 651:Frederick Sanger 637:Frederick Sanger 627: 618:Frederick Sanger 615: 542:Robert W. Holley 476:) was in use in 472:, attributed to 367: 360: 353: 340: 335: 334: 230:Medical genetics 226: 221: 220: 52: 33: 8213: 8212: 8208: 8207: 8206: 8204: 8203: 8202: 8188: 8187: 8186: 8181: 8161: 8147:Family Tree DNA 8125: 8104: 8088: 8062: 8026: 8021: 7991: 7986: 7960: 7921:Systems biology 7886:Quantum biology 7527: 7522: 7492: 7487: 7469: 7448: 7347: 7338:the Middle East 7304:Archaeogenetics 7298: 7242: 7181: 7143: 7138: 7108: 7103: 7071: 7036: 6985: 6945: 6941:Transcriptomics 6931:Systems biology 6916:Paleopolyploidy 6852:Cheminformatics 6833: 6750: 6745: 6708: 6672:GenomicsNetwork 6666:KoreaGenome.org 6633:Wayback Machine 6621: 6616: 6577: 6573: 6552: 6509: 6479:(10): 647–659. 6466: 6423: 6409: 6396: 6392: 6390:Further reading 6387: 6364:10.1038/nrg2844 6358:(10): 697–709. 6349: 6348: 6344: 6314: 6313: 6309: 6286:10.1038/nrg1226 6271: 6270: 6266: 6242:10.1038/473403a 6214: 6213: 6209: 6202: 6189: 6188: 6184: 6171: 6170: 6166: 6153: 6152: 6148: 6134: 6133: 6129: 6085: 6084: 6080: 6047:(9): e1002280. 6034: 6033: 6029: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5936: 5935: 5931: 5895: 5894: 5890: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5842: 5827: 5826: 5822: 5778: 5777: 5773: 5766: 5751: 5750: 5746: 5702: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5673: 5672: 5668: 5661: 5648: 5647: 5643: 5597: 5596: 5592: 5548: 5547: 5543: 5520:10.1038/nrg2732 5505: 5504: 5500: 5454: 5453: 5449: 5397: 5396: 5392: 5385: 5372: 5371: 5364: 5335:(10): 801–809. 5326: 5325: 5321: 5284:Protein Science 5277: 5276: 5272: 5226: 5225: 5221: 5206: 5185: 5184: 5180: 5136: 5135: 5131: 5122: 5120: 5116: 5094:10.1038/nrg2220 5077: 5072: 5071: 5067: 5029: 5028: 5024: 4972: 4971: 4967: 4954: 4953: 4949: 4936: 4935: 4931: 4922: 4920: 4906: 4905: 4901: 4892: 4890: 4886: 4855: 4850: 4849: 4845: 4838: 4831: 4830: 4826: 4782: 4781: 4777: 4733: 4732: 4728: 4682: 4681: 4677: 4641: 4640: 4636: 4627: 4625: 4621: 4614: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4513: 4512: 4508: 4464: 4463: 4454: 4410: 4409: 4405: 4361: 4360: 4353: 4307: 4306: 4302: 4293: 4291: 4284: 4279: 4278: 4271: 4226:Current Biology 4219: 4218: 4214: 4170: 4169: 4165: 4156: 4154: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4131: 4129: 4112: 4111: 4107: 4061: 4060: 4056: 4049: 4036: 4035: 4028: 3984: 3983: 3979: 3940:(7422): 56–65. 3927: 3926: 3922: 3915: 3898: 3897: 3890: 3881: 3879: 3867: 3866: 3862: 3824: 3823: 3819: 3810: 3808: 3799: 3798: 3794: 3742: 3741: 3737: 3728: 3726: 3709: 3708: 3704: 3695: 3693: 3684: 3683: 3679: 3670: 3668: 3659: 3658: 3654: 3648: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3512:(6373): 38–46. 3500: 3499: 3495: 3457: 3456: 3452: 3408: 3407: 3403: 3397: 3354: 3353: 3349: 3335: 3334: 3327: 3273: 3272: 3268: 3214: 3213: 3209: 3178: 3177: 3173: 3127: 3126: 3119: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3099: 3098: 3094: 3087: 3074: 3073: 3069: 3023: 3022: 3018: 2971: 2970: 2966: 2929:(5350): 82–88. 2920: 2919: 2915: 2861: 2860: 2856: 2810: 2809: 2805: 2769: 2768: 2764: 2734: 2733: 2729: 2685: 2684: 2680: 2644: 2643: 2639: 2633: 2627: 2625: 2616: 2615: 2611: 2604: 2591: 2590: 2586: 2579: 2562: 2561: 2540: 2496: 2495: 2491: 2484: 2465: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2441: 2440: 2436: 2423: 2422: 2418: 2365: 2364: 2360: 2334: 2333: 2329: 2306:10.1038/nrg2311 2291: 2290: 2286: 2249:(4356): 740–1. 2240: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2226: 2222:Thomas Roderick 2202:Transcriptomics 2120: 2113: 2110: 2037:microsatellites 2023: 1987: 1967:Broad Institute 1954: 1946:social sciences 1928: 1916:sex chromosomes 1881: 1842: 1818:Prochlorococcus 1791:Prochlorococcus 1782: 1741: 1736: 1676: 1661: 1641:DNA methylation 1629: 1623: 1570: 1564: 1548:gene expression 1500: 1494: 1489: 1477: 1424:gene prediction 1405: 1399: 1387: 1361: 1325: 1324: 1323: 1322: 1318: 1317: 1316: 1313: 1304: 1303: 1302: 1299: 1288: 1282: 1225: 1215: 1174:DNA replication 1135: 1121: 1113:next-generation 1109:high-throughput 1092: 1086: 1060: 1054: 1052:Genome analysis 987: 979:Main articles: 949: 920:Pan troglodytes 841:eukaryotic cell 724: 716:recombinant DNA 704:chemical method 660:electrophoresis 647: 646: 645: 644: 633: 632: 631: 628: 620: 619: 616: 605: 597:Simian virus 40 522:James D. Watson 514: 498:Stephen O’Brien 455: 450: 419:systems biology 371: 330: 323: 322: 313: 305: 304: 303: 302: 251: 243: 242: 234: 212: 193: 185: 184: 140: 132: 131: 118: 117: 116: 60: 31: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8211: 8209: 8201: 8200: 8190: 8189: 8183: 8182: 8180: 8179: 8166: 8163: 8162: 8160: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8139: 8133: 8131: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8123: 8118: 8112: 8110: 8106: 8105: 8103: 8102: 8096: 8094: 8090: 8089: 8087: 8086: 8081: 8076: 8070: 8068: 8064: 8063: 8061: 8060: 8055: 8042: 8040:Types of tests 8037: 8031: 8028: 8027: 8022: 8020: 8019: 8012: 8005: 7997: 7988: 7987: 7985: 7984: 7979: 7974: 7968: 7966: 7962: 7961: 7959: 7958: 7953: 7948: 7943: 7938: 7933: 7928: 7923: 7918: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7813: 7808: 7803: 7798: 7793: 7788: 7783: 7778: 7776:Marine biology 7773: 7768: 7763: 7758: 7753: 7748: 7743: 7738: 7733: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7713: 7708: 7703: 7698: 7693: 7688: 7683: 7678: 7673: 7668: 7663: 7658: 7653: 7648: 7643: 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7613: 7608: 7603: 7598: 7593: 7588: 7586:Bioinformatics 7583: 7578: 7573: 7568: 7563: 7558: 7553: 7548: 7543: 7538: 7532: 7529: 7528: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7513: 7506: 7498: 7489: 7488: 7486: 7485: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7467: 7462: 7456: 7454: 7450: 7449: 7447: 7446: 7441: 7436: 7434:Plant genetics 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7411: 7406: 7401: 7396: 7391: 7386: 7381: 7376: 7374:Genome editing 7371: 7366: 7361: 7355: 7353: 7352:Related topics 7349: 7348: 7346: 7345: 7340: 7335: 7330: 7325: 7320: 7315: 7309: 7307: 7300: 7299: 7297: 7296: 7291: 7286: 7281: 7276: 7274:Immunogenetics 7271: 7266: 7261: 7256: 7250: 7248: 7244: 7243: 7241: 7240: 7235: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7189: 7187: 7186:Key components 7183: 7182: 7180: 7179: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7154: 7148: 7145: 7144: 7139: 7137: 7136: 7129: 7122: 7114: 7105: 7104: 7102: 7101: 7089: 7076: 7073: 7072: 7070: 7069: 7063: 7057: 7051: 7044: 7042: 7038: 7037: 7035: 7034: 7029: 7024: 7019: 7014: 7009: 7004: 6999: 6993: 6991: 6990:Research tools 6987: 6986: 6984: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6967: 6966: 6955: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6944: 6943: 6938: 6936:Toxicogenomics 6933: 6928: 6923: 6918: 6913: 6908: 6903: 6898: 6893: 6888: 6883: 6882: 6881: 6871: 6870: 6869: 6859: 6854: 6849: 6843: 6841: 6839:Bioinformatics 6835: 6834: 6832: 6831: 6826: 6818: 6813: 6808: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6791: 6790: 6789: 6782:Genome project 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6758: 6756: 6752: 6751: 6746: 6744: 6743: 6736: 6729: 6721: 6715: 6714: 6707: 6706: 6701: 6696: 6687: 6681: 6675: 6669: 6663: 6658: 6652: 6646: 6641: 6635: 6622: 6620: 6619:External links 6617: 6615: 6614: 6571: 6550: 6507: 6464: 6436:(6): 689–700. 6430:Human Genetics 6421: 6407: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6385: 6342: 6307: 6280:(12): 981–94. 6264: 6207: 6200: 6182: 6164: 6146: 6127: 6078: 6027: 5978: 5949:(9): a008581. 5929: 5888: 5847: 5840: 5820: 5771: 5764: 5744: 5695: 5688: 5666: 5659: 5641: 5590: 5541: 5514:(3): 191–203. 5498: 5447: 5390: 5383: 5362: 5319: 5290:(1): 197–200. 5270: 5219: 5204: 5188:Bioinformatics 5178: 5139:"Ensembl 2013" 5129: 5065: 5038:(7): 493–503. 5022: 4965: 4947: 4929: 4899: 4843: 4833:US 20050100900 4824: 4795:(2): 142–154. 4775: 4746:(6): 484–492. 4726: 4675: 4634: 4600: 4561:(12): e48837. 4541: 4522:(3): 441–448. 4506: 4477:(4): 354–366. 4452: 4403: 4351: 4300: 4269: 4212: 4163: 4138: 4105: 4054: 4047: 4026: 3977: 3920: 3913: 3888: 3860: 3833:(2): 115–121. 3817: 3792: 3735: 3702: 3677: 3652: 3598: 3547: 3493: 3450: 3401: 3347: 3325: 3286:(2): 560–564. 3266: 3207: 3171: 3117: 3092: 3085: 3067: 3016: 2964: 2913: 2854: 2803: 2762: 2727: 2678: 2637: 2609: 2602: 2584: 2577: 2538: 2489: 2482: 2458: 2451: 2434: 2416: 2358: 2347:(3): 161–176. 2327: 2300:(3): 231–238. 2284: 2232: 2230: 2227: 2225: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2212:Psychogenomics 2209: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2164: 2159: 2153: 2148: 2143: 2138: 2133: 2127: 2126: 2125: 2122:Biology portal 2109: 2106: 2049:microevolution 2022: 2019: 1986: 1983: 1953: 1950: 1880: 1877: 1869:photosynthesis 1864:bacteriophages 1840: 1781: 1778: 1744:Bacteriophages 1740: 1737: 1735: 1734:Model systems 1732: 1727:pyrosequencing 1694:and microbial 1672:Main article: 1660: 1657: 1625:Main article: 1622: 1619: 1566:Main article: 1563: 1560: 1556:bioinformatics 1510:) to describe 1496:Main article: 1493: 1490: 1488: 1487:Research areas 1485: 1476: 1473: 1431: 1430: 1427: 1416: 1401:Main article: 1398: 1395: 1386: 1383: 1360: 1357: 1337:DNA sequencing 1320: 1319: 1314: 1307: 1306: 1305: 1300: 1293: 1292: 1291: 1290: 1289: 1284:Main article: 1281: 1278: 1254:A/D conversion 1214: 1211: 1207:DNA sequencers 1191:DNA polymerase 1167:DNA polymerase 1131:Main article: 1120: 1117: 1115:) sequencing. 1090:DNA Sequencing 1088:Main article: 1085: 1082: 1058:Genome project 1056:Main article: 1053: 1050: 1042:Jonathan Eisen 948: 945: 941:bioinformatics 905:), brown rat ( 837:model organism 723: 720: 688:Walter Gilbert 676:Plus and Minus 664:polyacrylamide 641:Walter Gilbert 635: 634: 630:Walter Gilbert 629: 622: 621: 617: 610: 609: 608: 607: 606: 604: 601: 546:ribonucleotide 513: 510: 454: 451: 449: 446: 415:bioinformatics 411:DNA sequencing 373: 372: 370: 369: 362: 355: 347: 344: 343: 342: 341: 325: 324: 321: 320: 314: 311: 310: 307: 306: 301: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 278:Immunogenetics 275: 270: 265: 260: 254: 253: 252: 249: 248: 245: 244: 241: 240: 233: 232: 227: 210: 205: 203:DNA sequencing 200: 194: 191: 190: 187: 186: 183: 182: 177: 172: 167: 162: 152: 147: 141: 138: 137: 134: 133: 130: 129: 124: 115: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 63: 62: 61: 59:Key components 58: 57: 54: 53: 45: 44: 38: 37: 28:Genome Biology 15: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8210: 8199: 8196: 8195: 8193: 8178: 8177: 8168: 8167: 8164: 8158: 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8134: 8132: 8128: 8122: 8119: 8117: 8114: 8113: 8111: 8107: 8101: 8098: 8097: 8095: 8091: 8085: 8084:Anne Wojcicki 8082: 8080: 8079:Spencer Wells 8077: 8075: 8072: 8071: 8069: 8065: 8059: 8056: 8054: 8050: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8032: 8029: 8025: 8018: 8013: 8011: 8006: 8004: 7999: 7998: 7995: 7983: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7969: 7967: 7963: 7957: 7954: 7952: 7949: 7947: 7944: 7942: 7939: 7937: 7934: 7932: 7929: 7927: 7924: 7922: 7919: 7917: 7914: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7856:Phylogenetics 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7812: 7809: 7807: 7804: 7802: 7799: 7797: 7794: 7792: 7789: 7787: 7784: 7782: 7779: 7777: 7774: 7772: 7769: 7767: 7764: 7762: 7759: 7757: 7754: 7752: 7751:Human biology 7749: 7747: 7744: 7742: 7739: 7737: 7734: 7732: 7729: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7717: 7714: 7712: 7709: 7707: 7704: 7702: 7699: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7689: 7687: 7684: 7682: 7679: 7677: 7674: 7672: 7669: 7667: 7664: 7662: 7659: 7657: 7654: 7652: 7649: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7641:Chronobiology 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7616:Biotechnology 7614: 7612: 7611:Biostatistics 7609: 7607: 7604: 7602: 7599: 7597: 7594: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7572: 7569: 7567: 7564: 7562: 7559: 7557: 7554: 7552: 7549: 7547: 7544: 7542: 7539: 7537: 7534: 7533: 7530: 7526: 7519: 7514: 7512: 7507: 7505: 7500: 7499: 7496: 7484: 7476: 7475: 7472: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7457: 7455: 7451: 7445: 7442: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7412: 7410: 7407: 7405: 7402: 7400: 7397: 7395: 7392: 7390: 7387: 7385: 7382: 7380: 7377: 7375: 7372: 7370: 7367: 7365: 7362: 7360: 7357: 7356: 7354: 7350: 7344: 7341: 7339: 7336: 7334: 7331: 7329: 7326: 7324: 7321: 7319: 7316: 7314: 7311: 7310: 7308: 7305: 7301: 7295: 7292: 7290: 7287: 7285: 7282: 7280: 7277: 7275: 7272: 7270: 7267: 7265: 7262: 7260: 7257: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7245: 7239: 7236: 7234: 7231: 7229: 7226: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7190: 7188: 7184: 7178: 7175: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7153: 7150: 7149: 7146: 7142: 7135: 7130: 7128: 7123: 7121: 7116: 7115: 7112: 7100: 7099: 7090: 7088: 7087: 7078: 7077: 7074: 7067: 7064: 7061: 7058: 7055: 7052: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7043: 7041:Organizations 7039: 7033: 7030: 7028: 7025: 7023: 7020: 7018: 7015: 7013: 7010: 7008: 7005: 7003: 7000: 6998: 6995: 6994: 6992: 6988: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6965: 6962: 6961: 6960: 6957: 6956: 6954: 6952: 6948: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6934: 6932: 6929: 6927: 6924: 6922: 6919: 6917: 6914: 6912: 6911:Nutrigenomics 6909: 6907: 6904: 6902: 6899: 6897: 6894: 6892: 6889: 6887: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6876: 6875: 6872: 6868: 6865: 6864: 6863: 6860: 6858: 6857:Chemogenomics 6855: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6845: 6844: 6842: 6840: 6836: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6823: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6807: 6804: 6800: 6797: 6796: 6795: 6792: 6788: 6785: 6784: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6742: 6737: 6735: 6730: 6728: 6723: 6722: 6719: 6713: 6710: 6709: 6705: 6702: 6700: 6697: 6695: 6691: 6688: 6685: 6682: 6679: 6676: 6673: 6670: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6656: 6653: 6650: 6647: 6645: 6642: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6630: 6627: 6624: 6623: 6618: 6613: 6609: 6605: 6601: 6598: 6594: 6588: 6582: 6574: 6568: 6564: 6560: 6556: 6551: 6547: 6543: 6538: 6533: 6529: 6525: 6521: 6517: 6513: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6496: 6492: 6487: 6482: 6478: 6474: 6470: 6465: 6461: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6443: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6422: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6395: 6394: 6389: 6381: 6377: 6373: 6369: 6365: 6361: 6357: 6353: 6346: 6343: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6311: 6308: 6303: 6299: 6295: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6268: 6265: 6260: 6256: 6252: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6218: 6211: 6208: 6203: 6197: 6193: 6186: 6183: 6178: 6174: 6168: 6165: 6160: 6156: 6150: 6147: 6142: 6138: 6131: 6128: 6123: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6097: 6093: 6089: 6082: 6079: 6074: 6070: 6065: 6060: 6055: 6050: 6046: 6042: 6041:PLOS Genetics 6038: 6031: 6028: 6023: 6019: 6014: 6009: 6005: 6001: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5982: 5979: 5974: 5970: 5965: 5960: 5956: 5952: 5948: 5944: 5940: 5933: 5930: 5925: 5921: 5916: 5911: 5907: 5903: 5899: 5892: 5889: 5884: 5880: 5875: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5858: 5851: 5848: 5843: 5837: 5833: 5832: 5824: 5821: 5816: 5812: 5807: 5802: 5798: 5794: 5790: 5786: 5782: 5775: 5772: 5767: 5761: 5757: 5756: 5748: 5745: 5740: 5736: 5731: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5699: 5696: 5691: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5670: 5667: 5662: 5656: 5652: 5645: 5642: 5637: 5633: 5628: 5623: 5618: 5613: 5609: 5605: 5601: 5594: 5591: 5586: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5545: 5542: 5537: 5533: 5529: 5525: 5521: 5517: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5499: 5494: 5490: 5485: 5480: 5475: 5470: 5466: 5462: 5458: 5451: 5448: 5443: 5439: 5434: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5394: 5391: 5386: 5380: 5376: 5369: 5367: 5363: 5358: 5354: 5350: 5346: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5323: 5320: 5315: 5311: 5306: 5301: 5297: 5293: 5289: 5285: 5281: 5274: 5271: 5266: 5262: 5257: 5252: 5247: 5242: 5238: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5220: 5215: 5211: 5207: 5201: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5182: 5179: 5174: 5170: 5165: 5160: 5156: 5152: 5148: 5144: 5140: 5133: 5130: 5119:on 2013-05-29 5115: 5111: 5107: 5103: 5099: 5095: 5091: 5087: 5083: 5076: 5069: 5066: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5026: 5023: 5018: 5014: 5009: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4992: 4988: 4984: 4980: 4976: 4969: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4951: 4948: 4943: 4939: 4933: 4930: 4919:on 2016-06-06 4918: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4900: 4889:on 2013-05-18 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4861: 4854: 4847: 4844: 4834: 4828: 4825: 4820: 4816: 4811: 4806: 4802: 4798: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4779: 4776: 4771: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4753: 4749: 4745: 4741: 4737: 4730: 4727: 4722: 4718: 4714: 4710: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4679: 4676: 4671: 4667: 4662: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4638: 4635: 4624:on 2013-04-11 4620: 4613: 4612: 4604: 4601: 4596: 4592: 4587: 4582: 4577: 4572: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4545: 4542: 4537: 4533: 4529: 4525: 4521: 4517: 4510: 4507: 4502: 4498: 4493: 4488: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4453: 4448: 4444: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4426: 4422: 4418: 4414: 4407: 4404: 4399: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4381: 4377: 4373: 4369: 4365: 4358: 4356: 4352: 4347: 4343: 4338: 4333: 4328: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4304: 4301: 4290: 4283: 4276: 4274: 4270: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4251: 4247: 4243: 4239: 4235: 4231: 4227: 4223: 4216: 4213: 4208: 4204: 4199: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4164: 4153: 4152:The Scientist 4149: 4148:"Data Deluge" 4142: 4139: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4106: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4087: 4082: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4058: 4055: 4050: 4044: 4040: 4033: 4031: 4027: 4022: 4018: 4013: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3996: 3992: 3988: 3981: 3978: 3973: 3969: 3964: 3959: 3955: 3951: 3947: 3943: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3921: 3916: 3910: 3905: 3904: 3895: 3893: 3889: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3864: 3861: 3856: 3852: 3848: 3844: 3840: 3836: 3832: 3828: 3821: 3818: 3806: 3802: 3796: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3758: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3739: 3736: 3725: 3721: 3717: 3713: 3706: 3703: 3691: 3687: 3681: 3678: 3666: 3662: 3656: 3653: 3645: 3641: 3637: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3570: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3551: 3548: 3543: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3527: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3511: 3507: 3503: 3497: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3465: 3461: 3454: 3451: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3416: 3412: 3405: 3402: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3351: 3348: 3343: 3339: 3332: 3330: 3326: 3321: 3317: 3312: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3293: 3289: 3285: 3281: 3277: 3270: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3253: 3248: 3243: 3238: 3234: 3230: 3226: 3222: 3218: 3211: 3208: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3175: 3172: 3167: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3124: 3122: 3118: 3103: 3096: 3093: 3088: 3082: 3078: 3071: 3068: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3035: 3031: 3027: 3020: 3017: 3012: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2968: 2965: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2917: 2914: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2895: 2890: 2885: 2881: 2877: 2873: 2869: 2865: 2858: 2855: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2838: 2834: 2830: 2826: 2822: 2818: 2814: 2807: 2804: 2799: 2795: 2790: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2766: 2763: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2738: 2731: 2728: 2723: 2719: 2714: 2709: 2705: 2701: 2697: 2693: 2689: 2682: 2679: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2656: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2638: 2623: 2619: 2613: 2610: 2605: 2599: 2595: 2588: 2585: 2580: 2574: 2569: 2568: 2559: 2557: 2555: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2547: 2545: 2543: 2539: 2534: 2530: 2525: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2493: 2490: 2485: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2462: 2459: 2454: 2448: 2444: 2438: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2417: 2412: 2408: 2403: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2374: 2370: 2362: 2359: 2354: 2350: 2346: 2342: 2338: 2331: 2328: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2288: 2285: 2280: 2276: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2237: 2234: 2228: 2223: 2220: 2218: 2215: 2213: 2210: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2187:Pathogenomics 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2170: 2168: 2165: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2154: 2152: 2149: 2147: 2144: 2142: 2139: 2137: 2134: 2132: 2129: 2128: 2123: 2117: 2112: 2107: 2105: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2090: 2088: 2084: 2083: 2079:. Similarly, 2078: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2062: 2058: 2054: 2050: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2029: 2028: 2020: 2018: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2006: 2005: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1984: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1951: 1949: 1947: 1943: 1939: 1938:biotechnology 1935: 1927: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1885: 1878: 1876: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1862:, as well as 1861: 1860: 1855: 1854: 1849: 1847: 1838: 1837: 1832: 1831: 1830:Acaryochloris 1826: 1825: 1824:Synechococcus 1820: 1819: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1805: 1804: 1799: 1798: 1797:Synechococcus 1793: 1792: 1787: 1786:cyanobacteria 1780:Cyanobacteria 1779: 1777: 1774: 1769: 1765: 1764:bacteriophage 1761: 1757: 1753: 1749: 1745: 1738: 1733: 1731: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1701: 1697: 1693: 1689: 1688:environmental 1685: 1681: 1675: 1665: 1658: 1656: 1654: 1653:tumorigenesis 1650: 1646: 1642: 1638: 1634: 1628: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1612: 1608: 1604: 1600: 1595: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1574: 1569: 1561: 1559: 1557: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1541: 1536: 1533: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1520:transcription 1517: 1513: 1509: 1505: 1499: 1491: 1486: 1484: 1482: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1453: 1448: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1437: 1428: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1414: 1413: 1412: 1410: 1404: 1396: 1394: 1392: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1375: 1371: 1366: 1358: 1356: 1354: 1350: 1346: 1343: 1338: 1334: 1330: 1311: 1297: 1287: 1279: 1277: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1261: 1259: 1255: 1250: 1246: 1237: 1233: 1230: 1224: 1220: 1212: 1210: 1208: 1204: 1203:fluorescently 1200: 1196: 1192: 1188: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1164: 1160: 1159:Sanger method 1155: 1153: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1134: 1125: 1118: 1116: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1101: 1097: 1091: 1083: 1078: 1074: 1068: 1064: 1059: 1051: 1049: 1047: 1043: 1039: 1035: 1031: 1027: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1007: 1003: 999: 995: 992: 986: 982: 974: 970: 966: 962: 961:transcriptome 958: 953: 946: 944: 942: 938: 933: 929: 924: 922: 921: 916: 915: 910: 909: 904: 903: 898: 897:noncoding DNA 894: 893: 888: 884: 883: 878: 874: 873: 868: 867: 862: 858: 857: 852: 848: 847: 842: 838: 834: 833: 828: 827: 822: 814: 810: 806: 801: 797: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 774: 773:S. cerevisiae 769: 765: 761: 760:North America 757: 756: 751: 750: 745: 741: 737: 736:mitochondrion 733: 729: 721: 719: 717: 713: 709: 705: 701: 700:Maxam-Gilbert 697: 693: 689: 685: 681: 680:Sanger method 677: 673: 670: 669:bacteriophage 665: 661: 657: 652: 642: 638: 626: 614: 602: 600: 598: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 562: 558: 554: 551: 547: 543: 539: 535: 531: 527: 526:Francis Crick 523: 519: 511: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 475: 471: 468: 464: 460: 452: 447: 445: 443: 439: 435: 431: 427: 422: 420: 416: 412: 407: 403: 399: 395: 391: 387: 383: 379: 368: 363: 361: 356: 354: 349: 348: 346: 345: 339: 329: 328: 327: 326: 319: 316: 315: 309: 308: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 259: 256: 255: 247: 246: 239: 236: 235: 231: 228: 224: 215: 211: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 195: 189: 188: 181: 178: 176: 173: 171: 168: 166: 163: 160: 156: 153: 151: 148: 146: 143: 142: 136: 135: 128: 125: 123: 120: 119: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 65: 64: 56: 55: 51: 47: 46: 43: 39: 35: 34: 29: 22: 8174: 7901:Sociobiology 7881:Protistology 7846:Photobiology 7841:Pharmacology 7831:Parasitology 7826:Paleontology 7806:Neuroscience 7786:Microbiology 7725: 7696:Epidemiology 7666:Cytogenetics 7626:Cell biology 7606:Biosemiotics 7596:Biomechanics 7576:Biogeography 7571:Biochemistry 7566:Bacteriology 7561:Astrobiology 7384:Genetic code 7378: 7318:the Americas 7294:Quantitative 7264:Cytogenetics 7259:Conservation 7152:Introduction 7096: 7084: 6906:Microbiomics 6901:Metabolomics 6862:Connectomics 6821: 6794:Metagenomics 6747: 6649:Genomics.org 6638:BMC Genomics 6554: 6522:(1): 75–88. 6519: 6515: 6476: 6472: 6433: 6429: 6398: 6355: 6351: 6345: 6320: 6316: 6310: 6277: 6273: 6267: 6224: 6220: 6210: 6191: 6185: 6176: 6167: 6158: 6149: 6140: 6130: 6095: 6091: 6081: 6044: 6040: 6030: 5995: 5991: 5981: 5946: 5942: 5932: 5905: 5901: 5891: 5864: 5860: 5850: 5830: 5823: 5788: 5784: 5774: 5754: 5747: 5712: 5708: 5698: 5675: 5669: 5650: 5644: 5607: 5604:PLOS Biology 5603: 5593: 5558: 5554: 5544: 5511: 5507: 5501: 5464: 5460: 5450: 5407: 5403: 5393: 5374: 5332: 5328: 5322: 5287: 5283: 5273: 5236: 5232: 5222: 5187: 5181: 5146: 5142: 5132: 5121:. 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The worm 844: 830: 824: 818: 812: 808: 804: 771: 753: 747: 734:, the human 725: 703: 675: 655: 648: 573:Walter Fiers 565:genetic code 561:Philip Leder 553:transfer RNA 548:sequence of 515: 481: 474:Hans Winkler 469: 462: 458: 456: 423: 401: 397: 377: 376: 298:Quantitative 268:Cytogenetics 263:Conservation 213: 145:Introduction 8142:AncestryDNA 7951:Xenobiology 7946:Virophysics 7916:Systematics 7871:Primatology 7816:Ornithology 7756:Ichthyology 7741:Herpetology 7736:Gerontology 7701:Epigenetics 7661:Cryobiology 7551:Agrostology 7541:Aerobiology 7536:Abiogenesis 7364:Epigenetics 6874:Epigenomics 6806:Pangenomics 6606:electronic- 4866:: 387–402. 4068:GigaScience 2692:GigaScience 2618:"Genome, n" 2156:GeneCalling 2146:Epigenomics 1959:Euan Ashley 1821:and marine 1806:IMS101 and 1680:metagenomes 1627:Epigenomics 1621:Epigenomics 1617:structure. 1552:microarrays 1524:translation 1274:homopolymer 1229:parallelize 740:chloroplast 708:Nobel Prize 692:Allan Maxam 540:. In 1964, 530:Fred Sanger 506:new journal 8157:MyHeritage 8152:Living DNA 8045:Haplogroup 7936:Toxicology 7931:Teratology 7876:Proteomics 7861:Physiology 7801:Neontology 7766:Lipidology 7761:Immunology 7731:Geobiology 7691:Embryology 7671:Dendrology 7601:Biophysics 7581:Biogeology 7369:Geneticist 7343:South Asia 7289:Population 7269:Ecological 7238:Amino acid 7218:Nucleotide 7193:Chromosome 6959:Proteomics 6896:Lipidomics 6891:Immunomics 6417:0198754833 6159:Dark Daily 5610:(3): e82. 5467:(1): 150. 5123:2013-01-04 4923:2014-12-17 4893:2013-01-04 4628:2012-12-28 4294:2012-12-22 4157:2013-01-04 4132:2013-01-04 3882:2012-01-20 3877:Genome.gov 3811:2012-12-21 3729:2012-12-21 3696:2011-11-18 3671:2011-11-18 3111:2010-10-18 2657:(5): 277. 2628:2012-12-01 2469:"Genomics" 2229:References 2197:Proteomics 2177:Immunomics 2057:demography 1944:and other 1909:homologous 1905:centromere 1887:Schematic 1836:Prochloron 1827:isolates, 1668:scaffolds. 1633:epigenetic 1540:sequencing 1443:(also see 1397:Annotation 1266:nucleotide 1249:polymerase 1217:See also: 1148:nucleotide 1084:Sequencing 1022:metabolome 1002:proteomics 969:metabolome 911:), mouse ( 885:) and the 823:, such as 790:eukaryotes 744:chromosome 593:base pairs 534:Amino acid 516:Following 486:geneticist 465:(from the 430:pleiotropy 398:individual 293:Population 273:Ecological 198:Geneticist 112:Amino acid 92:Nucleotide 67:Chromosome 8093:Societies 8049:Haplotype 8035:Procedure 7851:Phycology 7836:Pathology 7821:Osteology 7811:Nutrition 7771:Mammalogy 7746:Histology 7284:Molecular 7279:Microbial 7254:Classical 6886:Glycomics 6612:1868-0402 6604:1559-0836 6581:cite book 6259:205064528 6141:STAT News 4127:0099-9660 3724:0362-4331 3644:211123134 3502:Oliver SG 2737:Endeavour 2172:Glycomics 1999:bacterium 1979:All of Us 1926:Karyotype 1912:autosomal 1901:G banding 1889:karyogram 1848:spumigena 1846:Nodularia 1800:strains, 1637:epigenome 1436:in silico 1409:sequences 1385:Finishing 1046:symbioses 991:neologism 821:pathogens 788:, and 36 712:Paul Berg 453:Etymology 434:heterosis 426:epistasis 288:Molecular 283:Microbial 258:Classical 159:molecular 155:Evolution 8198:Genomics 8192:Category 8176:Category 8130:Services 8109:Projects 8053:Subclade 7965:See also 7941:Virology 7926:Taxonomy 7866:Pomology 7796:Mycology 7726:Genomics 7721:Genetics 7546:Agronomy 7483:Category 7409:Heredity 7379:Genomics 7223:Mutation 7213:Heredity 7177:Glossary 7167:Timeline 7141:Genetics 7098:Category 6824:genomics 6748:Genomics 6629:Archived 6546:26528881 6503:27886018 6495:23005591 6460:24135908 6380:10811958 6372:20847747 6294:14631358 6251:21593873 6122:24618965 6073:21935354 6022:20435227 5973:25059740 5924:22129254 5883:21916641 5815:17062630 5739:12794192 5636:17355177 5528:20125086 5493:36224627 5442:32214243 5349:11584296 5314:10739263 5265:17349043 5214:18720577 5173:23203987 5110:20412451 5102:18087260 5060:12044602 5052:11433356 5017:19815760 4880:18576944 4819:19679224 4770:18832462 4721:28769137 4713:16468433 4670:17449817 4595:23251337 4555:PLOS ONE 4501:19482960 4346:22827831 4264:21835622 4207:22983030 4100:23587201 4074:(1): 6. 4021:20981085 3972:23128226 3855:21797344 3847:17076253 3787:20033048 3593:10423613 3445:16453699 3202:14651855 2849:40989800 2841:14263761 2798:14299636 2757:12798815 2722:35701371 2673:18166670 2533:23615871 2474:Genetics 2411:33692541 2353:16920639 2322:15829893 2314:18268510 2271:13054694 2207:Venomics 2108:See also 1934:medicine 1773:prophage 1748:genetics 1707:16S rRNA 1703:cultures 1441:pipeline 1391:replicon 1347:DNA, or 1329:aligning 1280:Assembly 1171:in vitro 1152:coverage 1034:totality 1026:lipidome 1018:proteome 973:lipidome 965:proteome 851:genetics 839:for the 786:bacteria 780:, 1,115 502:Maryland 482:genomics 406:proteins 394:genetics 378:Genomics 338:Category 223:template 214:Genomics 192:Research 97:Mutation 87:Heredity 42:Genetics 8137:23andMe 7956:Zoology 7686:Ecology 7556:Anatomy 7162:History 7157:Outline 6847:Biochip 6537:4713245 6451:4021166 6325:Bibcode 6302:8516357 6229:Bibcode 6113:4119063 6064:3174201 6013:2937184 5964:4143101 5806:1635311 5627:1821061 5585:9733676 5536:6780101 5484:9555066 5433:7481934 5412:Bibcode 5357:5656447 5305:2144435 5256:1829165 5164:3531136 5008:3854948 4987:Bibcode 4979:Science 4810:2725244 4761:2570630 4693:Bibcode 4586:3520994 4563:Bibcode 4536:1100841 4492:2691937 4447:6269069 4337:3431227 4320:: 341. 4255:3169327 4234:Bibcode 4198:3491573 4091:3617454 3999:Bibcode 3963:3498066 3942:Bibcode 3778:3073058 3757:Bibcode 3636:8849441 3616:Bibcode 3608:Science 3585:7542800 3565:Bibcode 3557:Science 3542:4271784 3534:1574125 3514:Bibcode 3488:4311952 3468:Bibcode 3436:1167080 3393:4355527 3385:7219534 3365:Bibcode 3288:Bibcode 3229:Bibcode 3166:4206886 3138:Bibcode 3062:1634424 3034:Bibcode 3011:4289674 3003:1264203 2983:Bibcode 2959:4153893 2951:4555447 2931:Bibcode 2908:5330357 2876:Bibcode 2821:Bibcode 2813:Science 2713:9197679 2664:2392988 2524:6425491 2402:8035251 2381:Bibcode 2279:4268222 2251:Bibcode 2065:ecology 1893:diploid 1839:, the N 1684:genetic 1516:protein 1457:Ensembl 1378:de novo 1374:NP-hard 1370:de novo 1365:de novo 1345:genomic 1169:during 1140:shotgun 1105:shotgun 1077:DOE JGI 782:archaea 778:viruses 585:Belgium 550:alanine 488:at the 478:English 448:History 442:alleles 386:genomes 150:History 122:Outline 8067:People 7621:Botany 7328:Europe 7313:Africa 7247:Fields 7233:Allele 7208:Genome 6755:Fields 6610: 6602: 6595: 6569: 6544: 6534: 6501: 6493: 6458: 6448: 6415: 6405: 6378: 6370: 6300: 6292: 6257: 6249: 6221:Nature 6198: 6120: 6110: 6071: 6061: 6020: 6010: 5992:Lancet 5971: 5961: 5922: 5881: 5838: 5813: 5803: 5762: 5737: 5730:156470 5727: 5686: 5657: 5634: 5624: 5583: 5576:107498 5573: 5534: 5526: 5491: 5481: 5440: 5430: 5404:Nature 5381: 5355: 5347: 5312: 5302: 5263: 5253: 5239:: 86. 5212: 5202: 5171: 5161: 5108: 5100: 5058: 5050: 5015: 5005: 4956:"home" 4942:PacBio 4938:"Home" 4878: 4839: 4817: 4807: 4768: 4758: 4719: 4711: 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7453:Lists 7333:Italy 7172:Index 7062:(USA) 6822:Socio 6655:NHGRI 6499:S2CID 6376:S2CID 6298:S2CID 6255:S2CID 5532:S2CID 5353:S2CID 5117:(PDF) 5106:S2CID 5078:(PDF) 5056:S2CID 4887:(PDF) 4856:(PDF) 4717:S2CID 4622:(PDF) 4615:(PDF) 3851:S2CID 3640:S2CID 3589:S2CID 3538:S2CID 3484:S2CID 3389:S2CID 3162:S2CID 3105:(PDF) 3058:S2CID 3007:S2CID 2955:S2CID 2845:S2CID 2318:S2CID 2275:S2CID 1768:phage 1514:(and 1452:BLAST 1445:below 1426:, and 1270:ISFET 1144:reads 1038:omics 1020:, or 994:omics 981:Omics 794:fungi 768:Japan 684:below 682:(see 672:φX174 662:on a 581:Ghent 470:Genom 127:Index 7086:List 7068:(UK) 7056:(EU) 7050:(JP) 6608:ISSN 6600:ISSN 6593:ISBN 6587:link 6567:ISBN 6542:PMID 6491:PMID 6456:PMID 6413:ASIN 6403:ISBN 6368:PMID 6290:PMID 6247:PMID 6196:ISBN 6118:PMID 6092:JAMA 6069:PMID 6018:PMID 5969:PMID 5920:PMID 5879:PMID 5836:ISBN 5811:PMID 5760:ISBN 5735:PMID 5684:ISBN 5655:ISBN 5632:PMID 5581:PMID 5524:PMID 5489:PMID 5438:PMID 5379:ISBN 5345:PMID 5310:PMID 5261:PMID 5210:PMID 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