Gene flow - Knowledge (XXG)

710:

migration northward. The increased human activity brings increased roads and traffic, but also increases road maintenance, plowing, and snow compaction, inadvertently clearing a path for bobcats to travel by. The anthropogenic influence on bobcat migration pathways is an example of urban facilitation via opening up a corridor for gene flow. However, in the bobcat's southern range, an increase in roads and traffic is correlated with a decrease in forest cover, which hinders bobcat population gene flow through these areas. Somewhat ironically, the movement of bobcats northward is caused by human-driven global warming, but is also enabled by increased anthropogenic activity in northern ranges that make these habitats more suitable to bobcats.

698:

increased diversity, and therefore adaptation, in the urban populations of the Western black widow spider. Phenotypically, urban spiders are larger, darker, and more aggressive, which could lead to increased survival in urban environments. These findings demonstrate support for urban facilitation, as these spiders are actually able to spread and diversify faster across urban environments than they would in a rural one. However, it is also an example of how urban facilitation, despite increasing gene flow, is not necessarily beneficial to an environment, as Western black widow spiders have highly toxic venom and therefore pose risks for human health.

841:

which the introduced species begins to replace the native species, the native species becomes threatened and the biodiversity is reduced, thus making this phenomenon negative rather than a positive case of gene flow that augments genetic diversity. Introgression is the replacement of one species' alleles with that of the invader species. It is important to note that hybrids are sometime less "fit" than their parental generation, and as a result is a closely monitored genetic issue as the ultimate goal in conservation genetics is to maintain the genetic integrity of a species and preserve biodiversity.

649:

be especially detrimental for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones which can occur between island and mainland species. Interbreeding between the species can cause a 'swamping' of the rarer species' gene pool, creating hybrids that supplant the native stock. This is a direct result of evolutionary forces such as natural selection, as well as genetic drift, which lead to the increasing prevalence of advantageous traits and homogenization. The extent of this phenomenon is not always apparent from

673:, also called urban fragmentation, in which alterations to the landscape that disrupt or fragment the habitat decrease genetic diversity. The second is called the urban facilitation model, and suggests that in some populations, gene flow is enabled by anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Urban facilitation of gene flow connects populations, reduces isolation, and increases gene flow into an area which would otherwise not have this specific genome composition. 525: 4246: 4256: 31: 850: 103:

sizes. Mobility plays an important role in dispersal rate, as highly mobile individuals tend to have greater movement prospects. Although animals are thought to be more mobile than plants, pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals, water or wind. When gene flow is impeded, there can be an increase in

884:

likely experienced allopatric speciation in some part due to differing geography, but that does not explain why we see so many different kinds of finches on the same island. This is due to adaptive radiation, or the evolution of varying traits in light of competition for resources. Gene flow moves in

676:

Urban facilitation can occur in many different ways, but most of the mechanisms include bringing previously separated species into contact, either directly or indirectly. Altering a habitat through urbanization will cause habitat fragmentation, but could also potentially disrupt barriers and create a

648:

advantage of introduced plant or animal. Nonnative species can threaten native plants and animals with extinction by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can

613:

Gene flow can also be used to assist species which are threatened with extinction. When a species exist in small populations there is an increased risk of inbreeding and greater susceptibility to loss of diversity due to drift. These populations can benefit greatly from the introduction of unrelated

709:

loci in bobcats across the Great Lakes region, and found that longitude affected the interaction between anthropogenic landscape alterations and bobcat population gene flow. While rising global temperatures push bobcat populations into northern territory, increased human activity also enables bobcat

840:

but upon testing the mtDNA it is apparent that hybridization has occurred. Differential hybridization also occurs because some traits and DNA are more readily exchanged than others, and this is a result of selective pressure or the absence thereof that allows for easier transaction. In instances in

713:

Consequences of urban facilitation vary from species to species. Positive effects of urban facilitation can occur when increased gene flow enables better adaptation and introduces beneficial alleles, and would ideally increase biodiversity. This has implications for conservation: for example, urban

124:

among population samples. The more genetically differentiated two populations are, the lower the estimate of gene flow, because gene flow has a homogenizing effect. Isolation of populations leads to divergence due to drift, while migration reduces divergence. Gene flow can be measured by using the

895:

is an endemic species of the Galapagos Islands, but it evolved from a mainland ancestor of land iguana. Due to geographic isolation gene flow between the two species was limited and differing environments caused the marine iguana to evolve in order to adapt to the island environment. For instance,

681:

is another mechanism by which southern-dwelling animals might be forced northward towards cooler temperatures, where they could come into contact with other populations not previously in their range. More directly, humans are known to introduce non-native species into new environments, which could

569:

has wind-pollination as its primary means of propagation and the latter-plants carry out pollination through insects. Samples of the same species which grow on either side have been shown to have developed genetic differences, because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the

536:

or a geographical isolation that does not allow populations of the same species to exchange genetic material. Physical barriers to gene flow are usually, but not always, natural. They may include impassable mountain ranges, oceans, or vast deserts. In some cases, they can be artificial, human-made

102:

There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population

961:

which is part of an international breeding program in which genetic materials are shared between zoological organizations in order to increase genetic diversity in the small populations. As a result of low reproductive success, artificial insemination with fresh/frozen-thawed sperm was developed

123:

The level of gene flow among populations can be estimated by observing the dispersal of individuals and recording their reproductive success. This direct method is only suitable for some types of organisms, more often indirect methods are used that infer gene flow by comparing allele frequencies

787:

Biologist Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research". Biologists instead use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use the metaphor of an intertwined net to visualize the rich

920:

out of Africa after which local differentiation led to the establishment of regional population as we see them now. Gene flow plays an important role in maintaining a grade of similarities and preventing speciation. In contrast the single origin theory assumes that there was a common ancestral

835:

In some instances, when a species has a sister species and breeding capabilities are possible due to the removal of previous barriers or through introduction due to human intervention, species can hybridize and exchange genes and corresponding traits. This exchange is not always clear-cut, for

583:

found on Lord Howe Island were found to have substantially different flowering times correlated with soil preference, resulting in a reproductive barrier inhibiting gene flow. Species can live in the same environment, yet show very limited gene flow due to reproductive barriers, fragmentation,

697:

variation data in urban and rural spider populations and found evidence for increased gene flow in urban Western black widow spiders compared to rural populations. In addition, the genome of these spiders was more similar across rural populations than it was for urban populations, suggesting

714:

facilitation benefits an endangered species of tarantula and could help increase the population size. Negative effects would occur when increased gene flow is maladaptive and causes the loss of beneficial alleles. In the worst-case scenario, this would lead to genomic extinction through a

73:

to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations will have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore can be considered a single effective population. It has been shown that it takes only "one migrant per generation" to prevent populations from diverging due to

584:

specialist pollinators, or limited hybridization or hybridization yielding unfit hybrids. A cryptic species is a species that humans cannot tell is different without the use of genetics. Moreover, gene flow between hybrid and wild populations can result in loss of genetic diversity via

2049:

Crispo E, Moore JS, Lee-Yaw JA, Gray SM, Haller BC (July 2011). "Broken barriers: human-induced changes to gene flow and introgression in animals: an examination of the ways in which humans increase genetic exchange among populations and species and the consequences for biodiversity".

997:

Bobwhite quail were translocated from the southern part of the United States to Ontario in order to increase population numbers and game for hunting. The hybrids that resulted from this translocation was less fit than the native population and were not adapted to survive the Northern

718:. It is also important to note that in the scheme of overall ecosystem health and biodiversity, urban facilitation is not necessarily beneficial, and generally applies to urban adapter pests. Examples of this include the previously mentioned Western black widow spider, and also the 82:

even when they are exchanging alleles, if the selection pressure is strong enough. Gene flow is an important mechanism for transferring genetic diversity among populations. Migrants change the distribution of genetic diversity among populations, by modifying

677:

pathway, or corridor, that can connect two formerly separated species. The effectiveness of this depends on individual species’ dispersal abilities and adaptiveness to different environments to use anthropogenic structures to travel. Human-driven

990:

Sika deer were introduced into Western Europe, and they reproduce easily with the native red deer. This translocation of Sika deer has led to introgression and there are no longer "pure" red deer in the region, and all can be classified as

578:

Barriers to gene flow need not always be physical. Sympatric speciation happens when new species from the same ancestral species arise along the same range. This is often a result of a reproductive barrier. For example, two palm species of

87:(the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). High rates of gene flow can reduce the genetic differentiation between the two groups, increasing homogeneity. For this reason, gene flow has been thought to constrain 1546:

Rogers, D. L., & Montalvo, A. M. (2004). Genetically appropriate choices for plant materials to maintain biological diversity. University of California. Report to the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, Lakewood,

864:

While gene flow can greatly enhance the fitness of a population, it can also have negative consequences depending on the population and the environment in which they reside. The effects of gene flow are context-dependent.

1430:

Eldridge MD, King JM, Loupis AK, Spencer PB, Taylor AC, Pope LC, Hall GP (June 1999). "Unprecedented Low Levels of Genetic Variation and Inbreeding Depression in an Island Population of the Black-Footed Rock-Wallaby".

155:) and the net migration rate per generation (m). Using the approximation based on the Island model, the effect of migration can be calculated for a population in terms of the degree of genetic differentiation( 509: 283:

is < 0.25. This means there is some migration happening. Measures of population structure range from 0 to 1. When gene flow occurs via migration the deleterious effects of inbreeding can be ameliorated.

2678:

Hominid Evolution: Past, Present, and Future : Proceedings of the Taung Diamond Jubilee International Symposium, Johannesburg and Mmabatho, Southern Africa, 27th January-4th February 1985

115:

has several inbred populations that live on various islands off the coast of Australia. The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding.

1819: 3978: 614:

individuals who can increase diversity and reduce the amount of inbreeding, and potentially increase population size. This was demonstrated in the lab with two bottleneck strains of

91:

and prevent range expansion by combining the gene pools of the groups, thus preventing the development of differences in genetic variation that would have led to differentiation and

653:

alone. While some degree of gene flow occurs in the course of normal evolution, hybridization with or without introgression may threaten a rare species' existence. For example, the

353: 223:) equals 0.2. However, when there is less than 1 migrant per generation (no migration), the inbreeding coefficient rises rapidly resulting in fixation and complete divergence ( 2484:

Steeves TE, Maloney RF, Hale ML, Tylianakis JM, Gemmell NJ (December 2010). "Genetic analyses reveal hybridization but no hybrid swarm in one of the world's rarest birds".

385: 281: 251: 221: 183: 972:

were found to use different pollinators (bees and hummingbirds) that limited gene flow, resulting in genetic isolation, eventually producing two different species,

153: 1073:"Ecological speciation in an island snail: evidence for the parallel evolution of a novel ecotype and maintenance by ecologically dependent postzygotic isolation" 2394: 2369: 962:

which increased cub survival rate. A 2014 study found that high levels of genetic diversity and low levels of inbreeding were estimated in the breeding centers.

910:

resulting in gene flow between these populations. This gene flow has resulted in Neanderthal alleles in modern European population. Two theories exist for the

3027: 618:, in which crosses between the two populations reversed the effects of inbreeding and led to greater chances of survival in not only one generation but two. 2330: 2188:

Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard P, Claverys JP (March 2014). "Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control".

111:(F) within a population. For example, many island populations have low rates of gene flow due to geographic isolation and small population sizes. The 768:

Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can incorporate genes from dead bacteria, exchange genes with living bacteria, and can exchange

4231: 3686: 784:'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes." 1892:

Genetic Pollution from Farm Forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids; A report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC; Joint Venture Agroforestry Program

741:

Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to the transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction, either through

3037: 1830: 2395:"Horizontal Gene Transfer - A New Paradigm for Biology (From Evolutionary Theory Conference Summary), Esalen Center for Theory & Research" 2370:"Horizontal Gene Transfer - A New Paradigm for Biology (from Evolutionary Theory Conference Summary), Esalen Center for Theory & Research" 657:

is an abundant species of duck that interbreeds readily with a wide range of other ducks and poses a threat to the integrity of some species.

3994: 3754: 2685: 1903: 1531: 927:

which already displayed the anatomical characteristics we see today. This theory minimizes the amount of parallel evolution that is needed.

3351: 95:. In some cases dispersal resulting in gene flow may also result in the addition of novel genetic variants under positive selection to the 1120:"Genetic structure and shell shape variation within a rocky shore whelk suggest both diverging and constraining selection with gene flow" 914:

throughout the world. The first is known as the multiregional model in which modern human variation is seen as a product of radiation of

4077: 2997: 390: 3739: 3399: 1616:, Anstett MC, Lexer C, Hutton I, Clarkson JJ, Norup MV, et al. (May 2006). "Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island". 2299: 2006:

Miles LS, Rivkin LR, Johnson MT, Munshi-South J, Verrelli BC (September 2019). "Gene flow and genetic drift in urban environments".

1055: 947: revealed a genome-wide trend of increased shared variation in sympatry, indicative of pervasive interspecific gene flow. 2946: 3811: 3409: 2344: 4056: 4046: 3970: 3245: 3373: 1829:. Corvallis, OR: USDA Forest Service; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology. pp. 26–27. Archived from 4184: 4051: 3831: 3575: 3277: 3166: 694: 3319: 1890: 1570:

Su H, Qu LJ, He K, Zhang Z, Wang J, Chen Z, Gu H (March 2003). "The Great Wall of China: a physical barrier to gene flow?".

4249: 3580: 2457:

Allendorf FW, Leary RF, Spruell P, Wenburg JK (2001-11-01). "The problems with hybrids: setting conservation guidelines".

1045: 4280: 4189: 3691: 4259: 3853: 2373: 1716:

Hedrick PW, Fredrickson R (2010). "Genetic rescue guidelines with examples from Mexican wolves and Florida panthers".

1118:

Gemmell MR, Trewick SA, Crampton JS, Vaux F, Hills SF, Daly EE, Marshall BA, Beu AG, Morgan-Richards M (2018-11-26).

1471:"Genomic sweep and potential genetic rescue during limiting environmental conditions in an isolated wolf population" 3955: 3129: 3749: 3546: 3356: 3124: 3017: 742: 125: 112: 1827:

Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest

4172: 4036: 4008: 3983: 3940: 3843: 3836: 3776: 3524: 3492: 3465: 3455: 2954: 736: 2806:"Large-scale genetic survey provides insights into the captive management and reintroduction of giant pandas" 4177: 4107: 4016: 3744: 3626: 3394: 2990: 2629:"Disentangling Immediate Adaptive Introgression from Selection on Standing Introgressed Variation in Humans" 754: 683: 632:

Human activities such as movement of species and modification of landscape can result in genetic pollution,

827:. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times." 4216: 3865: 3806: 3734: 3696: 3597: 3568: 3541: 3536: 3134: 1761:"A test of the 'genetic rescue' technique using bottlenecked donor populations of Drosophila melanogaster" 1373:

Cunningham, Charles; Parra, Jorge E; Coals, Lucy; Beltrán, Marcela; Zefania, Sama; Székely, Tamás (2018).

1272:"Adaptive introgression of anticoagulant rodent poison resistance by hybridization between old world mice" 804: 289: 108: 4157: 4031: 3950: 3945: 3930: 3915: 3905: 3821: 3796: 3727: 3631: 3587: 3551: 3519: 3460: 3438: 3419: 3235: 3186: 3181: 3139: 2398: 746: 670: 533: 3282: 2966: 2917:

Storfer, Andrew (February 1999). "Gene flow and endangered species translocations: a topic revisited".

2282: 2755:

Martin SH, Dasmahapatra KK, Nadeau NJ, Salazar C, Walters JR, Simpson F, et al. (November 2013).

1227:

Bolnick DI, Nosil P (September 2007). "Natural selection in populations subject to a migration load".

4131: 4026: 3960: 3761: 3676: 3592: 3504: 3487: 3414: 3404: 3114: 3022: 3006: 2907:, Center for Ecology, Evolution and Behavior and T.H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences, May 1998. 2858: 2713: 2583: 2528: 1772: 1625: 1177: 1008: 957:

is the only way in which humans attempt to induce gene flow in ex situ situation. One example is the

935: 873: 812: 650: 2704:

Stringer CB, Andrews P (March 1988). "Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans".

2279: 4194: 4152: 4102: 4021: 3869: 3861: 3791: 3771: 3717: 3651: 3561: 3314: 3257: 3119: 3102: 3080: 2519:

Grant PR, Grant BR (2002-04-26). "Unpredictable Evolution in a 30-Year Study of Darwin's Finches".

881: 762: 538: 47: 4255: 1667:

Hasselgren M, Angerbjörn A, Eide NE, Erlandsson R, Flagstad Ø, Landa A, et al. (March 2018).

4167: 4119: 4112: 3709: 3621: 3482: 3443: 3267: 3211: 3201: 3161: 3075: 3070: 3065: 2983: 2729: 2552: 2213: 2075: 2031: 1928: 1871: 1741: 1649: 1613: 1595: 1448: 1375:"Social interactions predict genetic diversification: an experimental manipulation in shorebirds" 1252: 1201: 1100: 980: 954: 877: 705:) in the northern US and southern Canada. A study by Marrote et al. sequenced fourteen different 689:

This urban facilitation model was tested on a human health pest, the Western black widow spider (

589: 84: 4209: 3935: 3883: 3477: 3378: 3341: 3336: 3292: 3287: 3240: 3206: 2886: 2827: 2786: 2737: 2681: 2658: 2609: 2570:

Prüfer K, Racimo F, Patterson N, Jay F, Sankararaman S, Sawyer S, et al. (January 2014).

2544: 2501: 2439: 2324: 2262: 2205: 2170: 2119: 2067: 2023: 1985: 1909: 1899: 1800: 1733: 1698: 1641: 1587: 1527: 1500: 1412: 1394: 1301: 1244: 1209: 1193: 1141: 1092: 1051: 1018: 857: 645: 627: 585: 79: 66: 3801: 3368: 3346: 3154: 2926: 2876: 2866: 2817: 2776: 2768: 2721: 2648: 2640: 2599: 2591: 2536: 2493: 2466: 2431: 2252: 2244: 2197: 2160: 2150: 2109: 2059: 2015: 1975: 1967: 1863: 1790: 1780: 1725: 1688: 1680: 1633: 1579: 1490: 1482: 1440: 1402: 1386: 1355: 1328: 1291: 1283: 1270:

Song Y, Endepols S, Klemann N, Richter D, Matuschka FR, Shih CH, et al. (August 2011).

1236: 1185: 1131: 1084: 1072: 772:

across species boundaries. "Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many

633: 541:, which has hindered the gene flow of native plant populations. One of these native plants, 360: 256: 226: 196: 190: 186: 158: 1374: 131: 4162: 3613: 3602: 3556: 3499: 3448: 3228: 3032: 2970: 2958: 2306: 1940: 1013: 974: 911: 796: 640:

and genetic swamping. These processes can lead to homogenization or replacement of local

2627:

Jagoda E, Lawson DJ, Wall JD, Lambert D, Muller C, Westaway M, et al. (March 2018).

2862: 2717: 2587: 2532: 1776: 1629: 1348:

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences

1332: 1181: 4002: 3874: 3176: 3171: 3109: 3087: 2903:

Storfer, Andrew. "Gene Flow and Endangered Species Translocations: a Topic Revisited."

2781: 2756: 2653: 2628: 2604: 2571: 2257: 2232: 2165: 2138: 1980: 1955: 1795: 1760: 1693: 1668: 1495: 1470: 1407: 1296: 1271: 706: 678: 2930: 2470: 2348: 860:

evolved via allopatric speciation, through limited gene flow and geographic isolation.

524: 4274: 4204: 4082: 4041: 3887: 3781: 3656: 3641: 3309: 3304: 2881: 2847:"Pollinator preference and the evolution of floral traits in monkeyflowers (Mimulus)" 2846: 2497: 2079: 2035: 1444: 1240: 892: 853: 815:

that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of

758: 637: 75: 2556: 2217: 1867: 1745: 1599: 1520:"Estimation of Effective Population Size and Migration Parameters From Genetic Data" 1452: 1256: 1104: 4199: 4147: 4092: 3925: 3920: 3661: 3272: 923: 916: 808: 781: 715: 666: 543: 1653: 1971: 1917: 1854:

Rhymer JM, Simberloff D (1996). "Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression".

1785: 1519: 4226: 4097: 3878: 3826: 3361: 3191: 3097: 3055: 1898:. Australian Government, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation. 1319:

Hastings A, Harrison S (November 1994). "Metapopulation Dynamics and Genetics".

1136: 1119: 969: 958: 907: 824: 593: 17: 2851:

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

2435: 561:

whose habitat is located on the opposite side of the Great Wall of China where

4087: 3988: 3910: 3897: 3786: 3646: 3331: 3218: 3196: 3149: 3144: 3092: 3060: 2757:"Genome-wide evidence for speciation with gene flow in Heliconius butterflies" 1729: 1287: 104: 92: 88: 70: 39: 30: 2871: 1913: 1737: 1469:

Adams JR, Vucetich LM, Hedrick PW, Peterson RO, Vucetich JA (November 2011).

1398: 1197: 1145: 722:, which was able to use roads by which to travel and overpopulate Australia. 547:, demonstrated a lower prevalence of genetic differentiation than the plants 4221: 4072: 3816: 3636: 3047: 2822: 2805: 2725: 2644: 2540: 1390: 1189: 849: 837: 800: 719: 641: 96: 2890: 2831: 2790: 2662: 2613: 2548: 2505: 2443: 2266: 2209: 2174: 2123: 2071: 2063: 2027: 1989: 1804: 1702: 1684: 1645: 1591: 1583: 1504: 1486: 1416: 1359: 1305: 1248: 1096: 2772: 2741: 1213: 4124: 3472: 3326: 820: 597: 193:. When there is one migrant per generation, the inbreeding coefficient ( 2595: 2572:"The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains" 2248: 2201: 1956:"The ectoparasites of hybrid ducks in New Zealand (Mallard x Grey Duck)" 1637: 1346:"Effects of life history traits on genetic diversity in plant species". 3766: 3666: 3514: 3509: 3223: 2975: 2733: 1954:

Bulgarella M, Quenu M, Shepherd LD, Morgan-Richards M (December 2018).

1875: 1205: 1165: 777: 769: 750: 654: 2804:

Shan L, Hu Y, Zhu L, Yan L, Wang C, Li D, et al. (October 2014).

2155: 2114: 2097: 2019: 1088: 745:(direct uptake of genetic material by a cell from its surroundings), 596:. In human populations, genetic differentiation can also result from 60: 35: 2422:

Mallet, James (2005). "Hybridization as an invasion of the genome".

701:

Another example of urban facilitation is that of migrating bobcats (

2951: 2098:"Urbanization as a facilitator of gene flow in a human health pest" 3722: 3531: 3430: 848: 523: 29: 933:

Comparisons between sympatric and allopatric populations of

836:

sometimes the hybrids may look identical to the original species

504:{\displaystyle Nm=((1/F_{ST})-1)/4={\tfrac {1-F_{ST}}{4*F_{ST}}}} 357:

The formula can be modified to solve for the migration rate when

3681: 816: 792: 773: 600:, due to differences in caste, ethnicity, customs and religion. 532:

When gene flow is blocked by physical barriers, this results in

2979: 2233:"Gene transfer agents: phage-like elements of genetic exchange" 1166:"Gene Flow and the Geographic Structure of Natural Populations" 2139:"Climate connectivity of the bobcat in the Great Lakes region" 1960:

International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife

896:

they are the only iguana that has evolved the ability to swim.

823:

has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule

788:

exchange and cooperative effects of horizontal gene transfer.

885:

the direction of what resources are abundant at a given time.

765:(transfer by a virus-like element produced by a bacterium) . 669:

affects gene flow of urban populations. The first is through

2963: 27:

Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another

2283: 42:

to another population through immigration of individuals.

2096:

Miles LS, Johnson JC, Dyer RJ, Verrelli BC (July 2018).

454: 1229:

Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution

393: 363: 292: 259: 229: 199: 185:). This formula accounts for the proportion of total 161: 134: 99:

of a species or population (adaptive introgression.)

1889:

Potts BM, Barbour RC, Hingston AB (September 2001).

4140: 4065: 3969: 3896: 3852: 3707: 3611: 3428: 3387: 3256: 3046: 1759:Heber S, Briskie JV, Apiolaza LA (13 August 2012). 2137:Marrotte RR, Bowman J, Wilson PJ (February 2020). 503: 379: 347: 275: 245: 215: 177: 147: 811:with rare HGT events suggest there was no single 693:). A study by Miles et al. collected genome-wide 1044:Frankham R, Briscoe DA, Ballou JD (2002-03-14). 753:between two bacterial cells in direct contact), 2231:Lang AS, Zhaxybayeva O, Beatty JT (June 2012). 1565: 1563: 1561: 2699: 2697: 2991: 1526:. Oxford University Press. pp. 329–346. 880:to occur as a result of differing geography. 803:in the presence of HGT. Combining the simple 8: 1524:Molecular Genetic Approaches in Conservation 528:Examples of speciation affecting gene flow. 189:variation among populations, averaged over 2998: 2984: 2976: 2952:Transcontainer research on biocontainment 2947:Co-Extra research on gene flow mitigation 2880: 2870: 2845:Schemske DW, Bradshaw HD (October 1999). 2821: 2780: 2652: 2603: 2256: 2164: 2154: 2113: 1979: 1794: 1784: 1692: 1494: 1406: 1295: 1135: 1124:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 644:as a result of either a numerical and/or 488: 467: 453: 442: 421: 412: 392: 368: 362: 327: 312: 297: 291: 264: 258: 234: 228: 204: 198: 166: 160: 139: 133: 4232:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance 2964:SIGMEA research on the biosafety of GMOs 1856:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 1321:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2001: 1999: 1029: 2329:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title ( 2322: 1936: 1926: 799:, it is difficult to trace organismal 3995:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion 2676:Tobias PV, Strong V, White W (1985). 2091: 2089: 1818:Aubry C, Shoal R, Erickson V (2005). 1464: 1462: 1047:Introduction to Conservation Genetics 7: 1159: 1157: 1155: 1039: 1037: 1035: 1033: 921:population originating in Africa of 348:{\displaystyle F_{ST}=1/(4N_{e}m+1)} 1333:10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.001123 780:including across the boundaries of 3400:Evolutionary developmental biology 953:The captive genetic management of 872:fragmented landscapes such as the 665:There are two main models for how 25: 2459:Trends in Ecology & Evolution 1354:(1345): 1291–1298. January 1997. 78:. Populations can diverge due to 4254: 4245: 4244: 2498:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04895.x 1673:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 1522:. In Smith TB, Wayne RK (eds.). 1475:Proceedings. Biological Sciences 1445:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98115.x 1241:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00179.x 4057:Extended evolutionary synthesis 3246:Gene-centered view of evolution 2810:Molecular Biology and Evolution 2633:Molecular Biology and Evolution 2424:Trends in Ecology and Evolution 1868:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 757:(injection of foreign DNA by a 4185:Hologenome theory of evolution 4052:History of molecular evolution 3278:Evolutionarily stable strategy 3167:Last universal common ancestor 1050:. Cambridge University Press. 695:single nucleotide polymorphism 439: 430: 406: 403: 342: 317: 126:effective population size 1: 3979:Renaissance and Enlightenment 2931:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00066-4 2471:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02290-X 761:virus into the host cell) or 34:Gene flow is the transfer of 4190:Missing heritability problem 3817:Gamete differentiation/sexes 2237:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 2190:Nature Reviews. Microbiology 1972:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.09.005 1786:10.1371/journal.pone.0043113 1669:"Vulpes lagopus) population" 1164:Slatkin, Montgomery (1987). 511:, Nm = number of migrants. 4297: 3822:Life cycles/nuclear phases 3374:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 2436:10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.010 2345:"Horizontal Gene Transfer" 734: 625: 4240: 3320:Parent–offspring conflict 3125:Earliest known life forms 3013: 1730:10.1007/s10592-009-9999-5 1288:10.1016/j.cub.2011.06.043 1137:10.1093/biolinnean/bly142 1071:Stankowski S (May 2013). 951:Human-mediated gene flow: 763:GTA-mediated transduction 726:Gene flow between species 113:Black Footed Rock Wallaby 4173:Cultural group selection 4037:The eclipse of Darwinism 4009:On the Origin of Species 3984:Transmutation of species 2872:10.1073/pnas.96.21.11910 737:Horizontal gene transfer 731:Horizontal gene transfer 604:Human assisted gene-flow 4178:Dual inheritance theory 4017:History of paleontology 2919:Biological Conservation 2726:10.1126/science.3125610 2541:10.1126/science.1070315 1190:10.1126/science.3576198 876:are an ideal place for 616:Drosophila melanogaster 565:grows. This is because 3866:Punctuated equilibrium 3187:Non-adaptive radiation 3135:Evolutionary arms race 2064:10.1002/bies.201000154 1685:10.1098/rspb.2017.2814 1584:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800237 1487:10.1098/rspb.2011.0261 1360:10.1098/rstb.1996.0112 870:Fragmented Population: 861: 555:Heteropappus hispidus, 537:barriers, such as the 529: 505: 381: 380:{\displaystyle F_{ST}} 349: 277: 276:{\displaystyle F_{ST}} 253:= 1). The most common 247: 246:{\displaystyle F_{ST}} 217: 216:{\displaystyle F_{ST}} 179: 178:{\displaystyle F_{ST}} 149: 109:inbreeding coefficient 43: 4158:Evolutionary medicine 4032:Mendelian inheritance 3740:Biological complexity 3728:Programmed cell death 3420:Phenotypic plasticity 3140:Evolutionary pressure 3130:Evidence of evolution 3028:Timeline of evolution 2823:10.1093/molbev/msu210 2773:10.1101/gr.159426.113 2645:10.1093/molbev/msx314 2143:Ecology and Evolution 1718:Conservation Genetics 1549:www. f s I ed. u s/ r 1391:10.1093/beheco/ary012 852: 671:habitat fragmentation 534:Allopatric speciation 527: 520:Allopatric speciation 515:Barriers to gene flow 506: 382: 350: 278: 248: 218: 180: 150: 148:{\displaystyle N_{e}} 65:) is the transfer of 33: 4132:Teleology in biology 4027:Blending inheritance 3405:Genetic assimilation 3268:Artificial selection 3007:Evolutionary biology 1433:Conservation Biology 1009:Biological dispersal 936:Heliconius melpomene 819:. Each contemporary 813:last common ancestor 797:phylogenetic markers 691:Latrodectus hesperus 686:of similar species. 574:Sympatric speciation 391: 361: 290: 257: 227: 197: 159: 132: 4281:Population genetics 4195:Molecular evolution 4153:Ecological genetics 4022:Transitional fossil 3812:Sexual reproduction 3652:endomembrane system 3581:pollinator-mediated 3537:dolphins and whales 3315:Parental investment 2863:1999PNAS...9611910S 2718:1988Sci...239.1263S 2596:10.1038/nature12886 2588:2014Natur.505...43P 2533:2002Sci...296..707G 2284:permanent dead link 2249:10.1038/nrmicro2802 2202:10.1038/nrmicro3199 1777:2012PLoSO...743113H 1638:10.1038/nature04566 1630:2006Natur.441..210S 1182:1987Sci...236..787S 968:Two populations of 539:Great Wall of China 119:Measuring gene flow 48:population genetics 4168:Cultural evolution 3283:Fisher's principle 3212:Handicap principle 3202:Parallel evolution 3066:Adaptive radiation 2969:2011-10-07 at the 2957:2011-09-26 at the 1679:(1875): 20172814. 1518:Neigel JE (1996). 1379:Behavioral Ecology 981:Mimulus cardinalis 955:threatened species 900:Human Populations: 889:Island Population: 878:adaptive radiation 862: 651:outward appearance 590:assortative mating 530: 501: 499: 377: 345: 273: 243: 213: 175: 145: 107:, measured by the 85:allele frequencies 69:material from one 44: 4268: 4267: 3884:Uniformitarianism 3837:Sex-determination 3342:Sexual dimorphism 3337:Natural selection 3241:Unit of selection 3207:Signalling theory 2687:978-0-8451-4202-8 2527:(5568): 707–711. 2486:Molecular Ecology 2156:10.1002/ece3.6049 2115:10.1111/mec.14783 2108:(16): 3219–3230. 2102:Molecular Ecology 2020:10.1111/mec.15221 2014:(18): 4138–4151. 2008:Molecular Ecology 1905:978-0-642-58336-9 1533:978-0-19-534466-0 1481:(1723): 3336–44. 1176:(4803): 787–792. 1089:10.1111/mec.12287 1077:Molecular Ecology 1019:Genetic admixture 874:Galapagos Islands 858:Galapagos Islands 628:Genetic pollution 622:Genetic pollution 586:genetic pollution 498: 16:(Redirected from 4288: 4258: 4248: 4247: 4047:Modern synthesis 3807:Multicellularity 3802:Mosaic evolution 3687:auditory ossicle 3369:Social selection 3352:Flowering plants 3347:Sexual selection 3000: 2993: 2986: 2977: 2935: 2934: 2914: 2908: 2901: 2895: 2894: 2884: 2874: 2842: 2836: 2835: 2825: 2801: 2795: 2794: 2784: 2752: 2746: 2745: 2712:(4845): 1263–8. 2701: 2692: 2691: 2673: 2667: 2666: 2656: 2624: 2618: 2617: 2607: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2516: 2510: 2509: 2492:(23): 5090–100. 2481: 2475: 2474: 2454: 2448: 2447: 2419: 2413: 2412: 2410: 2409: 2403: 2397:. Archived from 2391: 2385: 2384: 2382: 2381: 2372:. Archived from 2366: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2356: 2347:. Archived from 2341: 2335: 2334: 2328: 2320: 2318: 2317: 2311: 2305:. Archived from 2304: 2296: 2289: 2285: 2277: 2271: 2270: 2260: 2228: 2222: 2221: 2185: 2179: 2178: 2168: 2158: 2149:(4): 2131–2144. 2134: 2128: 2127: 2117: 2093: 2084: 2083: 2046: 2040: 2039: 2003: 1994: 1993: 1983: 1951: 1945: 1944: 1938: 1934: 1932: 1924: 1922: 1916:. Archived from 1897: 1886: 1880: 1879: 1851: 1845: 1844: 1842: 1841: 1835: 1824: 1815: 1809: 1808: 1798: 1788: 1756: 1750: 1749: 1713: 1707: 1706: 1696: 1664: 1658: 1657: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1567: 1556: 1544: 1538: 1537: 1515: 1509: 1508: 1498: 1466: 1457: 1456: 1427: 1421: 1420: 1410: 1370: 1364: 1363: 1343: 1337: 1336: 1316: 1310: 1309: 1299: 1282:(15): 1296–301. 1267: 1261: 1260: 1224: 1218: 1217: 1161: 1150: 1149: 1139: 1115: 1109: 1108: 1068: 1062: 1061: 1041: 882:Darwin's finches 751:genetic material 559:Prunus armeniaca 552:Ziziphus jujuba, 510: 508: 507: 502: 500: 497: 496: 495: 476: 475: 474: 455: 446: 429: 428: 416: 386: 384: 383: 378: 376: 375: 354: 352: 351: 346: 332: 331: 316: 305: 304: 282: 280: 279: 274: 272: 271: 252: 250: 249: 244: 242: 241: 222: 220: 219: 214: 212: 211: 187:molecular marker 184: 182: 181: 176: 174: 173: 154: 152: 151: 146: 144: 143: 21: 18:Genetic exchange 4296: 4295: 4291: 4290: 4289: 4287: 4286: 4285: 4271: 4270: 4269: 4264: 4236: 4163:Group selection 4136: 4061: 3965: 3892: 3854:Tempo and modes 3848: 3703: 3607: 3424: 3383: 3259: 3252: 3229:Species complex 3042: 3033:History of life 3009: 3004: 2971:Wayback Machine 2959:Wayback Machine 2943: 2938: 2916: 2915: 2911: 2902: 2898: 2857:(21): 11910–5. 2844: 2843: 2839: 2816:(10): 2663–71. 2803: 2802: 2798: 2767:(11): 1817–28. 2761:Genome Research 2754: 2753: 2749: 2703: 2702: 2695: 2688: 2675: 2674: 2670: 2626: 2625: 2621: 2569: 2568: 2564: 2518: 2517: 2513: 2483: 2482: 2478: 2465:(11): 613–622. 2456: 2455: 2451: 2421: 2420: 2416: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2393: 2392: 2388: 2379: 2377: 2368: 2367: 2363: 2354: 2352: 2343: 2342: 2338: 2321: 2315: 2313: 2309: 2302: 2300:"Archived copy" 2298: 2297: 2293: 2278: 2274: 2230: 2229: 2225: 2187: 2186: 2182: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2095: 2094: 2087: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2005: 2004: 1997: 1953: 1952: 1948: 1935: 1925: 1920: 1906: 1895: 1888: 1887: 1883: 1853: 1852: 1848: 1839: 1837: 1833: 1822: 1817: 1816: 1812: 1758: 1757: 1753: 1715: 1714: 1710: 1666: 1665: 1661: 1624:(7090): 210–3. 1612: 1611: 1607: 1569: 1568: 1559: 1545: 1541: 1534: 1517: 1516: 1512: 1468: 1467: 1460: 1429: 1428: 1424: 1372: 1371: 1367: 1345: 1344: 1340: 1318: 1317: 1313: 1276:Current Biology 1269: 1268: 1264: 1226: 1225: 1221: 1163: 1162: 1153: 1117: 1116: 1112: 1083:(10): 2726–41. 1070: 1069: 1065: 1058: 1043: 1042: 1031: 1027: 1014:Genetic erosion 1005: 995:Bobwhite quail: 975:Mimulus lewisii 912:human evolution 906:interbred with 847: 833: 739: 733: 728: 663: 630: 624: 611: 606: 576: 522: 517: 484: 477: 463: 456: 417: 389: 388: 364: 359: 358: 323: 293: 288: 287: 260: 255: 254: 230: 225: 224: 200: 195: 194: 162: 157: 156: 135: 130: 129: 121: 54:(also known as 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4294: 4292: 4284: 4283: 4273: 4272: 4266: 4265: 4263: 4262: 4252: 4241: 4238: 4237: 4235: 4234: 4229: 4224: 4219: 4214: 4213: 4212: 4202: 4197: 4192: 4187: 4182: 4181: 4180: 4175: 4170: 4160: 4155: 4150: 4144: 4142: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4129: 4128: 4127: 4122: 4117: 4116: 4115: 4105: 4100: 4095: 4090: 4085: 4075: 4069: 4067: 4063: 4062: 4060: 4059: 4054: 4049: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4029: 4024: 4019: 4014: 4013: 4012: 4003:Charles Darwin 4000: 3999: 3998: 3986: 3981: 3975: 3973: 3967: 3966: 3964: 3963: 3958: 3953: 3948: 3943: 3941:Non-ecological 3938: 3933: 3928: 3923: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3902: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3891: 3890: 3881: 3872: 3858: 3856: 3850: 3849: 3847: 3846: 3841: 3840: 3839: 3834: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3809: 3804: 3799: 3794: 3789: 3784: 3779: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3759: 3758: 3757: 3747: 3742: 3737: 3732: 3731: 3730: 3725: 3714: 3712: 3705: 3704: 3702: 3701: 3700: 3699: 3694: 3692:nervous system 3689: 3684: 3679: 3671: 3670: 3669: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3644: 3634: 3629: 3624: 3618: 3616: 3609: 3608: 3606: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3584: 3583: 3573: 3572: 3571: 3566: 3565: 3564: 3559: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3528: 3527: 3522: 3512: 3502: 3497: 3496: 3495: 3485: 3480: 3475: 3470: 3469: 3468: 3458: 3453: 3452: 3451: 3441: 3435: 3433: 3426: 3425: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3407: 3402: 3397: 3391: 3389: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3376: 3371: 3366: 3365: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3323: 3322: 3317: 3307: 3302: 3297: 3296: 3295: 3285: 3280: 3275: 3270: 3264: 3262: 3254: 3253: 3251: 3250: 3249: 3248: 3238: 3233: 3232: 3231: 3226: 3216: 3215: 3214: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3192:Origin of life 3189: 3184: 3179: 3177:Microevolution 3174: 3172:Macroevolution 3169: 3164: 3159: 3158: 3157: 3147: 3142: 3137: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3117: 3112: 3110:Common descent 3107: 3106: 3105: 3095: 3090: 3088:Baldwin effect 3085: 3084: 3083: 3078: 3068: 3063: 3058: 3052: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3041: 3040: 3035: 3030: 3025: 3020: 3014: 3011: 3010: 3005: 3003: 3002: 2995: 2988: 2980: 2974: 2973: 2961: 2949: 2942: 2941:External links 2939: 2937: 2936: 2925:(2): 173–180. 2909: 2896: 2837: 2796: 2747: 2693: 2686: 2668: 2639:(3): 623–630. 2619: 2582:(7481): 43–9. 2562: 2511: 2476: 2449: 2430:(5): 229–237. 2414: 2386: 2361: 2336: 2291: 2272: 2223: 2180: 2129: 2085: 2041: 1995: 1966:(3): 335–342. 1946: 1923:on 2004-01-02. 1904: 1881: 1846: 1810: 1751: 1724:(2): 615–626. 1708: 1659: 1605: 1557: 1539: 1532: 1510: 1458: 1439:(3): 531–541. 1422: 1385:(3): 609–618. 1365: 1338: 1327:(1): 167–188. 1311: 1262: 1235:(9): 2229–43. 1219: 1151: 1130:(4): 827–843. 1110: 1063: 1056: 1028: 1026: 1023: 1022: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1004: 1001: 1000: 999: 992: 985: 963: 948: 928: 897: 886: 846: 843: 838:phenotypically 832: 829: 791:"Using single 776:among diverse 743:transformation 735:Main article: 732: 729: 727: 724: 707:microsatellite 679:climate change 662: 659: 626:Main article: 623: 620: 610: 609:Genetic rescue 607: 605: 602: 575: 572: 549:Vitex negundo, 521: 518: 516: 513: 494: 491: 487: 483: 480: 473: 470: 466: 462: 459: 452: 449: 445: 441: 438: 435: 432: 427: 424: 420: 415: 411: 408: 405: 402: 399: 396: 374: 371: 367: 344: 341: 338: 335: 330: 326: 322: 319: 315: 311: 308: 303: 300: 296: 270: 267: 263: 240: 237: 233: 210: 207: 203: 172: 169: 165: 142: 138: 120: 117: 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4293: 4282: 4279: 4278: 4276: 4261: 4257: 4253: 4251: 4243: 4242: 4239: 4233: 4230: 4228: 4225: 4223: 4220: 4218: 4215: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4206: 4205:Phylogenetics 4203: 4201: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4191: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4179: 4176: 4174: 4171: 4169: 4166: 4165: 4164: 4161: 4159: 4156: 4154: 4151: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4143: 4139: 4133: 4130: 4126: 4123: 4121: 4118: 4114: 4111: 4110: 4109: 4108:Structuralism 4106: 4104: 4101: 4099: 4096: 4094: 4091: 4089: 4086: 4084: 4083:Catastrophism 4081: 4080: 4079: 4076: 4074: 4071: 4070: 4068: 4064: 4058: 4055: 4053: 4050: 4048: 4045: 4043: 4042:Neo-Darwinism 4040: 4038: 4035: 4033: 4030: 4028: 4025: 4023: 4020: 4018: 4015: 4011: 4010: 4006: 4005: 4004: 4001: 3997: 3996: 3992: 3991: 3990: 3987: 3985: 3982: 3980: 3977: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3968: 3962: 3959: 3957: 3956:Reinforcement 3954: 3952: 3949: 3947: 3944: 3942: 3939: 3937: 3934: 3932: 3929: 3927: 3924: 3922: 3919: 3917: 3914: 3912: 3909: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3901: 3899: 3895: 3889: 3888:Catastrophism 3885: 3882: 3880: 3879:Macromutation 3876: 3875:Micromutation 3873: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3860: 3859: 3857: 3855: 3851: 3845: 3842: 3838: 3835: 3833: 3830: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3815: 3814: 3813: 3810: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3800: 3798: 3795: 3793: 3790: 3788: 3785: 3783: 3782:Immune system 3780: 3778: 3775: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3765: 3763: 3760: 3756: 3753: 3752: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3729: 3726: 3724: 3721: 3720: 3719: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3711: 3706: 3698: 3695: 3693: 3690: 3688: 3685: 3683: 3680: 3678: 3675: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3643: 3642:symbiogenesis 3640: 3639: 3638: 3635: 3633: 3630: 3628: 3625: 3623: 3620: 3619: 3617: 3615: 3610: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3579: 3578: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3567: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3554: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3523: 3521: 3518: 3517: 3516: 3513: 3511: 3508: 3507: 3506: 3503: 3501: 3498: 3494: 3491: 3490: 3489: 3486: 3484: 3481: 3479: 3476: 3474: 3471: 3467: 3464: 3463: 3462: 3459: 3457: 3454: 3450: 3447: 3446: 3445: 3442: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3434: 3432: 3427: 3421: 3418: 3416: 3413: 3411: 3408: 3406: 3403: 3401: 3398: 3396: 3393: 3392: 3390: 3386: 3380: 3377: 3375: 3372: 3370: 3367: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3349: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3312: 3311: 3310:Kin selection 3308: 3306: 3305:Genetic drift 3303: 3301: 3298: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3279: 3276: 3274: 3271: 3269: 3266: 3265: 3263: 3261: 3255: 3247: 3244: 3243: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3222: 3221: 3220: 3217: 3213: 3210: 3209: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3183: 3180: 3178: 3175: 3173: 3170: 3168: 3165: 3163: 3160: 3156: 3153: 3152: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3141: 3138: 3136: 3133: 3131: 3128: 3126: 3123: 3121: 3118: 3116: 3113: 3111: 3108: 3104: 3101: 3100: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3086: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3073: 3072: 3069: 3067: 3064: 3062: 3059: 3057: 3054: 3053: 3051: 3049: 3045: 3039: 3036: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3016: 3015: 3012: 3008: 3001: 2996: 2994: 2989: 2987: 2982: 2981: 2978: 2972: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2956: 2953: 2950: 2948: 2945: 2944: 2940: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2913: 2910: 2906: 2900: 2897: 2892: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2841: 2838: 2833: 2829: 2824: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2800: 2797: 2792: 2788: 2783: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2751: 2748: 2743: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2689: 2683: 2680:. A.R. Liss. 2679: 2672: 2669: 2664: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2646: 2642: 2638: 2634: 2630: 2623: 2620: 2615: 2611: 2606: 2601: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2573: 2566: 2563: 2558: 2554: 2550: 2546: 2542: 2538: 2534: 2530: 2526: 2522: 2515: 2512: 2507: 2503: 2499: 2495: 2491: 2487: 2480: 2477: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2453: 2450: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2433: 2429: 2425: 2418: 2415: 2404:on 2012-07-21 2400: 2396: 2390: 2387: 2376:on 2012-07-21 2375: 2371: 2365: 2362: 2351:on 2005-10-16 2350: 2346: 2340: 2337: 2332: 2326: 2312:on 2006-02-18 2308: 2301: 2295: 2292: 2287: 2286: 2280: 2276: 2273: 2268: 2264: 2259: 2254: 2250: 2246: 2243:(7): 472–82. 2242: 2238: 2234: 2227: 2224: 2219: 2215: 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2196:(3): 181–96. 2195: 2191: 2184: 2181: 2176: 2172: 2167: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2133: 2130: 2125: 2121: 2116: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2092: 2090: 2086: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2058:(7): 508–18. 2057: 2053: 2045: 2042: 2037: 2033: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2017: 2013: 2009: 2002: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1950: 1947: 1942: 1930: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1901: 1894: 1893: 1885: 1882: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1865: 1862:(1): 83–109. 1861: 1857: 1850: 1847: 1836:on 2023-05-30 1832: 1828: 1821: 1814: 1811: 1806: 1802: 1797: 1792: 1787: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1771:(8): e43113. 1770: 1766: 1762: 1755: 1752: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1719: 1712: 1709: 1704: 1700: 1695: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1663: 1660: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1643: 1639: 1635: 1631: 1627: 1623: 1619: 1615: 1609: 1606: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1566: 1564: 1562: 1558: 1554: 1550: 1543: 1540: 1535: 1529: 1525: 1521: 1514: 1511: 1506: 1502: 1497: 1492: 1488: 1484: 1480: 1476: 1472: 1465: 1463: 1459: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1426: 1423: 1418: 1414: 1409: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1376: 1369: 1366: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1342: 1339: 1334: 1330: 1326: 1322: 1315: 1312: 1307: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1289: 1285: 1281: 1277: 1273: 1266: 1263: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1223: 1220: 1215: 1211: 1207: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1187: 1183: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1160: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1147: 1143: 1138: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1114: 1111: 1106: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1074: 1067: 1064: 1059: 1057:9780521639859 1053: 1049: 1048: 1040: 1038: 1036: 1034: 1030: 1024: 1020: 1017: 1015: 1012: 1010: 1007: 1006: 1002: 996: 993: 989: 986: 983: 982: 977: 976: 971: 970:monkeyflowers 967: 964: 960: 956: 952: 949: 946: 942: 938: 937: 932: 929: 926: 925: 919: 918: 913: 909: 905: 901: 898: 894: 893:marine iguana 890: 887: 883: 879: 875: 871: 868: 867: 866: 859: 855: 854:Marine iguana 851: 844: 842: 839: 831:Hybridization 830: 828: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 789: 785: 783: 779: 775: 771: 766: 764: 760: 759:bacteriophage 756: 752: 749:(transfer of 748: 744: 738: 730: 725: 723: 721: 717: 711: 708: 704: 699: 696: 692: 687: 685: 684:hybridization 680: 674: 672: 668: 660: 658: 656: 652: 647: 643: 639: 638:introgression 635: 634:hybridization 629: 621: 619: 617: 608: 603: 601: 599: 595: 591: 587: 582: 573: 571: 568: 564: 560: 556: 553: 550: 546: 545: 540: 535: 526: 519: 514: 512: 492: 489: 485: 481: 478: 471: 468: 464: 460: 457: 450: 447: 443: 436: 433: 425: 422: 418: 413: 409: 400: 397: 394: 372: 369: 365: 355: 339: 336: 333: 328: 324: 320: 313: 309: 306: 301: 298: 294: 285: 268: 265: 261: 238: 235: 231: 208: 205: 201: 192: 188: 170: 167: 163: 140: 136: 127: 118: 116: 114: 110: 106: 100: 98: 94: 90: 86: 81: 77: 72: 68: 64: 62: 57: 53: 49: 41: 37: 32: 19: 4217:Polymorphism 4200:Astrobiology 4148:Biogeography 4103:Saltationism 4093:Orthogenesis 4078:Alternatives 4007: 3993: 3926:Cospeciation 3921:Cladogenesis 3870:Saltationism 3827:Mating types 3750:Color vision 3735:Avian flight 3657:mitochondria 3395:Canalisation 3299: 3273:Biodiversity 3018:Introduction 2922: 2918: 2912: 2904: 2899: 2854: 2850: 2840: 2813: 2809: 2799: 2764: 2760: 2750: 2709: 2705: 2677: 2671: 2636: 2632: 2622: 2579: 2575: 2565: 2524: 2520: 2514: 2489: 2485: 2479: 2462: 2458: 2452: 2427: 2423: 2417: 2406:. Retrieved 2399:the original 2389: 2378:. Retrieved 2374:the original 2364: 2353:. Retrieved 2349:the original 2339: 2314:. Retrieved 2307:the original 2294: 2281: 2275: 2240: 2236: 2226: 2193: 2189: 2183: 2146: 2142: 2132: 2105: 2101: 2055: 2051: 2044: 2011: 2007: 1963: 1959: 1949: 1918:the original 1891: 1884: 1859: 1855: 1849: 1838:. Retrieved 1831:the original 1826: 1813: 1768: 1764: 1754: 1721: 1717: 1711: 1676: 1672: 1662: 1621: 1617: 1614:Savolainen V 1608: 1578:(3): 212–9. 1575: 1571: 1552: 1548: 1542: 1523: 1513: 1478: 1474: 1436: 1432: 1425: 1382: 1378: 1368: 1351: 1347: 1341: 1324: 1320: 1314: 1279: 1275: 1265: 1232: 1228: 1222: 1173: 1169: 1127: 1123: 1113: 1080: 1076: 1066: 1046: 994: 987: 979: 973: 965: 950: 944: 940: 934: 931:Butterflies: 930: 924:Homo sapiens 922: 917:Homo erectus 915: 908:Neanderthals 904:Homo sapiens 903: 899: 888: 869: 863: 834: 809:cladogenesis 790: 786: 782:phylogenetic 767: 755:transduction 740: 716:hybrid swarm 712: 702: 700: 690: 688: 675: 667:urbanization 664: 661:Urbanization 631: 615: 612: 580: 577: 570:gene pools. 567:Ulmus pumila 566: 563:Ulmus pumila 562: 558: 554: 551: 548: 544:Ulmus pumila 542: 531: 356: 286: 122: 101: 59: 55: 51: 45: 4227:Systematics 4098:Mutationism 3916:Catagenesis 3844:Snake venom 3777:Eusociality 3755:in primates 3745:Cooperation 3673:In animals 3493:butterflies 3466:Cephalopods 3456:Brachiopods 3388:Development 3362:Mate choice 3115:Convergence 3098:Coevolution 3056:Abiogenesis 1937:|work= 959:giant panda 945:H. timareta 943:, and 825:cenancestor 805:coalescence 747:conjugation 594:outbreeding 4088:Lamarckism 4066:Philosophy 3989:David Hume 3951:Peripatric 3946:Parapatric 3931:Ecological 3911:Anagenesis 3906:Allopatric 3898:Speciation 3862:Gradualism 3787:Metabolism 3647:chromosome 3637:Eukaryotes 3415:Modularity 3332:Population 3258:Population 3219:Speciation 3197:Panspermia 3150:Extinction 3145:Exaptation 3120:Divergence 3093:Cladistics 3081:Reciprocal 3061:Adaptation 2408:2005-12-31 2380:2005-12-31 2355:2005-12-31 2316:2005-12-31 2290:dead link 1840:2023-11-16 1820:"Glossary" 1025:References 988:Sika deer: 902:In Europe 703:Lynx rufus 387:is known: 105:inbreeding 93:adaptation 89:speciation 71:population 40:population 4222:Protocell 4073:Darwinism 3961:Sympatric 3710:processes 3598:Tetrapods 3547:Kangaroos 3473:Dinosaurs 3410:Inversion 3379:Variation 3300:Gene flow 3293:Inclusive 3103:Mutualism 3048:Evolution 2080:205470356 2052:BioEssays 2036:201831767 1939:ignored ( 1929:cite book 1914:1440-6845 1738:1566-0621 1547:CO. 1399:1045-2249 1198:0036-8075 1146:0024-4066 807:model of 801:phylogeny 720:cane toad 642:genotypes 482:∗ 461:− 434:− 97:gene pool 80:selection 56:migration 52:gene flow 38:from one 4275:Category 4250:Category 4125:Vitalism 4120:Theistic 4113:Spandrel 3797:Morality 3792:Monogamy 3667:plastids 3632:Flagella 3588:Reptiles 3569:sea cows 3552:primates 3461:Molluscs 3439:Bacteria 3327:Mutation 3260:genetics 3236:Taxonomy 3182:Mismatch 3162:Homology 3076:Cheating 3071:Altruism 2967:Archived 2955:Archived 2905:Elsevier 2891:10518550 2832:25015646 2791:24045163 2663:29220488 2614:24352235 2557:36303685 2549:11976447 2506:21050294 2444:16701374 2325:cite web 2267:22683880 2218:23559881 2210:24509783 2175:32128144 2124:29972610 2072:21523794 2028:31482608 1990:30258780 1805:22912802 1765:PLOS ONE 1746:23194498 1703:29593110 1646:16467788 1600:13367320 1592:12634804 1572:Heredity 1505:21450731 1453:85948161 1417:29769794 1306:21782438 1257:25685919 1249:17767592 1105:39592922 1097:23506623 1003:See also 998:Winters. 991:hybrids. 941:H. cydno 845:Examples 821:molecule 770:plasmids 682:lead to 598:endogamy 4141:Related 3971:History 3832:Meiosis 3767:Empathy 3762:Emotion 3662:nucleus 3603:Viruses 3593:Spiders 3505:Mammals 3488:Insects 3288:Fitness 3224:Species 3023:Outline 2859:Bibcode 2782:3814882 2742:3125610 2734:1700885 2714:Bibcode 2706:Science 2654:5850494 2605:4031459 2584:Bibcode 2529:Bibcode 2521:Science 2258:3626599 2166:7042766 1981:6154467 1876:2097230 1796:3418252 1773:Bibcode 1694:5897638 1626:Bibcode 1551:, 1496:3177630 1408:5946871 1297:3152605 1214:3576198 1206:1699930 1178:Bibcode 1170:Science 966:Plants: 939:, 856:of the 778:species 655:Mallard 646:fitness 67:genetic 36:alleles 4260:Portal 3936:Hybrid 3772:Ethics 3614:organs 3576:Plants 3562:lemurs 3557:humans 3542:horses 3532:hyenas 3520:wolves 3515:canids 3449:origin 2889: 2879: 2830: 2789: 2779: 2740: 2732: 2684: 2661: 2651: 2612: 2602: 2576:Nature 2555: 2547: 2504: 2442: 2265: 2255: 2216: 2208: 2173: 2163: 2122: 2078: 2070: 2034: 2026: 1988: 1978: 1912: 1902: 1874: 1803: 1793: 1744: 1736: 1701: 1691: 1654:867216 1652: 1644: 1618:Nature 1598: 1590: 1530: 1503: 1493: 1451: 1415: 1405: 1397: 1304: 1294: 1255: 1247: 1212: 1204: 1196: 1144: 1103: 1095: 1054: 61:allele 3723:Death 3718:Aging 3697:brain 3483:Fungi 3444:Birds 3357:Fungi 3155:Event 3038:Index 2882:18386 2730:JSTOR 2553:S2CID 2402:(PDF) 2310:(PDF) 2303:(PDF) 2288:] 2214:S2CID 2076:S2CID 2032:S2CID 1921:(PDF) 1896:(PDF) 1872:JSTOR 1834:(PDF) 1823:(PDF) 1742:S2CID 1650:S2CID 1596:S2CID 1449:S2CID 1253:S2CID 1202:JSTOR 1101:S2CID 793:genes 774:genes 581:Howea 76:drift 4210:Tree 3682:hair 3622:Cell 3525:dogs 3510:cats 3500:Life 3478:Fish 3431:taxa 2887:PMID 2828:PMID 2787:PMID 2738:PMID 2682:ISBN 2659:PMID 2610:PMID 2545:PMID 2502:PMID 2440:PMID 2331:link 2263:PMID 2206:PMID 2171:PMID 2120:PMID 2068:PMID 2024:PMID 1986:PMID 1941:help 1910:ISSN 1900:ISBN 1801:PMID 1734:ISSN 1699:PMID 1642:PMID 1588:PMID 1528:ISBN 1501:PMID 1413:PMID 1395:ISSN 1302:PMID 1245:PMID 1210:PMID 1194:ISSN 1142:ISSN 1093:PMID 1052:ISBN 978:and 891:The 817:life 592:and 557:and 191:loci 63:flow 58:and 3708:Of 3677:eye 3627:DNA 3612:Of 3429:Of 2927:doi 2877:PMC 2867:doi 2818:doi 2777:PMC 2769:doi 2722:doi 2710:239 2649:PMC 2641:doi 2600:PMC 2592:doi 2580:505 2537:doi 2525:296 2494:doi 2467:doi 2432:doi 2253:PMC 2245:doi 2198:doi 2161:PMC 2151:doi 2110:doi 2060:doi 2016:doi 1976:PMC 1968:doi 1864:doi 1791:PMC 1781:doi 1726:doi 1689:PMC 1681:doi 1677:285 1634:doi 1622:441 1580:doi 1491:PMC 1483:doi 1479:278 1441:doi 1403:PMC 1387:doi 1356:doi 1352:351 1329:doi 1292:PMC 1284:doi 1237:doi 1186:doi 1174:236 1132:doi 1128:125 1085:doi 795:as 46:In 4277:: 2923:87 2921:. 2885:. 2875:. 2865:. 2855:96 2853:. 2849:. 2826:. 2814:31 2812:. 2808:. 2785:. 2775:. 2765:23 2763:. 2759:. 2736:. 2728:. 2720:. 2708:. 2696:^ 2657:. 2647:. 2637:35 2635:. 2631:. 2608:. 2598:. 2590:. 2578:. 2574:. 2551:. 2543:. 2535:. 2523:. 2500:. 2490:19 2488:. 2463:16 2461:. 2438:. 2428:20 2426:. 2327:}} 2323:{{ 2261:. 2251:. 2241:10 2239:. 2235:. 2212:. 2204:. 2194:12 2192:. 2169:. 2159:. 2147:10 2145:. 2141:. 2118:. 2106:27 2104:. 2100:. 2088:^ 2074:. 2066:. 2056:33 2054:. 2030:. 2022:. 2012:28 2010:. 1998:^ 1984:. 1974:. 1962:. 1958:. 1933:: 1931:}} 1927:{{ 1908:. 1870:. 1860:27 1858:. 1825:. 1799:. 1789:. 1779:. 1767:. 1763:. 1740:. 1732:. 1722:11 1720:. 1697:. 1687:. 1675:. 1671:. 1648:. 1640:. 1632:. 1620:. 1594:. 1586:. 1576:90 1574:. 1560:^ 1499:. 1489:. 1477:. 1473:. 1461:^ 1447:. 1437:13 1435:. 1411:. 1401:. 1393:. 1383:29 1381:. 1377:. 1350:. 1325:25 1323:. 1300:. 1290:. 1280:21 1278:. 1274:. 1251:. 1243:. 1233:61 1231:. 1208:. 1200:. 1192:. 1184:. 1172:. 1168:. 1154:^ 1140:. 1126:. 1122:. 1099:. 1091:. 1081:22 1079:. 1075:. 1032:^ 636:, 588:, 50:, 3886:/ 3877:/ 3868:/ 3864:/ 2999:e 2992:t 2985:v 2933:. 2929:: 2893:. 2869:: 2861:: 2834:. 2820:: 2793:. 2771:: 2744:. 2724:: 2716:: 2690:. 2665:. 2643:: 2616:. 2594:: 2586:: 2559:. 2539:: 2531:: 2508:. 2496:: 2473:. 2469:: 2446:. 2434:: 2411:. 2383:. 2358:. 2333:) 2319:. 2269:. 2247:: 2220:. 2200:: 2177:. 2153:: 2126:. 2112:: 2082:. 2062:: 2038:. 2018:: 1992:. 1970:: 1964:7 1943:) 1878:. 1866:: 1843:. 1807:. 1783:: 1775:: 1769:7 1748:. 1728:: 1705:. 1683:: 1656:. 1636:: 1628:: 1602:. 1582:: 1555:. 1553:2 1536:. 1507:. 1485:: 1455:. 1443:: 1419:. 1389:: 1362:. 1358:: 1335:. 1331:: 1308:. 1286:: 1259:. 1239:: 1216:. 1188:: 1180:: 1148:. 1134:: 1107:. 1087:: 1060:. 984:. 493:T 490:S 486:F 479:4 472:T 469:S 465:F 458:1 451:= 448:4 444:/ 440:) 437:1 431:) 426:T 423:S 419:F 414:/ 410:1 407:( 404:( 401:= 398:m 395:N 373:T 370:S 366:F 343:) 340:1 337:+ 334:m 329:e 325:N 321:4 318:( 314:/ 310:1 307:= 302:T 299:S 295:F 269:T 266:S 262:F 239:T 236:S 232:F 209:T 206:S 202:F 171:T 168:S 164:F 141:e 137:N 128:( 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.