17:
228:
251:
are similar to that of a human and they carry virtually all the same genes that operate in humans. They also have advantages over other mammals, in regards to research, in that they are available in hundreds of genetically homogeneous strains. Also, due to their size, they can be kept and housed in
256:, where the activity of a single (or in some cases multiple) genes are removed. They have been used to study and model obesity, heart disease, diabetes, arthritis, substance abuse, anxiety, aging, temperature and pain reception, and Parkinson disease. Transgenic mice generated to carry cloned
126:
utilizing techniques developed by
Brinster in the 1960s and 1970s, showing transmission of the genetic material to subsequent generations for the first time. During the 1980s, Palmiter and Brinster developed and led the field of transgenesis, refining methods of
272:
have been developed covering a wide range of cancers affecting most organs of the body and they are being refined to become more representative of human cancer. The disease symptoms and potential drugs or treatments can be tested against these mouse models.
307:
Great care should be taken when deciding how to use genetically modified mice in research. Even basic issues like choosing the correct "wild-type" control mouse to use for comparison are sometimes overlooked.
1315:"Mispairing C57BL/6 Substrains of Genetically Engineered Mice and Wild-Type Controls Can Lead to Confounding Results as It Did in Studies of JNK2 in Acetaminophen and Concanavalin A Liver Injury"
1206:
Hakimi P, Yang J, Casadesus G, Massillon D, Tolentino-Silva F, Nye C, Cabrera M, Hagen D, Utter C, Baghdy Y, Johnson DH, Wilson DL, Kirwan JP, Kalhan SC, Hanson RW (2007).
840:
1461:
52:
techniques. Genetically modified mice are commonly used for research or as animal models of human diseases and are also used for research on genes. Together with
1399:
187:
the target gene, although increasingly more subtle and complex genetic manipulation can occur (e.g. humanisation of a specific protein, or only changing single
243:
Genetically modified mice are used extensively in research as models of human disease. Mice are a useful model for genetic manipulation and research, as their
2034:
219:(HCV) peptides that bind to HLA, and that can be recognized by the human immune system, thereby potentially being targets for future vaccines against HCV.
2117:
1907:
66:. Both approaches are considered complementary and may be used to recapitulate different aspects of disease. GEMMs are also of great interest for
380:"Effective Utilization and Appropriate Selection of Genetically Engineered Mouse Models for Translational Integration of Mouse and Human Trials"
1208:"Overexpression of the cytosolic form of phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase (GTP) in skeletal muscle repatterns energy metabolism in the mouse"
147:
in the 1960s and 1970s, into a single cell of the mouse embryo, where it will randomly integrate into the mouse genome. This method creates a
131:
modification and using these techniques to elucidate the activity and function of genes in a way not possible before their unique approach.
2123:
2113:
2064:
549:
2074:
1392:
1018:
20:
The genetically modified mouse in which a gene affecting hair growth has been knocked out (left) shown next to a normal lab mouse
1188:
304:. With the TRPM8 receptor removed, the mouse was unable to detect small changes in temperature and the pain associated with it.
2082:
1625:
1319:
1212:
1078:
McPherron, A.; Lawler, A.; Lee, S. (1997). "Regulation of skeletal muscle mass in mice by a new TGF-beta superfamily member".
970:
98:
to their offspring, and the impact and applicability of this experiment were, therefore, limited. In 1981 the laboratories of
2213:
2128:
1797:
486:"Simian virus 40 DNA sequences in DNA of healthy adult mice derived from preimplantation blastocysts injected with viral DNA"
2103:
2098:
1844:
1760:
1746:
1416:
2218:
1600:
1507:
1385:
288:
and runs faster, lives longer, is more sexually active and eats more without getting fatter than the average mouse (see
277:
594:
Gordon, J.; Ruddle, F. (1981). "Integration and stable germ line transmission of genes injected into mouse pronuclei".
2108:
1734:
1719:
1663:
1654:
1605:
1530:
1471:
1192:
1131:"Viral mediated expression of insulin-like growth factor I blocks the aging-related loss of skeletal muscle function"
1765:
1566:
1438:
1429:
115:
1960:
1902:
1806:
1741:
1724:
1635:
1489:
1268:
854:
Thomas KR, Capecchi MR (1987). "Site-directed mutagenesis by gene targeting in mouse embryo-derived stem cells".
232:
53:
119:
2208:
204:
1372:
276:
A mouse has been genetically engineered to have increased muscle growth and strength by overexpressing the
742:"The origins of oncomice: a history of the first transgenic mice genetically engineered to develop cancer"
1515:
834:
261:
176:
1129:
Elisabeth R. Barton-Davis; Daria I. Shoturma; Antonio Musaro; Nadia
Rosenthal; H. Lee Sweeney (1998).
690:"Somatic expression of herpes thymidine kinase in mice following injection of a fusion gene into eggs"
2054:
1829:
1595:
1456:
1142:
1087:
794:
646:
603:
497:
164:
107:
637:
Costantini, F.; Lacy, E. (1981). "Introduction of a rabbit β-globin gene into the mouse germ line".
2044:
1976:
1914:
1778:
1408:
289:
200:
94:
and showing that the inserted genes were present in every cell. However, the mice did not pass the
49:
339:"Genetically Engineered Mouse Models: Closing the Gap between Preclinical Data and Trial Outcomes"
139:
There are two basic technical approaches to produce genetically modified mice. The first involves
1922:
1773:
1295:
1111:
879:
670:
466:
285:
172:
90:
created the first genetically modified animal by inserting a DNA virus into an early-stage mouse
2159:
2049:
2039:
1346:
1287:
1241:
1170:
1103:
1014:
928:
871:
822:
763:
719:
662:
619:
576:
525:
458:
450:
411:
360:
216:
208:
144:
111:
741:
151:
mouse and is used to insert new genetic information into the mouse genome or to over-express
1932:
1336:
1328:
1277:
1231:
1221:
1160:
1150:
1095:
1010:
1003:
918:
910:
863:
812:
802:
753:
709:
701:
654:
611:
566:
558:
515:
505:
442:
401:
391:
350:
244:
71:
67:
1054:
70:, as they facilitate target validation and the study of response, resistance, toxicity and
1981:
1865:
1824:
1783:
1693:
317:
252:
large numbers, reducing the cost of research and experiments. The most common type is the
248:
192:
156:
103:
87:
63:
1146:
1091:
798:
650:
607:
501:
2007:
2002:
1937:
1839:
1676:
1640:
1341:
1314:
1236:
1207:
974:
923:
898:
714:
689:
571:
544:
406:
379:
253:
160:
140:
83:
817:
782:
520:
485:
16:
2202:
2182:
2059:
1997:
1814:
1703:
1590:
1299:
1282:
1263:
1165:
1130:
867:
705:
281:
212:
184:
168:
883:
1971:
1870:
1849:
1698:
1520:
1115:
674:
470:
99:
1055:"How peppers and peppermint identified sensory receptors for temperature and pain"
431:"The mighty mouse: genetically engineered mouse models in cancer drug development"
355:
338:
781:
Gordon, J.W., Scangos, G.A, Plotkin, D.J., Barbosa, J.A. and Ruddle F.H. (1980).
1834:
1497:
188:
180:
37:
562:
179:
with the genomic DNA are selected for and they are then injected into the mice
1875:
1538:
1259:
914:
207:
genes in order to provide a more realistic environment when introducing human
152:
148:
1155:
454:
2187:
2154:
2029:
1688:
1681:
1620:
1615:
1574:
1556:
807:
615:
297:
269:
236:
95:
1350:
1291:
1245:
1226:
932:
783:"Genetic transformation of mouse embryos by microinjection of purified DNA"
767:
688:
Brinster R, Chen HY, Trumbauer M, Senear AW, Warren R, Palmiter RD (1981).
580:
510:
462:
415:
364:
1174:
1107:
875:
826:
723:
666:
623:
529:
430:
396:
195:
can also be created by direct addition of human genes, thereby creating a
2177:
2144:
1947:
1942:
1819:
257:
128:
758:
227:
2172:
2149:
1729:
1630:
1479:
1451:
1446:
301:
196:
58:
1377:
1332:
1610:
1548:
1099:
658:
265:
123:
91:
45:
946:
446:
1927:
1367:
293:
226:
15:
1034:
973:. Center for Genetics and Society. April 14, 2005. Archived from
183:. This method is used to manipulate a single gene, in most cases
1381:
1373:
Mammalian
Genetics Unit Harwell: Mouse models for human disease
740:
Douglas
Hanahan; Erwin F. Wagner; Richard D. Palmiter (2007).
899:"Humanized Mice as Unique Tools for Human-Specific Studies"
429:
Sharpless, Norman E.; DePinho, Ronald A. (September 2006).
284:. Another mouse has had a gene altered that is involved in
235:, which glows green under blue light. The central mouse is
203:. For example, genetically modified mice may be born with
215:
responses. One such application is the identification of
1313:
Mohammed Bourdi; John S. Davies; Lance R. Pohl (2011).
1264:"Standards for the publication of mouse mutant studies"
337:
Singh, M.; Murriel, C. L.; Johnson, L. (16 May 2012).
1189:"Genetically engineered super mouse stuns scientists"
971:"Background: Cloned and Genetically Modified Animals"
378:
Abate-Shen, C.; Pandolfi, P. P. (30 September 2013).
1462:
List of varieties of genetically modified maize/corn
2137:
2091:
2073:
2020:
1990:
1958:
1895:
1888:
1858:
1805:
1796:
1759:
1712:
1662:
1653:
1583:
1565:
1547:
1529:
1506:
1488:
1470:
1437:
1428:
1415:
1002:
903:Archivum Immunologiae et Therapiae Experimentalis
1262:; Goldowitz, D.; Holmes, A.; Wolfer, D. (2009).
543:Kucherlapati, Raju; Leinwand, Leslie A. (2013).
1037:. Nation Human Genome Research Institute. 2009.
114:and Richard Palmiter in collaboration from the
1368:Mouse Genome Informatics (informatics.jax.org)
175:to the target gene. Embryonic stem cells that
1393:
1009:. Totowa, New Jersey: Humana Press. pp.
8:
1001:Hofker, Marten H.; Deursen, Jan van (2002).
839:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2035:Detection of genetically modified organisms
106:, Frank Costantini and Elizabeth Lacy from
1892:
1802:
1659:
1434:
1425:
1400:
1386:
1378:
1340:
1281:
1235:
1225:
1164:
1154:
922:
816:
806:
757:
735:
733:
713:
570:
519:
509:
405:
395:
354:
155:genes. The second approach, pioneered by
296:blocked or removed in a study involving
329:
143:, a technique developed and refined by
897:Yong KS, Her Z, Chen Q (August 2018).
832:
1048:
1046:
1044:
996:
994:
992:
7:
264:have provided good models for human
2065:Genetic use restriction technology
550:American Journal of Human Genetics
56:(PDXs), GEMMs are the most common
30:genetically engineered mouse model
14:
1283:10.1111/j.1601-183X.2008.00438.x
484:Jaenisch, R.; Mintz, B. (1974).
2083:Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety
1320:Chemical Research in Toxicology
1213:Journal of Biological Chemistry
1:
1845:Somatic cell nuclear transfer
435:Nature Reviews Drug Discovery
356:10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-11-2786
122:injected purified DNA into a
947:"Mouse strain C57BL/6-Mcph1"
868:10.1016/0092-8674(87)90646-5
706:10.1016/0092-8674(81)90376-7
384:Cold Spring Harbor Protocols
278:insulin-like growth factor I
211:into them in order to study
231:Transgenic mice expressing
48:altered through the use of
2235:
787:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA
563:10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.05.012
280:(IGF-I) in differentiated
260:and knockout mice lacking
116:University of Pennsylvania
54:patient-derived xenografts
26:genetically modified mouse
2168:
1903:Genetically modified food
1269:Genes, Brain and Behavior
915:10.1007/s00005-018-0506-x
545:"Frank Ruddle (1929–2013"
292:). Another mouse had the
233:green fluorescent protein
171:containing DNA sequences
1156:10.1073/pnas.95.26.15603
124:single-cell mouse embryo
120:University of Washington
808:10.1073/pnas.77.12.7380
616:10.1126/science.6272397
262:tumor suppressing genes
205:human leukocyte antigen
1227:10.1074/jbc.M706127200
951:The Jackson Laboratory
511:10.1073/pnas.71.4.1250
240:
21:
2214:1974 in biotechnology
1516:Roundup ready soybean
490:Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci
397:10.1101/pdb.top078774
230:
163:, involves modifying
19:
2055:Reverse transfection
1830:Genetic transduction
977:on November 23, 2016
268:. Hundreds of these
165:embryonic stem cells
141:pronuclear injection
2219:Genetic engineering
2045:Genetics in fiction
1977:Genetic enhancement
1779:Hepatitis B vaccine
1409:Genetic engineering
1220:(45): 32844–32855.
1195:. November 3, 2007.
1147:1998PNAS...9515603B
1141:(26): 15603–15607.
1092:1997Natur.387...83M
799:1980PNAS...77.7380G
759:10.1101/gad.1583307
700:(1 Pt 2): 223–231.
651:1981Natur.294...92C
608:1981Sci...214.1244G
502:1974PNAS...71.1250J
290:Metabolic supermice
201:human-animal hybrid
50:genetic engineering
44:) that has had its
2155:Stem cell research
1774:Ice-minus bacteria
286:glucose metabolism
241:
22:
2196:
2195:
2160:Synthetic biology
2050:Human enhancement
2040:Genetic pollution
2016:
2015:
1884:
1883:
1792:
1791:
1755:
1754:
1649:
1648:
1333:10.1021/tx200143x
793:(12): 7380–7384.
752:(18): 2258–2270.
390:(11): 1006–1011.
349:(11): 2695–2700.
217:hepatitis C virus
209:white blood cells
145:Ralph L. Brinster
112:Ralph L. Brinster
2226:
1933:Dow AgroSciences
1893:
1803:
1660:
1435:
1426:
1402:
1395:
1388:
1379:
1355:
1354:
1344:
1310:
1304:
1303:
1285:
1256:
1250:
1249:
1239:
1229:
1203:
1197:
1196:
1185:
1179:
1178:
1168:
1158:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1100:10.1038/387083a0
1075:
1069:
1068:
1066:
1065:
1050:
1039:
1038:
1031:
1025:
1024:
1008:
1005:Transgenic Mouse
998:
987:
986:
984:
982:
967:
961:
960:
958:
957:
943:
937:
936:
926:
894:
888:
887:
851:
845:
844:
838:
830:
820:
810:
778:
772:
771:
761:
737:
728:
727:
717:
685:
679:
678:
659:10.1038/294092a0
634:
628:
627:
602:(4526): 1244–6.
591:
585:
584:
574:
540:
534:
533:
523:
513:
496:(4): 1250–1254.
481:
475:
474:
426:
420:
419:
409:
399:
375:
369:
368:
358:
334:
72:pharmacodynamics
68:drug development
2234:
2233:
2229:
2228:
2227:
2225:
2224:
2223:
2199:
2198:
2197:
2192:
2164:
2133:
2087:
2069:
2022:
2012:
1986:
1982:Genetic testing
1964:
1954:
1880:
1866:Recombinant DNA
1854:
1825:Electroporation
1788:
1784:Oncolytic virus
1763:
1751:
1708:
1694:Herman the Bull
1645:
1579:
1561:
1543:
1525:
1502:
1484:
1466:
1420:
1418:
1411:
1406:
1364:
1359:
1358:
1312:
1311:
1307:
1258:
1257:
1253:
1205:
1204:
1200:
1187:
1186:
1182:
1128:
1127:
1123:
1086:(6628): 83–90.
1077:
1076:
1072:
1063:
1061:
1053:Julius, David.
1052:
1051:
1042:
1035:"Knockout Mice"
1033:
1032:
1028:
1021:
1000:
999:
990:
980:
978:
969:
968:
964:
955:
953:
945:
944:
940:
896:
895:
891:
853:
852:
848:
831:
780:
779:
775:
739:
738:
731:
687:
686:
682:
636:
635:
631:
593:
592:
588:
542:
541:
537:
483:
482:
478:
447:10.1038/nrd2110
428:
427:
423:
377:
376:
372:
343:Cancer Research
336:
335:
331:
326:
318:Humanized mouse
314:
225:
193:humanised mouse
157:Oliver Smithies
137:
104:Yale University
88:Rudolf Jaenisch
80:
64:cancer research
12:
11:
5:
2232:
2230:
2222:
2221:
2216:
2211:
2209:Mouse genetics
2201:
2200:
2194:
2193:
2191:
2190:
2185:
2180:
2175:
2169:
2166:
2165:
2163:
2162:
2157:
2152:
2147:
2141:
2139:
2138:Similar fields
2135:
2134:
2132:
2131:
2126:
2121:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2095:
2093:
2089:
2088:
2086:
2085:
2079:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2068:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2047:
2042:
2037:
2032:
2026:
2024:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2013:
2011:
2010:
2008:Gene targeting
2005:
2003:Gene knockdown
2000:
1994:
1992:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1968:
1966:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1951:
1950:
1945:
1940:
1938:DuPont Pioneer
1935:
1930:
1925:
1917:
1912:
1911:
1910:
1899:
1897:
1896:In agriculture
1890:
1886:
1885:
1882:
1881:
1879:
1878:
1873:
1868:
1862:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1852:
1847:
1842:
1840:Microinjection
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1811:
1809:
1800:
1794:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1787:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1770:
1768:
1757:
1756:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1744:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1732:
1722:
1716:
1714:
1710:
1709:
1707:
1706:
1701:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1685:
1684:
1679:
1677:Knockout mouse
1668:
1666:
1657:
1651:
1650:
1647:
1646:
1644:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1593:
1587:
1585:
1581:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1571:
1569:
1563:
1562:
1560:
1559:
1553:
1551:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1541:
1535:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1524:
1523:
1518:
1512:
1510:
1504:
1503:
1501:
1500:
1494:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1483:
1482:
1476:
1474:
1468:
1467:
1465:
1464:
1459:
1454:
1449:
1443:
1441:
1432:
1423:
1413:
1412:
1407:
1405:
1404:
1397:
1390:
1382:
1376:
1375:
1370:
1363:
1362:External links
1360:
1357:
1356:
1327:(6): 794–796.
1305:
1251:
1198:
1180:
1121:
1070:
1040:
1026:
1019:
988:
962:
938:
909:(4): 245–266.
889:
846:
773:
729:
680:
645:(5836): 92–4.
629:
586:
557:(6): 839–840.
535:
476:
441:(9): 741–754.
421:
370:
328:
327:
325:
322:
321:
320:
313:
310:
294:TRPM8 receptor
254:knockout mouse
224:
221:
185:"knocking out"
161:Mario Capecchi
136:
133:
84:Beatrice Mintz
79:
76:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2231:
2220:
2217:
2215:
2212:
2210:
2207:
2206:
2204:
2189:
2186:
2184:
2183:Biotechnology
2181:
2179:
2176:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2167:
2161:
2158:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2142:
2140:
2136:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2124:South America
2122:
2119:
2115:
2114:North America
2112:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2097:
2096:
2094:
2090:
2084:
2081:
2080:
2078:
2076:
2072:
2066:
2063:
2061:
2060:Transhumanism
2058:
2056:
2053:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2043:
2041:
2038:
2036:
2033:
2031:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2019:
2009:
2006:
2004:
2001:
1999:
1998:Gene knockout
1996:
1995:
1993:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1978:
1975:
1973:
1970:
1969:
1967:
1962:
1957:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1934:
1931:
1929:
1926:
1924:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1909:
1908:Controversies
1906:
1905:
1904:
1901:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1887:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1863:
1861:
1857:
1851:
1848:
1846:
1843:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1807:Inserting DNA
1804:
1801:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1775:
1772:
1771:
1769:
1767:
1762:
1758:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1736:
1733:
1731:
1728:
1727:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1715:
1713:Other animals
1711:
1705:
1702:
1700:
1697:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1674:
1673:
1670:
1669:
1667:
1665:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1652:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1594:
1592:
1589:
1588:
1586:
1582:
1576:
1573:
1572:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1558:
1555:
1554:
1552:
1550:
1546:
1540:
1537:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1499:
1496:
1495:
1493:
1491:
1487:
1481:
1478:
1477:
1475:
1473:
1469:
1463:
1460:
1458:
1455:
1453:
1450:
1448:
1445:
1444:
1442:
1440:
1436:
1433:
1431:
1427:
1424:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1403:
1398:
1396:
1391:
1389:
1384:
1383:
1380:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1365:
1361:
1352:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1321:
1316:
1309:
1306:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1270:
1265:
1261:
1255:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1223:
1219:
1215:
1214:
1209:
1202:
1199:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1162:
1157:
1152:
1148:
1144:
1140:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1105:
1101:
1097:
1093:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1074:
1071:
1060:
1056:
1049:
1047:
1045:
1041:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1020:0-89603-915-3
1016:
1012:
1007:
1006:
997:
995:
993:
989:
976:
972:
966:
963:
952:
948:
942:
939:
934:
930:
925:
920:
916:
912:
908:
904:
900:
893:
890:
885:
881:
877:
873:
869:
865:
862:(3): 503–12.
861:
857:
850:
847:
842:
836:
828:
824:
819:
814:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
777:
774:
769:
765:
760:
755:
751:
747:
743:
736:
734:
730:
725:
721:
716:
711:
707:
703:
699:
695:
691:
684:
681:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
644:
640:
633:
630:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
601:
597:
590:
587:
582:
578:
573:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
551:
546:
539:
536:
531:
527:
522:
517:
512:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
480:
477:
472:
468:
464:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
440:
436:
432:
425:
422:
417:
413:
408:
403:
398:
393:
389:
385:
381:
374:
371:
366:
362:
357:
352:
348:
344:
340:
333:
330:
323:
319:
316:
315:
311:
309:
305:
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
282:muscle fibers
279:
274:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
250:
246:
238:
234:
229:
222:
220:
218:
214:
213:immune system
210:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
169:DNA construct
166:
162:
158:
154:
150:
146:
142:
134:
132:
130:
125:
121:
117:
113:
109:
105:
101:
97:
93:
89:
85:
77:
75:
73:
69:
65:
61:
60:
55:
51:
47:
43:
39:
35:
31:
27:
18:
1972:Gene therapy
1871:Transgenesis
1850:Transfection
1815:Agrobacteria
1699:Knockout rat
1671:
1521:Vistive Gold
1417:Genetically
1324:
1318:
1308:
1273:
1267:
1260:Crusio, W.E.
1254:
1217:
1211:
1201:
1183:
1138:
1134:
1124:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1062:. Retrieved
1058:
1029:
1004:
979:. Retrieved
975:the original
965:
954:. Retrieved
950:
941:
906:
902:
892:
859:
855:
849:
835:cite journal
790:
786:
776:
749:
745:
697:
693:
683:
642:
638:
632:
599:
595:
589:
554:
548:
538:
493:
489:
479:
438:
434:
424:
387:
383:
373:
346:
342:
332:
306:
275:
242:
138:
100:Frank Ruddle
81:
57:
42:Mus musculus
41:
33:
29:
25:
23:
1991:In research
1965:diagnostics
1835:Lipofection
1596:Arabidopsis
1498:Golden rice
189:nucleotides
181:blastocysts
2203:Categories
2075:Regulation
1919:Companies
1876:Cisgenesis
1820:Biolistics
1626:Sugar beet
1539:Flavr Savr
1439:Maize/corn
1276:(1): 1–4.
1064:2020-05-14
956:2023-01-06
324:References
173:homologous
153:endogenous
149:transgenic
62:models in
2188:Bioethics
2092:Geography
2030:Transgene
1798:Processes
1689:Enviropig
1682:Oncomouse
1621:SmartStax
1557:Bt cotton
1421:organisms
1300:205853147
746:Genes Dev
455:1474-1784
298:capsaicin
258:oncogenes
237:wild-type
177:recombine
96:transgene
2178:Genetics
2145:Eugenics
2023:articles
1948:Syngenta
1943:Monsanto
1915:Pharming
1761:Bacteria
1457:StarLink
1419:modified
1351:21557537
1292:18778401
1246:17716967
1059:iBiology
981:July 11,
933:29411049
884:31961262
768:17875663
581:24242788
463:16915232
416:24173311
365:22593194
312:See also
270:oncomice
199:form of
129:germline
118:and the
82:In 1974
2173:Biology
2150:Cloning
2129:Oceania
2021:Related
1766:viruses
1730:GloFish
1720:Insects
1664:Mammals
1655:Animals
1641:Mustard
1631:Tobacco
1601:Brinjal
1508:Soybean
1480:Amflora
1452:MON 863
1447:MON 810
1342:3157912
1237:4484620
1175:9861016
1143:Bibcode
1116:4271945
1108:9139826
1088:Bibcode
924:6061174
876:2822260
827:6261253
795:Bibcode
724:6276022
715:4883678
675:4371351
667:6945481
647:Bibcode
624:6272397
604:Bibcode
596:Science
572:3675234
530:4364530
498:Bibcode
471:7254415
407:4382078
302:menthol
245:tissues
167:with a
135:Methods
78:History
59:in vivo
36:) is a
2104:Africa
2099:Europe
1961:humans
1735:Salmon
1704:Rabbit
1611:Papaya
1606:Canola
1549:Cotton
1531:Tomato
1472:Potato
1349:
1339:
1298:
1290:
1244:
1234:
1173:
1163:
1114:
1106:
1080:Nature
1017:
931:
921:
882:
874:
825:
818:350507
815:
766:
722:
712:
673:
665:
639:Nature
622:
579:
569:
528:
521:388203
518:
469:
461:
453:
414:
404:
363:
266:cancer
249:organs
197:murine
110:, and
108:Oxford
92:embryo
46:genome
1928:Bayer
1859:Types
1747:Frogs
1742:Birds
1672:Mouse
1636:Trees
1591:Apple
1584:Other
1567:Wheat
1430:Crops
1296:S2CID
1166:28090
1112:S2CID
880:S2CID
671:S2CID
467:S2CID
191:). A
102:from
38:mouse
2109:Asia
1923:BASF
1889:Uses
1764:and
1725:Fish
1616:Rose
1490:Rice
1347:PMID
1288:PMID
1242:PMID
1171:PMID
1135:PNAS
1104:PMID
1015:ISBN
983:2010
929:PMID
872:PMID
856:Cell
841:link
823:PMID
764:PMID
720:PMID
694:Cell
663:PMID
620:PMID
577:PMID
526:PMID
459:PMID
451:ISSN
412:PMID
388:2013
361:PMID
300:and
247:and
223:Uses
159:and
86:and
34:GEMM
1963:and
1959:In
1575:HB4
1337:PMC
1329:doi
1278:doi
1232:PMC
1222:doi
1218:282
1193:AAP
1161:PMC
1151:doi
1096:doi
1084:387
919:PMC
911:doi
864:doi
813:PMC
803:doi
754:doi
710:PMC
702:doi
655:doi
643:294
612:doi
600:214
567:PMC
559:doi
516:PMC
506:doi
443:doi
402:PMC
392:doi
351:doi
28:or
2205::
2118:US
1345:.
1335:.
1325:24
1323:.
1317:.
1294:.
1286:.
1272:.
1266:.
1240:.
1230:.
1216:.
1210:.
1191:.
1169:.
1159:.
1149:.
1139:95
1137:.
1133:.
1110:.
1102:.
1094:.
1082:.
1057:.
1043:^
1013:.
991:^
949:.
927:.
917:.
907:66
905:.
901:.
878:.
870:.
860:51
858:.
837:}}
833:{{
821:.
811:.
801:.
791:77
789:.
785:.
762:.
750:21
748:.
744:.
732:^
718:.
708:.
698:27
696:.
692:.
669:.
661:.
653:.
641:.
618:.
610:.
598:.
575:.
565:.
555:92
553:.
547:.
524:.
514:.
504:.
494:71
492:.
488:.
465:.
457:.
449:.
437:.
433:.
410:.
400:.
386:.
382:.
359:.
347:72
345:.
341:.
74:.
24:A
2120:)
2116:(
1401:e
1394:t
1387:v
1353:.
1331::
1302:.
1280::
1274:8
1248:.
1224::
1177:.
1153::
1145::
1118:.
1098::
1090::
1067:.
1023:.
1011:1
985:.
959:.
935:.
913::
886:.
866::
843:)
829:.
805::
797::
770:.
756::
726:.
704::
677:.
657::
649::
626:.
614::
606::
583:.
561::
532:.
508::
500::
473:.
445::
439:5
418:.
394::
367:.
353::
239:.
40:(
32:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
