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are similar to that of a human and they carry virtually all the same genes that operate in humans. They also have advantages over other mammals, in regards to research, in that they are available in hundreds of genetically homogeneous strains. Also, due to their size, they can be kept and housed in
267:, where the activity of a single (or in some cases multiple) genes are removed. They have been used to study and model obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging, temperature and pain reception, and Parkinson disease. Transgenic mice generated to carry cloned
137:
utilizing techniques developed by
Brinster in the 1960s and 1970s, showing transmission of the genetic material to subsequent generations for the first time. During the 1980s, Palmiter and Brinster developed and led the field of transgenesis, refining methods of
283:
have been developed covering a wide range of cancers affecting most organs of the body and they are being refined to become more representative of human cancer. The disease symptoms and potential drugs or treatments can be tested against these mouse models.
318:
Great care should be taken when deciding how to use genetically modified mice in research. Even basic issues like choosing the correct "wild-type" control mouse to use for comparison are sometimes overlooked.
1326:"Mispairing C57BL/6 Substrains of Genetically Engineered Mice and Wild-Type Controls Can Lead to Confounding Results as It Did in Studies of JNK2 in Acetaminophen and Concanavalin A Liver Injury"
1217:
Hakimi P, Yang J, Casadesus G, Massillon D, Tolentino-Silva F, Nye C, Cabrera M, Hagen D, Utter C, Baghdy Y, Johnson DH, Wilson DL, Kirwan JP, Kalhan SC, Hanson RW (2007).
851:
1472:
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techniques. Genetically modified mice are commonly used for research or as animal models of human diseases and are also used for research on genes. Together with
1410:
198:
the target gene, although increasingly more subtle and complex genetic manipulation can occur (e.g. humanisation of a specific protein, or only changing single
254:
Genetically modified mice are used extensively in research as models of human disease. Mice are a useful model for genetic manipulation and research, as their
2045:
230:(HCV) peptides that bind to HLA, and that can be recognized by the human immune system, thereby potentially being targets for future vaccines against HCV.
2128:
1918:
77:. Both approaches are considered complementary and may be used to recapitulate different aspects of disease. GEMMs are also of great interest for
391:"Effective Utilization and Appropriate Selection of Genetically Engineered Mouse Models for Translational Integration of Mouse and Human Trials"
1219:"Overexpression of the cytosolic form of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) in skeletal muscle repatterns energy metabolism in the mouse"
158:
in the 1960s and 1970s, into a single cell of the mouse embryo, where it will randomly integrate into the mouse genome. This method creates a
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modification and using these techniques to elucidate the activity and function of genes in a way not possible before their unique approach.
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The genetically modified mouse in which a gene affecting hair growth has been knocked out (left) shown next to a normal lab mouse
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315:. With the TRPM8 receptor removed, the mouse was unable to detect small changes in temperature and the pain associated with it.
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McPherron, A.; Lawler, A.; Lee, S. (1997). "Regulation of skeletal muscle mass in mice by a new TGF-beta superfamily member".
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to their offspring, and the impact and applicability of this experiment were, therefore, limited. In 1981 the laboratories of
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497:"Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of healthy adult mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA"
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and runs faster, lives longer, is more sexually active and eats more without getting fatter than the average mouse (see
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605:
Gordon, J.; Ruddle, F. (1981). "Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei".
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1142:"Viral mediated expression of insulin-like growth factor I blocks the aging-related loss of skeletal muscle function"
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Thomas KR, Capecchi MR (1987). "Site-directed mutagenesis by gene targeting in mouse embryo-derived stem cells".
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A mouse has been genetically engineered to have increased muscle growth and strength by overexpressing the
753:"The origins of oncomice: a history of the first transgenic mice genetically engineered to develop cancer"
1526:
845:
272:
187:
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Elisabeth R. Barton-Davis; Daria I. Shoturma; Antonio Musaro; Nadia
Rosenthal; H. Lee Sweeney (1998).
701:"Somatic expression of herpes thymidine kinase in mice following injection of a fusion gene into eggs"
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Costantini, F.; Lacy, E. (1981). "Introduction of a rabbit β-globin gene into the mouse germ line".
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1987:
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and showing that the inserted genes were present in every cell. However, the mice did not pass the
60:
350:"Genetically Engineered Mouse Models: Closing the Gap between Preclinical Data and Trial Outcomes"
150:
There are two basic technical approaches to produce genetically modified mice. The first involves
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created the first genetically modified animal by inserting a DNA virus into an early-stage mouse
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mouse and is used to insert new genetic information into the mouse genome or to over-express
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large numbers, reducing the cost of research and experiments. The most common type is the
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1066:"How peppers and peppermint identified sensory receptors for temperature and pain"
442:"The mighty mouse: genetically engineered mouse models in cancer drug development"
366:
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Gordon, J.W., Scangos, G.A, Plotkin, D.J., Barbosa, J.A. and Ruddle F.H. (1980).
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with the genomic DNA are selected for and they are then injected into the mice
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genes in order to provide a more realistic environment when introducing human
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794:"Genetic transformation of mouse embryos by microinjection of purified DNA"
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Brinster R, Chen HY, Trumbauer M, Senear AW, Warren R, Palmiter RD (1981).
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can also be created by direct addition of human genes, thereby creating a
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984:. Center for Genetics and Society. April 14, 2005. Archived from
194:. This method is used to manipulate a single gene, in most cases
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1384:
Mammalian
Genetics Unit Harwell: Mouse models for human disease
751:
Douglas
Hanahan; Erwin F. Wagner; Richard D. Palmiter (2007).
910:"Humanized Mice as Unique Tools for Human-Specific Studies"
440:
Sharpless, Norman E.; DePinho, Ronald A. (September 2006).
295:. Another mouse has had a gene altered that is involved in
246:, which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is
214:. For example, genetically modified mice may be born with
226:
responses. One such application is the identification of
1324:
Mohammed Bourdi; John S. Davies; Lance R. Pohl (2011).
1275:"Standards for the publication of mouse mutant studies"
348:
Singh, M.; Murriel, C. L.; Johnson, L. (16 May 2012).
1200:"Genetically engineered super mouse stuns scientists"
982:"Background: Cloned and Genetically Modified Animals"
389:
Abate-Shen, C.; Pandolfi, P. P. (30 September 2013).
1473:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
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914:Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis
1273:; Goldowitz, D.; Holmes, A.; Wolfer, D. (2009).
554:Kucherlapati, Raju; Leinwand, Leslie A. (2013).
1048:. Nation Human Genome Research Institute. 2009.
125:and Richard Palmiter in collaboration from the
1379:Mouse Genome Informatics (informatics.jax.org)
186:to the target gene. Embryonic stem cells that
1404:
1020:. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press. pp.
8:
1012:Hofker, Marten H.; Deursen, Jan van (2002).
850:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2046:Detection of genetically modified organisms
117:, Frank Costantini and Elizabeth Lacy from
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166:genes. The second approach, pioneered by
307:blocked or removed in a study involving
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154:, a technique developed and refined by
908:Yong KS, Her Z, Chen Q (August 2018).
843:
1059:
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1007:
1005:
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7:
275:have provided good models for human
2076:Genetic use restriction technology
561:American Journal of Human Genetics
67:(PDXs), GEMMs are the most common
41:genetically engineered mouse model
25:
1294:10.1111/j.1601-183X.2008.00438.x
495:Jaenisch, R.; Mintz, B. (1974).
2094:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
1331:Chemical Research in Toxicology
1224:Journal of Biological Chemistry
1:
1856:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
446:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery
367:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-2786
133:injected purified DNA into a
958:"Mouse strain C57BL/6-Mcph1"
879:10.1016/0092-8674(87)90646-5
717:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90376-7
395:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols
289:insulin-like growth factor I
222:into them in order to study
242:Transgenic mice expressing
59:altered through the use of
2246:
798:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
574:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.05.012
291:(IGF-I) in differentiated
271:and knockout mice lacking
127:University of Pennsylvania
65:patient-derived xenografts
37:genetically modified mouse
2179:
1914:Genetically modified food
1280:Genes, Brain and Behavior
926:10.1007/s00005-018-0506-x
556:"Frank Ruddle (1929–2013"
303:). Another mouse had the
244:green fluorescent protein
182:containing DNA sequences
18:Genetically modified mice
1167:10.1073/pnas.95.26.15603
135:single-cell mouse embryo
131:University of Washington
819:10.1073/pnas.77.12.7380
627:10.1126/science.6272397
273:tumor suppressing genes
216:human leukocyte antigen
1238:10.1074/jbc.M706127200
962:The Jackson Laboratory
522:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250
251:
32:
2225:1974 in biotechnology
1527:Roundup ready soybean
501:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci
408:10.1101/pdb.top078774
241:
174:, involves modifying
30:
2066:Reverse transfection
1841:Genetic transduction
988:on November 23, 2016
279:. Hundreds of these
176:embryonic stem cells
152:pronuclear injection
2230:Genetic engineering
2056:Genetics in fiction
1988:Genetic enhancement
1790:Hepatitis B vaccine
1420:Genetic engineering
1231:(45): 32844–32855.
1206:. November 3, 2007.
1158:1998PNAS...9515603B
1152:(26): 15603–15607.
1103:1997Natur.387...83M
810:1980PNAS...77.7380G
770:10.1101/gad.1583307
711:(1 Pt 2): 223–231.
662:1981Natur.294...92C
619:1981Sci...214.1244G
513:1974PNAS...71.1250J
301:Metabolic supermice
212:human-animal hybrid
61:genetic engineering
55:) that has had its
2166:Stem cell research
1785:Ice-minus bacteria
297:glucose metabolism
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33:
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2171:Synthetic biology
2061:Human enhancement
2051:Genetic pollution
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1344:10.1021/tx200143x
804:(12): 7380–7384.
763:(18): 2258–2270.
401:(11): 1006–1011.
360:(11): 2695–2700.
228:hepatitis C virus
220:white blood cells
156:Ralph L. Brinster
123:Ralph L. Brinster
16:(Redirected from
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1944:Dow AgroSciences
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1064:Julius, David.
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1046:"Knockout Mice"
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329:Humanized mouse
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168:Oliver Smithies
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115:Yale University
99:Rudolf Jaenisch
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75:cancer research
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305:TRPM8 receptor
265:knockout mouse
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196:"knocking out"
172:Mario Capecchi
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95:Beatrice Mintz
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1994:
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1989:
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1968:
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1947:
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1932:
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1929:
1927:
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1919:Controversies
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1911:
1909:
1905:
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1898:
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1818:Inserting DNA
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1724:Other animals
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1033:
1031:0-89603-915-3
1027:
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987:
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873:(3): 503–12.
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815:
811:
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771:
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695:
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428:
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385:
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344:
341:
334:
330:
327:
326:
322:
320:
316:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
294:
293:muscle fibers
290:
285:
282:
278:
274:
270:
266:
261:
257:
249:
245:
240:
233:
231:
229:
225:
224:immune system
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
189:
185:
181:
180:DNA construct
177:
173:
169:
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157:
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145:
143:
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136:
132:
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100:
96:
88:
86:
84:
80:
76:
72:
71:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
46:
42:
38:
29:
19:
1983:Gene therapy
1882:Transgenesis
1861:Transfection
1826:Agrobacteria
1710:Knockout rat
1682:
1532:Vistive Gold
1428:Genetically
1335:
1329:
1319:
1284:
1278:
1271:Crusio, W.E.
1265:
1228:
1222:
1212:
1194:
1149:
1145:
1135:
1094:
1090:
1084:
1073:. Retrieved
1069:
1040:
1015:
990:. Retrieved
986:the original
976:
965:. Retrieved
961:
952:
917:
913:
903:
870:
866:
860:
846:cite journal
801:
797:
787:
760:
756:
708:
704:
694:
653:
649:
643:
610:
606:
600:
565:
559:
549:
504:
500:
490:
449:
445:
435:
398:
394:
384:
357:
353:
343:
317:
286:
253:
149:
111:Frank Ruddle
92:
68:
53:Mus musculus
52:
44:
40:
36:
34:
2002:In research
1976:diagnostics
1846:Lipofection
1607:Arabidopsis
1509:Golden rice
200:nucleotides
192:blastocysts
2214:Categories
2086:Regulation
1930:Companies
1887:Cisgenesis
1831:Biolistics
1637:Sugar beet
1550:Flavr Savr
1450:Maize/corn
1287:(1): 1–4.
1075:2020-05-14
967:2023-01-06
335:References
184:homologous
164:endogenous
160:transgenic
73:models in
2199:Bioethics
2103:Geography
2041:Transgene
1809:Processes
1700:Enviropig
1693:Oncomouse
1632:SmartStax
1568:Bt cotton
1432:organisms
1311:205853147
757:Genes Dev
466:1474-1784
309:capsaicin
269:oncogenes
248:wild-type
188:recombine
107:transgene
2189:Genetics
2156:Eugenics
2034:articles
1959:Syngenta
1954:Monsanto
1926:Pharming
1772:Bacteria
1468:StarLink
1430:modified
1362:21557537
1303:18778401
1257:17716967
1070:iBiology
992:July 11,
944:29411049
895:31961262
779:17875663
592:24242788
474:16915232
427:24173311
376:22593194
323:See also
281:oncomice
210:form of
140:germline
129:and the
93:In 1974
2184:Biology
2161:Cloning
2140:Oceania
2032:Related
1777:viruses
1741:GloFish
1731:Insects
1675:Mammals
1666:Animals
1652:Mustard
1642:Tobacco
1612:Brinjal
1519:Soybean
1491:Amflora
1463:MON 863
1458:MON 810
1353:3157912
1248:4484620
1186:9861016
1154:Bibcode
1127:4271945
1119:9139826
1099:Bibcode
935:6061174
887:2822260
838:6261253
806:Bibcode
735:6276022
726:4883678
686:4371351
678:6945481
658:Bibcode
635:6272397
615:Bibcode
607:Science
583:3675234
541:4364530
509:Bibcode
482:7254415
418:4382078
313:menthol
256:tissues
178:with a
146:Methods
89:History
70:in vivo
47:) is a
2115:Africa
2110:Europe
1972:humans
1746:Salmon
1715:Rabbit
1622:Papaya
1617:Canola
1560:Cotton
1542:Tomato
1483:Potato
1360:
1350:
1309:
1301:
1255:
1245:
1184:
1174:
1125:
1117:
1091:Nature
1028:
942:
932:
893:
885:
836:
829:350507
826:
777:
733:
723:
684:
676:
650:Nature
633:
590:
580:
539:
532:388203
529:
480:
472:
464:
425:
415:
374:
277:cancer
260:organs
208:murine
121:, and
119:Oxford
103:embryo
57:genome
1939:Bayer
1870:Types
1758:Frogs
1753:Birds
1683:Mouse
1647:Trees
1602:Apple
1595:Other
1578:Wheat
1441:Crops
1307:S2CID
1177:28090
1123:S2CID
891:S2CID
682:S2CID
478:S2CID
202:). A
113:from
49:mouse
2120:Asia
1934:BASF
1900:Uses
1775:and
1736:Fish
1627:Rose
1501:Rice
1358:PMID
1299:PMID
1253:PMID
1182:PMID
1146:PNAS
1115:PMID
1026:ISBN
994:2010
940:PMID
883:PMID
867:Cell
852:link
834:PMID
775:PMID
731:PMID
705:Cell
674:PMID
631:PMID
588:PMID
537:PMID
470:PMID
462:ISSN
423:PMID
399:2013
372:PMID
311:and
258:and
234:Uses
170:and
97:and
45:GEMM
1974:and
1970:In
1586:HB4
1348:PMC
1340:doi
1289:doi
1243:PMC
1233:doi
1229:282
1204:AAP
1172:PMC
1162:doi
1107:doi
1095:387
930:PMC
922:doi
875:doi
824:PMC
814:doi
765:doi
721:PMC
713:doi
666:doi
654:294
623:doi
611:214
578:PMC
570:doi
527:PMC
517:doi
454:doi
413:PMC
403:doi
362:doi
39:or
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2129:US
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