1417:
1400:
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822:. These scientists formed a school of thought known as the "spermists". They contended the only contributions of the female to the next generation were the womb in which the homunculus grew, and prenatal influences of the womb. An opposing school of thought, the ovists, believed that the future human was in the egg, and that sperm merely stimulated the growth of the egg. Ovists thought women carried eggs containing boy and girl children, and that the gender of the offspring was determined well before conception.
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798:. In direct opposition, the Doctrine of Preformation claimed that "like generates like" where the germ would evolve to yield offspring similar to the parents. The Preformationist view believed procreation was an act of revealing what had been created long before. However, this was disputed by the creation of the
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Almost all aspects of the synthesis have been challenged at times, with varying degrees of success. There is no doubt, however, that the synthesis was a great landmark in evolutionary biology. It cleared up many confusions, and was directly responsible for stimulating a great deal of research in the
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is defined by the regular and repeated activities of organisms in their environment. This generates a legacy of effect that modifies and feeds back into the selection regime of subsequent generations. Descendants inherit genes plus environmental characteristics generated by the ecological actions of
936:
The primacy of population thinking: the genetic diversity carried in natural populations is a key factor in evolution. The strength of natural selection in the wild was greater than expected; the effect of ecological factors such as niche occupation and the significance of barriers to gene flow are
806:
were also envisaged without being properly tested or quantified, and were later disputed. Nevertheless, people were able to develop domestic breeds of animals as well as crops through artificial selection. The inheritance of acquired traits also formed a part of early
Lamarckian ideas on evolution.
829:
led an investigation to study the laws of heredity through compiling data on family phenotypes (nose size, ear shape, etc.) and expression of pathological conditions and abnormal characteristics, particularly with respect to the age of appearance. One of the projects aims was to tabulate data to
535:
skin derives from the interaction between a person's genotype and sunlight; thus, suntans are not passed on to people's children. However, some people tan more easily than others, due to differences in their genotype: a striking example is people with the inherited trait of
622:
inheritance systems that are causally or independently evolving over genes. Research into modes and mechanisms of epigenetic inheritance is still in its scientific infancy, but this area of research has attracted much recent activity as it broadens the scope of
712:
and his later biological works. Darwin's primary approach to heredity was to outline how it appeared to work (noticing that traits that were not expressed explicitly in the parent at the time of reproduction could be inherited, that certain traits could be
789:
Ancient understandings of heredity transitioned to two debated doctrines in the 18th century. The
Doctrine of Epigenesis and the Doctrine of Preformation were two distinct views of the understanding of heredity. The Doctrine of Epigenesis, originated by
879:
1409:
are generally inherited in an autosomal fashion because there are more non-X chromosomes than X-chromosomes, and a recessive fashion because the enzymes from the unaffected genes are generally sufficient to prevent symptoms in
882:" Mendel's overall contribution gave scientists a useful overview that traits were inheritable. His pea plant demonstration became the foundation of the study of Mendelian Traits. These traits can be traced on a single locus.
702:). Blending inheritance would lead to uniformity across populations in only a few generations and then would remove variation from a population on which natural selection could act. This led to Darwin adopting some
606:
within and among organisms. Developmental biologists suggest that complex interactions in genetic networks and communication among cells can lead to heritable variations that may underlie some of the mechanics in
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occurs after populations are reproductively isolated has been much debated. In plants, polyploidy must be included in any view of speciation. Formulations such as 'evolution consists primarily of changes in the
2808:
651:) are areas where epigenetic inheritance systems have been discovered at the organismic level. Heritability may also occur at even larger scales. For example, ecological inheritance through the process of
567:(the sequence of bases along a particular DNA molecule) specifies the genetic information: this is comparable to a sequence of letters spelling out a passage of text. Before a cell divides through
794:, claimed that an embryo continually develops. The modifications of the parent's traits are passed off to an embryo during its lifetime. The foundation of this doctrine was based on the theory of
1359:
is said to be dominant if it is always expressed in the appearance of an organism (phenotype) provided that at least one copy of it is present. For example, in peas the allele for green pods,
874:
only accounted for large (qualitative) differences, such as those seen by Mendel in his pea plants – and the idea of additive effect of (quantitative) genes was not realised until
3458:
3051:
Handschuh, Stephan; Mitteroecker, Philipp (June 2012). "Evolution – The
Extended Synthesis. A research proposal persuasive enough for the majority of evolutionary biologists?".
1343:
Determination and description of a mode of inheritance is also achieved primarily through statistical analysis of pedigree data. In case the involved loci are known, methods of
1738:
2284:
571:, the DNA is copied, so that each of the resulting two cells will inherit the DNA sequence. A portion of a DNA molecule that specifies a single functional unit is called a
694:
in 1859, one of its major problems was the lack of an underlying mechanism for heredity. Darwin believed in a mix of blending inheritance and the inheritance of acquired
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1819:
2812:
618:
Recent findings have confirmed important examples of heritable changes that cannot be explained by direct agency of the DNA molecule. These phenomena are classed as
1393:, the degree to which both copies of a chromosome or gene have the same genetic sequence, in other words, the degree of similarity of the alleles in an organism.
1200:
These three categories are part of every exact description of a mode of inheritance in the above order. In addition, more specifications may be added as follows:
599:, producing new alleles. If a mutation occurs within a gene, the new allele may affect the trait that the gene controls, altering the phenotype of the organism.
1385:(heterozygote) will have green pods. The allele for yellow pods is recessive. The effects of this allele are only seen when it is present in both chromosomes,
508:
is an example of an inherited characteristic: an individual might inherit the "brown-eye trait" from one of the parents. Inherited traits are controlled by
802:
in the 19th century, where the fundamental unit of life is the cell, and not some preformed parts of an organism. Various hereditary mechanisms, including
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397:
915:. Discontinuities amongst species (or other taxa) are explained as originating gradually through geographical separation and extinction (not saltation).
2603:
4572:
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587:, containing a unique combination of DNA sequences that code for genes. The specific location of a DNA sequence within a chromosome is known as a
1434:) are generally autosomal dominant, because it is enough that some components are defective to make the whole structure dysfunctional. This is a
870:
who published his work on pea plants in 1865. However, his work was not widely known and was rediscovered in 1901. It was initially assumed that
3174:"Environmental stresses induce transgenerationally inheritable survival advantages via germline-to-soma communication in Caenorhabditis elegans"
602:
However, while this simple correspondence between an allele and a trait works in some cases, most traits are more complex and are controlled by
2390:
904:. The modern synthesis bridged the gap between experimental geneticists and naturalists; and between both and palaeontologists, stating that:
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All evolutionary phenomena can be explained in a way consistent with known genetic mechanisms and the observational evidence of naturalists.
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is overwhelmingly the main mechanism of change; even slight advantages are important when continued. The object of selection is the
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814:(1632–1723) discovered "animalcules" in the sperm of humans and other animals. Some scientists speculated they saw a "little man" (
728:
school of heredity. Galton found no evidence to support the aspects of Darwin's pangenesis model, which relied on acquired traits.
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ancestors. Other examples of heritability in evolution that are not under the direct control of genes include the inheritance of
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762:. The heat/cold part is largely symmetrical, though influenced on the father's side by other factors, but the form part is not.
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989:
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2024:"Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance: Prevalence, mechanisms, and implications for the study of heredity and evolution"
4300:
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1492:
1914:
Wu R; Lin M (2006). "Functional mapping – how to map and study the genetic architecture of dynamic complex traits".
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There is growing evidence that there is transgenerational inheritance of epigenetic changes in humans and other animals.
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3245:
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speculated that "seeds" were produced by various body parts and transmitted to offspring at the time of conception; and
591:. If the DNA sequence at a particular locus varies between individuals, the different forms of this sequence are called
3246:""Experiments in Plant Hybridization" (1866), by Johann Gregor Mendel", by A. Andrei at the Embryo Project Encyclopedia
992:. This movement affected agricultural research and led to food shortages in the 1960s and seriously affected the USSR.
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between one generation and another' were proposed rather later. The traditional view is that developmental biology ('
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1435:
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42:
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2098:"Experimental alteration of DNA methylation affects the phenotypic plasticity of ecologically relevant traits in
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35:
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786:, in 458 BC, proposed the male as the parent, with the female as a "nurse for the young life sown within her".
708:
608:
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177:
4251:
2342:"The joint effects of kin, multilevel selection and indirect genetic effects on response to genetic selection"
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In the 1930s, work by Fisher and others resulted in a combination of
Mendelian and biometric schools into the
27:
This article is about the transfer of characteristics from parent to offspring. For the academic journal, see
1625:
Visscher PM; Hill WG; Wray NR (2008). "Heritability in the genomics era – concepts and misconceptions".
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process, wherein a mutated gene product adversely affects the non-mutated gene product within the same cell.
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1867:"Epistasis – the essential role of gene interactions in the structure and evolution of genetic systems"
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Oetting WS; Brilliant MH; King RA (1996). "The clinical spectrum of albinism in humans and by action".
755:
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668:. These examples of heritability that operate above the gene are covered broadly under the title of
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2554:"The next evolutionary synthesis: from Lamarck and Darwin to genomic variation and systems biology"
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better understand why certain traits are consistently expressed while others are highly irregular.
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The complete set of observable traits of the structure and behavior of an organism is called its
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28:
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2927:
The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel, the Father of
Genetics
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Table showing how the genes exchange according to segregation or independent assortment during
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2391:"The hierarchical expansion of sorting and selection: Sorting and selection cannot be equated"
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1989:
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Darwin's initial model of heredity was adopted by, and then heavily modified by, his cousin
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of their parents. Through heredity, variations between individuals can accumulate and cause
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Sturm RA; Frudakis TN (2004). "Eye colour: portals into pigmentation genes and ancestry".
1016:
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1977:
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1985:
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The description of a mode of biological inheritance consists of three main categories:
1051:
973:
721:
687:
576:
531:. As a result, many aspects of an organism's phenotype are not inherited. For example,
434:
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Griffiths, Anthony, J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley, John (2012).
2358:
2341:
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672:, which has been a subject of intense debate in the history of evolutionary science.
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2001:
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967:
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624:
497:
300:
59:
17:
1654:
1035:
3150:
2709:
Negbi, Moshe (Summer 1995). "Male and female in
Theophrastus's botanical works".
2680:
The
Biology of Belief: Unleashing the Power of Consciousness, Matter and Miracles
2493:
2157:
1794:
Griffiths, Anthony, J.F.; Wessler, Susan R.; Carroll, Sean B.; Doebley J (2012).
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Transgenerational epigenetics#Major controversies in the history of inheritance
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3096:
2770:"Aristotle's Biology – 5.2. From Inquiry to Understanding; from hoti to dioti"
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985:
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527:. These traits arise from the interaction of the organism's genotype with the
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230:
144:
124:
101:
3105:
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3011:(1994). "Genetic Divergence, Reproductive Isolation, and Marine Speciation".
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880:
The
Correlation Between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance
4348:
4055:
3932:
3681:
3137:
Szyf, M (2015). "Nongenetic inheritance and transgenerational epigenetics".
2159:
Evolution in four dimensions: Genetic, epigenetic, behavioural, and symbolic
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933:, it was downgraded later as results from ecological genetics were obtained.
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Heritable traits are known to be passed from one generation to the next via
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The growth of biological thought: diversity, evolution & inheritance
2746:
Hippocratic
Treatises: On Generation – Nature of the Child – Diseases Ic
1242:(in polygenetic and sometimes also in oligogenetic modes of inheritance)
4078:
3985:
3955:
3868:
3763:
3758:
3205:
2722:
1406:
1055:
An example pedigree chart of a sex-linked disorder (The gene is on the
863:
843:
583:. Organisms inherit genetic material from their parents in the form of
568:
556:
541:
458:
446:
3241:
Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry on Heredity and Heritability
1422:
On the other hand, hereditary defects in structural proteins (such as
911:
Evolution is gradual: small genetic changes, recombination ordered by
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The idea of particulate inheritance of genes can be attributed to the
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The article, written by an obscure Moravian monk named Gregor Mendel
1927:
1882:
1638:
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65:
Passing of traits to offspring from the species' parents or ancestor
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Individual Development and Evolution: The Genesis of Novel Behavior
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3741:
1050:
1042:
1034:
837:
754:
744:
472:
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Charlesworth, Brian & Charlesworth, Deborah (November 2009).
2457:(10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 14.
4123:
3863:
3800:
2196:"Perspective: Seven reasons (not) to neglect niche construction"
2096:
Bossdorf, O.; Arcuri, D.; Richards, C.L.; Pigliucci, M. (2010).
1798:(10th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. p. 3.
740:
572:
509:
4388:
3638:
3254:
2633:
Liu Y. (May 2008). "A new perspective on Darwin's Pangenesis".
3746:
3343:
3338:
548:
489:
111:
106:
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are in the centre, surrounded by phosphate–sugar chains in a
1047:
An example pedigree chart of an autosomal recessive disorder
575:; different genes have different sequences of bases. Within
3250:
1670:"PGC-1 coactivators regulate MITF and the tanning response"
1039:
An example pedigree chart of an autosomal dominant disorder
774:
proposed that male flowers caused female flowers to ripen;
747:
and found that their offspring continued to develop tails.
579:, the long strands of DNA form condensed structures called
48:"Hereditary" redirects here. For the 2018 horror film, see
954:') played little part in the synthesis, but an account of
3634:
782:
thought that male and female fluids mixed at conception.
62:, a statistic estimating the degree of genetic variation.
2837:
Hartsoeker's Homunculus Sketch from Essai de Dioptrique
2809:"Antoni van Leeuwenhoek's Amazing Little "Animalcules""
2285:"Rethinking the theoretical foundation of sociobiology"
1844:. Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates, Inc.
1719:"Genetics of pigmentation and melanoma predisposition"
929:
is equivocal; though strongly supported initially by
477:
Heredity of phenotypic traits: a father and son with
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4504:
4458:
4422:
4326:
4227:
4186:
4137:
4054:
3946:
3906:
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3814:
3779:
3715:
3593:
3492:
3443:
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3326:
512:and the complete set of genes within an organism's
2924:
2677:
1837:
1293:Inheritance through the paternal line (in case of
1286:Inheritance through the maternal line (in case of
825:An early research initiative emerged in 1878 when
540:, who do not tan at all and are very sensitive to
2953:
2951:
735:was shown to have little basis in the 1880s when
976:however caused a backlash of what is now called
555:that encodes genetic information. DNA is a long
425:from parents to their offspring; either through
41:"Bloodline" redirects here. For other uses, see
2901:. Munn & Company. 1878-11-30. p. 343.
1563:
1561:
1205:4. Coincidental and environmental interactions
4400:
3650:
3266:
3080:"Human genetics in troubled times and places"
391:
8:
2477:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
1818:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
925:in its surrounding environment. The role of
810:During the 18th century, Dutch microscopist
2278:
2276:
1367:. Thus pea plants with the pair of alleles
886:Modern development of genetics and heredity
717:, etc.) rather than suggesting mechanisms.
4407:
4393:
4385:
4134:
3657:
3643:
3635:
3273:
3259:
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1966:Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences
846:and how this translates into Mendel's laws
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384:
67:
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3113:
3095:
2579:
2569:
2517:
2357:
2211:
2042:
1890:
1693:
1593:
1137:Y-chromosomal – loci are situated on the
1130:X-chromosomal – loci are situated on the
3013:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
484:
4573:Suppressed research in the Soviet Union
4527:Inheritance of acquired characteristics
3606:List of genetics research organizations
1522:
1498:Inheritance of acquired characteristics
1395:
1363:, is dominant to that for yellow pods,
770:had a variety of ideas about heredity:
75:
2470:
1811:
2772:. Stanford University. Feb 15, 2006.
1959:"The changing concept of epigenetics"
627:and evolutionary biology in general.
7:
4563:Collectivization in the Soviet Union
2283:Wilson, D. S.; Wilson, E.O. (2007).
670:multilevel or hierarchical selection
3025:10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.002555
2961:, p. 206. Toronto: Pearson Canada.
2959:Psychology: the Science of Behavior
2194:Laland, K.N.; Sterelny, K. (2006).
595:. DNA sequences can change through
3172:Kishimoto, S; et al. (2017).
2213:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2006.tb00520.x
1986:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2002.tb04913.x
25:
2998:. Harvard, Cambs. pp. 567 et seq.
2711:Journal of the History of Biology
1957:Jablonka, E.; Lamb, M.J. (2002).
1668:Shoag J; et al. (Jan 2013).
962:suggests he may be an exception.
834:Gregor Mendel: father of genetics
724:, who laid the framework for the
563:, which are interchangeable. The
3619:
3618:
2776:from the original on May 7, 2019
2748:. Walter de Gruyter. p. 6.
2647:10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00036.x
2558:Cell Communication and Signaling
2455:Introduction to Genetic Analysis
2389:Vrba, E.S.; Gould, S.J. (1986).
2359:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01550.x
2241:"Morphogenesis by symbiogenesis"
1796:Introduction to Genetic Analysis
1717:Pho LN; Leachman SA (Feb 2010).
1415:
1398:
1389:(homozygote). This derives from
760:Aristotle's model of inheritance
559:that incorporates four types of
365:
364:
251:
250:
83:
3078:Harper, Peter S. (2017-08-03).
2905:from the original on 2022-05-18
2898:Scientific American, "Heredity"
2875:. Psychology Press. p. 4.
2840:. Embryo Project Encyclopedia.
2534:from the original on 2019-04-29
2346:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
2292:The Quarterly Review of Biology
2176:from the original on 2021-12-27
2156:Jablonka, E.; Lamb, M. (2005).
2138:from the original on 2020-03-01
2078:from the original on 2011-07-15
2031:The Quarterly Review of Biology
1741:from the original on 2019-03-28
896:History of evolutionary thought
858:Modern synthesis (20th century)
676:Relation to theory of evolution
4162:Genealogical numbering systems
2340:Bijma, P.; Wade, M.J. (2008).
2022:Jablonka, E.; Raz, G. (2009).
1351:Dominant and recessive alleles
1221:Incomplete (percentual number)
990:inheritance of acquired traits
796:inheritance of acquired traits
733:inheritance of acquired traits
1:
4301:International Day of Families
3961:Australian Aboriginal kinship
2923:Henig, Robin Marantz (2001).
1115:– loci are not situated on a
1078:(also called "simple") – one
902:modern evolutionary synthesis
3565:Missing heritability problem
3151:10.1016/j.molmed.2014.12.004
3139:Trends in Molecular Medicine
2604:"Francis Galton (1822-1911)"
1773:10.1016/1357-4310(96)81798-9
1686:10.1016/j.molcel.2012.10.027
1279:phenotype expression (e.g.,
643:, and the three dimensional
3041:. Harvard 1977. pp. 221–222
2684:. Hay House, Inc. pp.
2510:10.1534/genetics.109.109991
1570:"Genetics: what is a gene?"
1305:6. Locus–locus interactions
1175:Intermediate (also called "
1148:– loci are situated on the
706:ideas in later editions of
457:. The study of heredity in
4615:
2871:Gottlieb, Gilbert (2001).
2834:Lawrence, Cera R. (2008).
2552:Bard, Jonathan BL (2011).
2248:International Microbiology
1322:with other loci (also see
1261:5. Sex-linked interactions
889:
855:
849:
679:
604:multiple interacting genes
57:
47:
43:Bloodline (disambiguation)
40:
26:
4578:Politicization of science
4262:National Grandparents Day
3672:
3614:
3288:
3097:10.1186/s41065-017-0042-4
2957:Carlson, Neil R. (2010).
2676:Lipton, Bruce H. (2008).
2418:10.1017/S0094837300013671
2121:10.1007/s10682-010-9372-7
1544:10.1016/j.tig.2004.06.010
1471:Non-Mendelian inheritance
1124:– loci are situated on a
36:Heredity (disambiguation)
2635:Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc
1761:Molecular Medicine Today
1723:G Ital Dermatol Venereol
1476:Extranuclear inheritance
1269:Sex-linked inheritance (
999:Common genetic disorders
743:off many generations of
709:On the Origin of Species
609:developmental plasticity
58:Not to be confused with
4558:Bourgeois pseudoscience
4354:Sociology of the family
4204:Philia (brotherly love)
3780:Second-degree relatives
3053:Human Ethology Bulletin
2985:Mayr & Provine 1998
2811:. Leben. Archived from
1481:Uniparental inheritance
1466:Particulate inheritance
1432:Ehlers–Danlos syndromes
1424:osteogenesis imperfecta
1312:with other loci (e.g.,
812:Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
690:proposed his theory of
421:, is the passing on of
4209:Storge (familial love)
3815:Third-degree relatives
3717:First-degree relatives
3039:Ontogeny and phylogeny
2571:10.1186/1478-811X-9-30
1505:Structural inheritance
1488:Epigenetic inheritance
1405:Hereditary defects in
1347:can also be employed.
1134:(the more common case)
1068:1. Number of involved
1060:
1048:
1040:
948:frequencies of alleles
847:
763:
585:homologous chromosomes
501:
482:
419:biological inheritance
34:. For other uses, see
4537:Mendelian inheritance
4318:National Adoption Day
4194:Agape (parental love)
3601:List of genetic codes
3178:Nature Communications
2494:"Darwin and Genetics"
1245:Maternal or paternal
1054:
1046:
1038:
872:Mendelian inheritance
841:
758:
647:of proteins (such as
565:Nucleic acid sequence
488:
476:
351:Personalized medicine
345:Personalized medicine
208:Quantitative genetics
203:Mendelian inheritance
4374:Dysfunctional family
4359:Museum of Motherhood
4306:National Family Week
4172:Quarters of nobility
3500:Behavioural genetics
2931:. Houghton Mifflin.
2109:Evolutionary Ecology
2100:Arabidopsis thaliana
1865:Phillips PC (2008).
1510:Blending inheritance
1249:phenomena (also see
804:blending inheritance
639:, gene silencing by
427:asexual reproduction
271:Branches of genetics
4471:Georgii Karpechenko
4344:Wedding anniversary
4296:American Family Day
4252:Father–Daughter Day
4199:Eros (marital love)
3948:Kinship terminology
3580:Population genomics
3570:Molecular evolution
3530:Genetic engineering
3198:10.1038/ncomms14031
3190:2017NatCo...814031K
3009:Palumbi, Stephen R.
2744:Hipócrates (1981).
2614:on January 30, 2016
2410:1986Pbio...12..217V
1978:2002NYASA.981...82J
1834:Futuyma, Douglas J.
1586:2006Natur.441..398P
1336:Semi-lethal factors
1012:Sickle cell disease
984:when he emphasised
892:History of genetics
443:genetic information
431:sexual reproduction
241:Genetic engineering
198:Population genetics
71:Part of a series on
18:Genetic inheritance
4104:collateral descent
3540:Genetic monitoring
2723:10.1007/BF01059192
1568:Pearson H (2006).
1345:molecular genetics
1061:
1049:
1041:
1007:Fragile X syndrome
878:'s (1918) paper, "
848:
764:
662:group heritability
653:niche construction
635:, self-sustaining
502:
483:
213:Molecular genetics
172:History and topics
4586:
4585:
4568:Pavlovian session
4440:Nikita Khrushchev
4382:
4381:
4182:
4181:
4099:Lineal descendant
4069:Bilateral descent
3822:Great-grandparent
3707:Matrifocal family
3632:
3631:
3555:He Jiankui affair
3545:Genetic genealogy
3535:Genetic diversity
3464:the British Isles
3369:Genetic variation
2967:978-0-205-64524-4
2938:978-0-395-97765-1
2882:978-1-4106-0442-2
2815:on April 24, 2013
2755:978-3-11-007903-6
2695:978-1-4019-2344-0
2464:978-1-4292-2943-2
2169:978-0-262-10107-3
1851:978-0-87893-187-3
1805:978-1-4292-2943-2
1580:(7092): 398–401.
1436:dominant-negative
1428:Marfan's syndrome
1288:mitochondrial DNA
1150:mitochondrial DNA
960:Stephen Jay Gould
913:natural selection
455:natural selection
408:
407:
135:Genetic variation
16:(Redirected from
4606:
4409:
4402:
4395:
4386:
4364:Astronaut family
4135:
4036:Iroquois kinship
4026:Sudanese kinship
4021:Hawaiian kinship
3996:Family of choice
3827:Great-grandchild
3702:Immediate family
3659:
3652:
3645:
3636:
3622:
3621:
3585:Reverse genetics
3560:Medical genetics
3275:
3268:
3261:
3252:
3228:
3227:
3217:
3169:
3163:
3162:
3134:
3128:
3127:
3117:
3099:
3075:
3069:
3068:
3048:
3042:
3035:
3029:
3028:
3005:
2999:
2992:
2986:
2983:
2977:
2955:
2946:
2945:
2930:
2920:
2914:
2913:
2911:
2910:
2893:
2887:
2886:
2868:
2862:
2861:
2859:
2857:
2848:. Archived from
2831:
2825:
2824:
2822:
2820:
2804:
2798:
2792:
2786:
2785:
2783:
2781:
2766:
2760:
2759:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2706:
2700:
2699:
2683:
2673:
2667:
2666:
2630:
2624:
2623:
2621:
2619:
2610:. Archived from
2600:
2594:
2593:
2583:
2573:
2549:
2543:
2542:
2540:
2539:
2521:
2489:
2483:
2482:
2476:
2468:
2450:
2444:
2443:
2441:
2440:
2434:
2428:. Archived from
2395:
2386:
2380:
2379:
2361:
2352:(5): 1175–1188.
2337:
2331:
2330:
2328:
2322:. Archived from
2289:
2280:
2271:
2270:
2268:
2262:. Archived from
2245:
2232:
2226:
2225:
2215:
2206:(8): 1751–1762.
2191:
2185:
2184:
2182:
2181:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2137:
2106:
2093:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2083:
2077:
2046:
2028:
2019:
2013:
2012:
2010:
2004:. Archived from
1963:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1894:
1862:
1856:
1855:
1843:
1830:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1809:
1791:
1785:
1784:
1756:
1750:
1749:
1747:
1746:
1714:
1708:
1707:
1697:
1665:
1659:
1658:
1622:
1616:
1615:
1597:
1565:
1556:
1555:
1527:
1451:Hard inheritance
1419:
1402:
641:RNA interference
433:, the offspring
400:
393:
386:
373:
368:
367:
263:Medical genetics
259:
254:
253:
87:
68:
21:
4614:
4613:
4609:
4608:
4607:
4605:
4604:
4603:
4589:
4588:
4587:
4582:
4551:Soviet policies
4546:
4500:
4496:Nikolai Vavilov
4476:Zhores Medvedev
4466:Wacław Gajewski
4454:
4418:
4413:
4383:
4378:
4322:
4223:
4178:
4167:Seize quartiers
4133:
4074:Common ancestor
4058:
4050:
4016:Chinese kinship
4011:Nurture kinship
4001:Fictive kinship
3942:
3902:
3891:daughter-in-law
3845:
3810:
3775:
3711:
3697:Conjugal family
3692:Extended family
3668:
3663:
3633:
3628:
3610:
3589:
3488:
3479:the Middle East
3445:Archaeogenetics
3439:
3383:
3322:
3284:
3279:
3237:
3232:
3231:
3171:
3170:
3166:
3136:
3135:
3131:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3050:
3049:
3045:
3036:
3032:
3007:
3006:
3002:
2993:
2989:
2984:
2980:
2956:
2949:
2939:
2922:
2921:
2917:
2908:
2906:
2895:
2894:
2890:
2883:
2870:
2869:
2865:
2855:
2853:
2833:
2832:
2828:
2818:
2816:
2806:
2805:
2801:
2793:
2789:
2779:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2756:
2743:
2742:
2738:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2696:
2675:
2674:
2670:
2632:
2631:
2627:
2617:
2615:
2602:
2601:
2597:
2551:
2550:
2546:
2537:
2535:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2469:
2465:
2452:
2451:
2447:
2438:
2436:
2432:
2393:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2339:
2338:
2334:
2326:
2287:
2282:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2243:
2235:Chapman, M.J.;
2234:
2233:
2229:
2193:
2192:
2188:
2179:
2177:
2170:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2090:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2044:10.1.1.617.6333
2026:
2021:
2020:
2016:
2008:
1961:
1956:
1955:
1951:
1928:10.1038/nrg1804
1916:Nat. Rev. Genet
1913:
1912:
1908:
1883:10.1038/nrg2452
1877:(11): 855–867.
1871:Nat. Rev. Genet
1864:
1863:
1859:
1852:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1810:
1806:
1793:
1792:
1788:
1758:
1757:
1753:
1744:
1742:
1716:
1715:
1711:
1667:
1666:
1662:
1639:10.1038/nrg2322
1627:Nat. Rev. Genet
1624:
1623:
1619:
1595:10.1038/441398a
1567:
1566:
1559:
1529:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1514:
1446:
1439:
1420:
1411:
1403:
1353:
1159:3. Correlation
1033:
1017:Phenylketonuria
1001:
898:
890:Main articles:
888:
860:
854:
836:
753:
737:August Weismann
684:
678:
658:cultural traits
637:metabolic loops
629:DNA methylation
471:
404:
363:
356:
355:
346:
338:
337:
336:
335:
284:
276:
275:
267:
245:
226:
218:
217:
173:
165:
164:
151:
150:
149:
95:
66:
63:
56:
46:
39:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
4612:
4610:
4602:
4601:
4591:
4590:
4584:
4583:
4581:
4580:
4575:
4570:
4565:
4560:
4554:
4552:
4548:
4547:
4545:
4544:
4539:
4534:
4529:
4524:
4519:
4514:
4508:
4506:
4502:
4501:
4499:
4498:
4493:
4488:
4483:
4481:Georgii Nadson
4478:
4473:
4468:
4462:
4460:
4456:
4455:
4453:
4452:
4447:
4442:
4437:
4432:
4430:Trofim Lysenko
4426:
4424:
4420:
4419:
4414:
4412:
4411:
4404:
4397:
4389:
4380:
4379:
4377:
4376:
4371:
4366:
4361:
4356:
4351:
4346:
4341:
4336:
4330:
4328:
4324:
4323:
4321:
4320:
4315:
4314:
4313:
4303:
4298:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4281:
4280:
4279:
4272:Children's Day
4269:
4264:
4259:
4254:
4249:
4244:
4243:
4242:
4231:
4229:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4221:
4216:
4211:
4206:
4201:
4196:
4190:
4188:
4184:
4183:
4180:
4179:
4177:
4176:
4175:
4174:
4169:
4164:
4154:
4149:
4147:Pedigree chart
4143:
4141:
4132:
4131:
4126:
4121:
4116:
4114:Patrilineality
4111:
4109:Matrilineality
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4076:
4071:
4065:
4063:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4031:Eskimo kinship
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3993:
3988:
3983:
3978:
3973:
3968:
3963:
3958:
3952:
3950:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3940:
3935:
3930:
3929:
3928:
3923:
3912:
3910:
3904:
3903:
3901:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3893:
3883:
3881:Sibling-in-law
3878:
3873:
3872:
3871:
3866:
3855:
3853:
3847:
3846:
3844:
3843:
3838:
3829:
3824:
3818:
3816:
3812:
3811:
3809:
3808:
3803:
3794:
3789:
3783:
3781:
3777:
3776:
3774:
3773:
3772:
3771:
3766:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3749:
3739:
3738:
3737:
3732:
3721:
3719:
3713:
3712:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3687:Nuclear family
3684:
3679:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3664:
3662:
3661:
3654:
3647:
3639:
3630:
3629:
3627:
3626:
3615:
3612:
3611:
3609:
3608:
3603:
3597:
3595:
3591:
3590:
3588:
3587:
3582:
3577:
3575:Plant genetics
3572:
3567:
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3515:Genome editing
3512:
3507:
3502:
3496:
3494:
3493:Related topics
3490:
3489:
3487:
3486:
3481:
3476:
3471:
3466:
3461:
3456:
3450:
3448:
3441:
3440:
3438:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3415:Immunogenetics
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3384:
3382:
3381:
3376:
3371:
3366:
3361:
3356:
3351:
3346:
3341:
3336:
3330:
3328:
3327:Key components
3324:
3323:
3321:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3278:
3277:
3270:
3263:
3255:
3249:
3248:
3243:
3236:
3235:External links
3233:
3230:
3229:
3164:
3145:(2): 134–144.
3129:
3070:
3059:(1–2): 18–21.
3043:
3030:
3000:
2994:Mayr E. 1982.
2987:
2978:
2947:
2937:
2915:
2888:
2881:
2863:
2826:
2799:
2787:
2761:
2754:
2736:
2717:(2): 317–332.
2701:
2694:
2668:
2641:(2): 141–149.
2625:
2608:Science Museum
2595:
2544:
2504:(3): 757–766.
2484:
2463:
2445:
2404:(2): 217–228.
2381:
2332:
2329:on 2011-05-11.
2304:10.1086/522809
2298:(4): 327–348.
2272:
2269:on 2014-08-23.
2254:(4): 319–326.
2227:
2186:
2168:
2148:
2115:(3): 541–553.
2088:
2053:10.1086/598822
2037:(2): 131–176.
2014:
2011:on 2011-05-11.
1949:
1922:(3): 229–237.
1906:
1857:
1850:
1825:
1804:
1786:
1767:(8): 330–335.
1751:
1709:
1680:(1): 145–157.
1660:
1633:(4): 255–266.
1617:
1557:
1538:(8): 327–332.
1521:
1520:
1518:
1515:
1513:
1512:
1507:
1502:
1501:
1500:
1495:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1468:
1463:
1458:
1453:
1447:
1445:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1421:
1414:
1412:
1404:
1397:
1352:
1349:
1341:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1331:lethal factors
1327:
1317:
1301:
1300:
1299:
1298:
1291:
1284:
1274:
1264:
1263:
1257:
1256:
1255:
1254:
1243:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1232:
1224:
1223:
1222:
1219:
1208:
1207:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1195:
1190:
1185:
1180:
1173:
1155:
1154:
1153:
1152:
1143:
1142:
1141:
1135:
1126:sex chromosome
1119:
1117:sex chromosome
1107:
1106:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1088:
1082:
1032:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1020:
1014:
1009:
1000:
997:
974:Trofim Lysenko
941:The idea that
939:
938:
937:all important.
934:
916:
909:
887:
884:
850:Main article:
835:
832:
818:) inside each
766:Scientists in
752:
749:
722:Francis Galton
688:Charles Darwin
677:
674:
516:is called its
479:prominent ears
470:
467:
413:, also called
406:
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311:Immunogenetics
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293:
287:
286:
285:
282:
281:
278:
277:
274:
273:
266:
265:
260:
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236:DNA sequencing
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216:
215:
210:
205:
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195:
185:
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174:
171:
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157:
148:
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98:
97:
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94:Key components
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72:
64:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
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2:
4611:
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4597:
4596:
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4579:
4576:
4574:
4571:
4569:
4566:
4564:
4561:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4553:
4549:
4543:
4542:Vernalization
4540:
4538:
4535:
4533:
4530:
4528:
4525:
4523:
4522:Hybridization
4520:
4518:
4515:
4513:
4510:
4509:
4507:
4503:
4497:
4494:
4492:
4489:
4487:
4484:
4482:
4479:
4477:
4474:
4472:
4469:
4467:
4464:
4463:
4461:
4457:
4451:
4448:
4446:
4445:Joseph Stalin
4443:
4441:
4438:
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4433:
4431:
4428:
4427:
4425:
4421:
4417:
4410:
4405:
4403:
4398:
4396:
4391:
4390:
4387:
4375:
4372:
4370:
4367:
4365:
4362:
4360:
4357:
4355:
4352:
4350:
4347:
4345:
4342:
4340:
4337:
4335:
4334:Single parent
4332:
4331:
4329:
4325:
4319:
4316:
4312:
4309:
4308:
4307:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4297:
4294:
4290:
4287:
4286:
4285:
4282:
4278:
4275:
4274:
4273:
4270:
4268:
4265:
4263:
4260:
4258:
4255:
4253:
4250:
4248:
4245:
4241:
4238:
4237:
4236:
4233:
4232:
4230:
4226:
4220:
4217:
4215:
4212:
4210:
4207:
4205:
4202:
4200:
4197:
4195:
4192:
4191:
4189:
4187:Relationships
4185:
4173:
4170:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4159:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4136:
4130:
4129:Royal descent
4127:
4125:
4122:
4120:
4117:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4075:
4072:
4070:
4067:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4057:
4053:
4047:
4046:Omaha kinship
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4002:
3999:
3997:
3994:
3992:
3989:
3987:
3984:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3976:Consanguinity
3974:
3972:
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3945:
3939:
3936:
3934:
3931:
3927:
3924:
3922:
3919:
3918:
3917:
3914:
3913:
3911:
3909:
3905:
3897:
3894:
3892:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3884:
3882:
3879:
3877:
3876:Parent-in-law
3874:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3860:
3857:
3856:
3854:
3852:
3851:Family-in-law
3848:
3842:
3839:
3837:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3825:
3823:
3820:
3819:
3817:
3813:
3807:
3804:
3802:
3798:
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3790:
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3513:
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3503:
3501:
3498:
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3491:
3485:
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3408:
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3360:
3357:
3355:
3352:
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3345:
3342:
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3337:
3335:
3332:
3331:
3329:
3325:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3287:
3283:
3276:
3271:
3269:
3264:
3262:
3257:
3256:
3253:
3247:
3244:
3242:
3239:
3238:
3234:
3225:
3221:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3195:
3191:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3168:
3165:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3140:
3133:
3130:
3125:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3107:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3089:
3085:
3081:
3074:
3071:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3047:
3044:
3040:
3034:
3031:
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3004:
3001:
2997:
2991:
2988:
2982:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2929:
2928:
2919:
2916:
2904:
2900:
2899:
2892:
2889:
2884:
2878:
2874:
2867:
2864:
2852:on 2013-04-09
2851:
2847:
2843:
2839:
2838:
2830:
2827:
2814:
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2803:
2800:
2796:
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2705:
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2672:
2669:
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2656:
2652:
2648:
2644:
2640:
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2629:
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2613:
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2605:
2599:
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2591:
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2563:
2559:
2555:
2548:
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2533:
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2520:
2515:
2511:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2488:
2485:
2480:
2474:
2466:
2460:
2456:
2449:
2446:
2435:on 2016-08-04
2431:
2427:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2403:
2399:
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2382:
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2321:
2317:
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2301:
2297:
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2286:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2242:
2238:
2231:
2228:
2223:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2205:
2201:
2197:
2190:
2187:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2162:. MIT Press.
2161:
2160:
2152:
2149:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2101:
2092:
2089:
2074:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2045:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2025:
2018:
2015:
2007:
2003:
1999:
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1979:
1975:
1971:
1967:
1960:
1953:
1950:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1910:
1907:
1902:
1898:
1893:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1861:
1858:
1853:
1847:
1842:
1841:
1835:
1829:
1826:
1821:
1815:
1807:
1801:
1797:
1790:
1787:
1782:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1755:
1752:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1713:
1710:
1705:
1701:
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1652:
1648:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1621:
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1613:
1609:
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1601:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1533:
1526:
1523:
1516:
1511:
1508:
1506:
1503:
1499:
1496:
1494:
1491:
1490:
1489:
1486:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1472:
1469:
1467:
1464:
1462:
1459:
1457:
1454:
1452:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1437:
1433:
1429:
1425:
1418:
1413:
1408:
1401:
1396:
1394:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1381:
1380:
1376:(homozygote)
1375:
1372:
1371:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1350:
1348:
1346:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:Homozygotous
1328:
1325:
1324:crossing over
1321:
1320:Gene coupling
1318:
1315:
1314:overdominance
1311:
1308:
1307:
1306:
1303:
1302:
1296:
1295:Y-chromosomal
1292:
1289:
1285:
1282:
1278:
1275:
1272:
1268:
1267:
1266:
1265:
1262:
1259:
1258:
1252:
1248:
1244:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1230:
1229:
1228:
1225:
1220:
1217:
1216:
1215:
1212:
1211:
1210:
1209:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1201:
1194:
1193:Underdominant
1191:
1189:
1186:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1168:
1167:
1166:
1162:
1157:
1156:
1151:
1147:
1146:Mitochondrial
1144:
1140:
1136:
1133:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1099:
1098:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1081:
1077:
1074:
1073:
1072:
1071:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1058:
1053:
1045:
1037:
1030:
1024:
1021:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1003:
1002:
998:
996:
993:
991:
988:ideas on the
987:
983:
979:
975:
971:
969:
963:
961:
957:
956:Gavin de Beer
953:
949:
944:
935:
932:
928:
927:genetic drift
924:
920:
917:
914:
910:
907:
906:
905:
903:
897:
893:
885:
883:
881:
877:
873:
869:
868:Gregor Mendel
865:
859:
853:
852:Gregor Mendel
845:
840:
833:
831:
828:
827:Alpheus Hyatt
823:
821:
817:
813:
808:
805:
801:
797:
793:
787:
785:
781:
777:
773:
769:
761:
757:
750:
748:
746:
742:
738:
734:
729:
727:
723:
718:
716:
711:
710:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
683:
675:
673:
671:
667:
666:symbiogenesis
663:
659:
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
626:
621:
616:
614:
610:
605:
600:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
545:
543:
539:
534:
530:
526:
521:
519:
515:
511:
507:
499:
495:
491:
487:
480:
475:
468:
466:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
412:
401:
396:
394:
389:
387:
382:
381:
379:
378:
372:
362:
361:
360:
359:
352:
349:
348:
342:
341:
332:
329:
327:
324:
322:
319:
317:
314:
312:
309:
307:
304:
302:
299:
297:
294:
292:
289:
288:
280:
279:
272:
269:
268:
264:
261:
257:
248:
244:
242:
239:
237:
234:
232:
229:
228:
222:
221:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
201:
199:
196:
193:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
175:
169:
168:
161:
158:
156:
153:
152:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
131:
128:
126:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
108:
105:
103:
100:
99:
91:
90:
86:
82:
81:
78:
74:
70:
69:
61:
54:
52:
44:
37:
33:
31:
19:
4517:Heritability
4511:
4435:J. D. Bernal
4267:Parents' Day
4257:Siblings Day
4247:Father's Day
4235:Mother's Day
4219:Polyfidelity
4214:Filial piety
4139:Family trees
4088:
4041:Crow kinship
3991:Estrangement
3886:Child-in-law
3806:Niece/Nephew
3549:
3525:Genetic code
3459:the Americas
3435:Quantitative
3405:Cytogenetics
3400:Conservation
3353:
3293:Introduction
3181:
3177:
3167:
3142:
3138:
3132:
3087:
3083:
3073:
3056:
3052:
3046:
3038:
3033:
3016:
3012:
3003:
2995:
2990:
2981:
2958:
2942:
2926:
2918:
2907:. Retrieved
2897:
2891:
2872:
2866:
2854:. Retrieved
2850:the original
2836:
2829:
2817:. Retrieved
2813:the original
2807:Snow, Kurt.
2802:
2794:
2790:
2778:. Retrieved
2764:
2745:
2739:
2714:
2710:
2704:
2679:
2671:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2616:. Retrieved
2612:the original
2598:
2561:
2557:
2547:
2536:. Retrieved
2501:
2497:
2487:
2454:
2448:
2437:. Retrieved
2430:the original
2401:
2398:Paleobiology
2397:
2384:
2349:
2345:
2335:
2324:the original
2295:
2291:
2264:the original
2251:
2247:
2237:Margulis, L.
2230:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2178:. Retrieved
2158:
2151:
2140:. Retrieved
2112:
2108:
2099:
2091:
2080:. Retrieved
2034:
2030:
2017:
2006:the original
1972:(1): 82–96.
1969:
1965:
1952:
1919:
1915:
1909:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1839:
1828:
1795:
1789:
1764:
1760:
1754:
1743:. Retrieved
1729:(1): 37–45.
1726:
1722:
1712:
1677:
1673:
1663:
1630:
1626:
1620:
1577:
1573:
1535:
1532:Trends Genet
1531:
1525:
1461:Heritability
1386:
1382:
1378:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1354:
1342:
1304:
1281:cryptorchism
1260:
1240:Heritability
1227:Expressivity
1204:
1199:
1188:Overdominant
1158:
1139:Y-chromosome
1132:X-chromosome
1101:2. Involved
1100:
1067:
1062:
1057:X chromosome
994:
982:Soviet Union
972:
968:World War II
964:
940:
899:
861:
824:
809:
788:
772:Theophrastus
765:
730:
719:
707:
685:
645:conformation
625:heritability
617:
613:canalization
601:
546:
522:
503:
498:double helix
441:acquire the
418:
414:
410:
409:
331:Quantitative
301:Cytogenetics
296:Conservation
178:Introduction
60:Heritability
50:
29:
4491:Tan Jiazhen
4486:Hans Stubbe
4423:Lysenkoists
4094:Inheritance
4079:Family name
3938:Stepsibling
3832:Great-uncle
3787:Grandparent
3505:Epigenetics
3206:2433/217772
3037:Gould S.J.
3019:: 547–572.
1277:Sex-limited
1251:epigenetics
1103:chromosomes
1093:– many loci
1091:Polygenetic
1076:Monogenetic
1023:Haemophilia
958:'s work by
876:R.A. Fisher
800:cell theory
776:Hippocrates
581:chromosomes
529:environment
504:In humans,
492:structure.
481:and crowns.
415:inheritance
4532:Lamarckism
4459:Dissidents
4416:Lysenkoism
4339:Only child
4284:Family Day
4157:Ahnentafel
4119:Progenitor
3981:Disownment
3926:stepmother
3921:stepfather
3916:Stepparent
3908:Stepfamily
3896:son-in-law
3836:Great-aunt
3792:Grandchild
3510:Geneticist
3484:South Asia
3430:Population
3410:Ecological
3379:Amino acid
3359:Nucleotide
3334:Chromosome
2975:1019975419
2909:2021-08-06
2564:(30): 30.
2538:2013-03-26
2439:2011-02-18
2180:2015-06-27
2142:2019-08-15
2082:2011-02-18
1745:2013-03-26
1517:References
1456:Lamarckism
1247:imprinting
1231:Invariable
1214:Penetrance
1177:codominant
1087:– few loci
1085:Oligogenic
986:Lamarckian
978:Lysenkoism
943:speciation
931:Dobzhansky
856:See also:
816:homunculus
715:sex-linked
704:Lamarckian
700:pangenesis
680:See also:
620:epigenetic
326:Population
306:Ecological
231:Geneticist
145:Amino acid
125:Nucleotide
102:Chromosome
51:Hereditary
4349:Godparent
4056:Genealogy
3933:Stepchild
3682:Household
3425:Molecular
3420:Microbial
3395:Classical
3184:: 14031.
3106:1601-5223
3084:Hereditas
3065:2224-4476
2856:March 26,
2846:1940-5030
2819:March 26,
2795:Eumenides
2780:March 26,
2618:March 26,
2473:cite book
2200:Evolution
2039:CiteSeerX
1840:Evolution
1814:cite book
1430:and many
1410:carriers.
1310:Epistasis
1271:gonosomal
1183:Recessive
1165:phenotype
1122:Gonosomal
1113:Autosomal
923:phenotype
919:Selection
792:Aristotle
784:Aeschylus
780:Aristotle
768:Antiquity
726:biometric
692:evolution
682:Evolution
633:chromatin
597:mutations
533:suntanned
525:phenotype
506:eye color
439:organisms
321:Molecular
316:Microbial
291:Classical
192:molecular
188:Evolution
32:(journal)
4599:Genetics
4593:Category
4512:Heredity
4505:Concepts
4450:VASKhNIL
4228:Holidays
4152:Genogram
4089:Heredity
4084:Heirloom
4006:Marriage
3971:Affinity
3966:Adoption
3752:daughter
3624:Category
3550:Heredity
3520:Genomics
3364:Mutation
3354:Heredity
3318:Glossary
3308:Timeline
3282:Genetics
3224:28067237
3159:25601643
3124:28794693
2903:Archived
2774:Archived
2731:84754865
2663:39953275
2655:18429766
2590:22053760
2532:Archived
2528:19933231
2498:Genetics
2426:86593897
2368:18547354
2320:37774648
2312:18217526
2260:10943381
2239:(1998).
2222:17089961
2174:Archived
2133:Archived
2129:15763479
2073:Archived
2061:19606595
2002:12561900
1994:12547675
1944:24301815
1936:16485021
1901:18852697
1836:(2005).
1739:Archived
1735:20197744
1704:23201126
1674:Mol Cell
1647:18319743
1604:16724031
1552:15262401
1444:See also
1391:Zygosity
1234:Variable
1218:Complete
1171:Dominant
1161:genotype
952:evo-devo
864:Moravian
739:cut the
631:marking
553:molecule
538:albinism
518:genotype
469:Overview
463:genetics
411:Heredity
371:Category
256:template
247:Genomics
225:Research
130:Mutation
121:Heredity
77:Genetics
30:Heredity
4327:Related
4061:lineage
3986:Divorce
3956:Kinship
3869:husband
3764:brother
3759:Sibling
3677:History
3303:History
3298:Outline
3215:5227915
3186:Bibcode
3115:5541658
2797:658–661
2581:3215633
2519:2778973
2406:Bibcode
2376:7204089
2069:7233550
1974:Bibcode
1892:2689140
1781:8796918
1695:3753666
1612:4420674
1582:Bibcode
1407:enzymes
980:in the
844:meiosis
751:History
593:alleles
569:mitosis
557:polymer
542:sunburn
459:biology
447:species
183:History
155:Outline
4369:Incest
4289:Canada
3859:Spouse
3841:Cousin
3769:sister
3735:father
3730:mother
3725:Parent
3666:Family
3469:Europe
3454:Africa
3388:Fields
3374:Allele
3349:Genome
3222:
3212:
3157:
3122:
3112:
3104:
3063:
2973:
2965:
2935:
2879:
2844:
2752:
2729:
2692:
2661:
2653:
2588:
2578:
2526:
2516:
2461:
2424:
2374:
2366:
2318:
2310:
2258:
2220:
2166:
2127:
2067:
2059:
2041:
2000:
1992:
1942:
1934:
1899:
1889:
1848:
1802:
1779:
1733:
1702:
1692:
1655:690431
1653:
1645:
1610:
1602:
1574:Nature
1550:
1370:either
1357:allele
696:traits
664:, and
649:prions
514:genome
451:evolve
423:traits
369:
283:Fields
140:Allele
117:Genome
53:(film)
4277:Japan
3797:Uncle
3742:Child
3594:Lists
3474:Italy
3313:Index
3090:: 7.
2727:S2CID
2659:S2CID
2433:(PDF)
2422:S2CID
2394:(PDF)
2372:S2CID
2327:(PDF)
2316:S2CID
2288:(PDF)
2267:(PDF)
2244:(PDF)
2136:(PDF)
2125:S2CID
2105:(PDF)
2076:(PDF)
2065:S2CID
2027:(PDF)
2009:(PDF)
1998:S2CID
1962:(PDF)
1940:S2CID
1651:S2CID
1608:S2CID
1297:loci)
1290:loci)
1273:loci)
1080:locus
1031:Types
1019:(PKU)
970:era.
966:post-
866:monk
820:sperm
741:tails
686:When
589:locus
577:cells
561:bases
510:genes
494:Bases
435:cells
160:Index
4240:U.S.
4124:Clan
4059:and
3864:wife
3801:Aunt
3220:PMID
3155:PMID
3120:PMID
3102:ISSN
3061:ISSN
2971:OCLC
2963:ISBN
2933:ISBN
2877:ISBN
2858:2013
2842:ISSN
2821:2013
2782:2013
2750:ISBN
2690:ISBN
2651:PMID
2620:2013
2586:PMID
2524:PMID
2479:link
2459:ISBN
2364:PMID
2308:PMID
2256:PMID
2218:PMID
2164:ISBN
2057:PMID
1990:PMID
1932:PMID
1897:PMID
1846:ISBN
1820:link
1800:ISBN
1777:PMID
1731:PMID
1700:PMID
1643:PMID
1600:PMID
1548:PMID
1070:loci
894:and
745:mice
731:The
611:and
573:gene
551:, a
3747:son
3344:RNA
3339:DNA
3210:PMC
3202:hdl
3194:doi
3147:doi
3110:PMC
3092:doi
3088:155
3021:doi
2719:doi
2643:doi
2576:PMC
2566:doi
2514:PMC
2506:doi
2502:183
2414:doi
2354:doi
2300:doi
2208:doi
2117:doi
2049:doi
1982:doi
1970:981
1924:doi
1887:PMC
1879:doi
1769:doi
1727:145
1690:PMC
1682:doi
1635:doi
1590:doi
1578:441
1540:doi
1355:An
549:DNA
490:DNA
461:is
453:by
449:to
437:or
429:or
417:or
112:RNA
107:DNA
4595::
4311:UK
3447:of
3218:.
3208:.
3200:.
3192:.
3180:.
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3143:21
3141:.
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