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migration northward. The increased human activity brings increased roads and traffic, but also increases road maintenance, plowing, and snow compaction, inadvertently clearing a path for bobcats to travel by. The anthropogenic influence on bobcat migration pathways is an example of urban facilitation via opening up a corridor for gene flow. However, in the bobcat's southern range, an increase in roads and traffic is correlated with a decrease in forest cover, which hinders bobcat population gene flow through these areas. Somewhat ironically, the movement of bobcats northward is caused by human-driven global warming, but is also enabled by increased anthropogenic activity in northern ranges that make these habitats more suitable to bobcats.
687:
increased diversity, and therefore adaptation, in the urban populations of the
Western black widow spider. Phenotypically, urban spiders are larger, darker, and more aggressive, which could lead to increased survival in urban environments. These findings demonstrate support for urban facilitation, as these spiders are actually able to spread and diversify faster across urban environments than they would in a rural one. However, it is also an example of how urban facilitation, despite increasing gene flow, is not necessarily beneficial to an environment, as Western black widow spiders have highly toxic venom and therefore pose risks for human health.
830:
which the introduced species begins to replace the native species, the native species becomes threatened and the biodiversity is reduced, thus making this phenomenon negative rather than a positive case of gene flow that augments genetic diversity. Introgression is the replacement of one species' alleles with that of the invader species. It is important to note that hybrids are sometime less "fit" than their parental generation, and as a result is a closely monitored genetic issue as the ultimate goal in conservation genetics is to maintain the genetic integrity of a species and preserve biodiversity.
638:
be especially detrimental for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones which can occur between island and mainland species. Interbreeding between the species can cause a 'swamping' of the rarer species' gene pool, creating hybrids that supplant the native stock. This is a direct result of evolutionary forces such as natural selection, as well as genetic drift, which lead to the increasing prevalence of advantageous traits and homogenization. The extent of this phenomenon is not always apparent from
662:, also called urban fragmentation, in which alterations to the landscape that disrupt or fragment the habitat decrease genetic diversity. The second is called the urban facilitation model, and suggests that in some populations, gene flow is enabled by anthropogenic changes to the landscape. Urban facilitation of gene flow connects populations, reduces isolation, and increases gene flow into an area which would otherwise not have this specific genome composition.
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sizes. Mobility plays an important role in dispersal rate, as highly mobile individuals tend to have greater movement prospects. Although animals are thought to be more mobile than plants, pollen and seeds may be carried great distances by animals, water or wind. When gene flow is impeded, there can be an increase in
873:
likely experienced allopatric speciation in some part due to differing geography, but that does not explain why we see so many different kinds of finches on the same island. This is due to adaptive radiation, or the evolution of varying traits in light of competition for resources. Gene flow moves in
665:
Urban facilitation can occur in many different ways, but most of the mechanisms include bringing previously separated species into contact, either directly or indirectly. Altering a habitat through urbanization will cause habitat fragmentation, but could also potentially disrupt barriers and create a
637:
advantage of introduced plant or animal. Nonnative species can threaten native plants and animals with extinction by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can
602:
Gene flow can also be used to assist species which are threatened with extinction. When a species exist in small populations there is an increased risk of inbreeding and greater susceptibility to loss of diversity due to drift. These populations can benefit greatly from the introduction of unrelated
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loci in bobcats across the Great Lakes region, and found that longitude affected the interaction between anthropogenic landscape alterations and bobcat population gene flow. While rising global temperatures push bobcat populations into northern territory, increased human activity also enables bobcat
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but upon testing the mtDNA it is apparent that hybridization has occurred. Differential hybridization also occurs because some traits and DNA are more readily exchanged than others, and this is a result of selective pressure or the absence thereof that allows for easier transaction. In instances in
702:
Consequences of urban facilitation vary from species to species. Positive effects of urban facilitation can occur when increased gene flow enables better adaptation and introduces beneficial alleles, and would ideally increase biodiversity. This has implications for conservation: for example, urban
113:
among population samples. The more genetically differentiated two populations are, the lower the estimate of gene flow, because gene flow has a homogenizing effect. Isolation of populations leads to divergence due to drift, while migration reduces divergence. Gene flow can be measured by using the
884:
is an endemic species of the
Galapagos Islands, but it evolved from a mainland ancestor of land iguana. Due to geographic isolation gene flow between the two species was limited and differing environments caused the marine iguana to evolve in order to adapt to the island environment. For instance,
670:
is another mechanism by which southern-dwelling animals might be forced northward towards cooler temperatures, where they could come into contact with other populations not previously in their range. More directly, humans are known to introduce non-native species into new environments, which could
558:
has wind-pollination as its primary means of propagation and the latter-plants carry out pollination through insects. Samples of the same species which grow on either side have been shown to have developed genetic differences, because there is little to no gene flow to provide recombination of the
525:
or a geographical isolation that does not allow populations of the same species to exchange genetic material. Physical barriers to gene flow are usually, but not always, natural. They may include impassable mountain ranges, oceans, or vast deserts. In some cases, they can be artificial, human-made
91:
There are a number of factors that affect the rate of gene flow between different populations. Gene flow is expected to be lower in species that have low dispersal or mobility, that occur in fragmented habitats, where there is long distances between populations, and when there are small population
950:
which is part of an international breeding program in which genetic materials are shared between zoological organizations in order to increase genetic diversity in the small populations. As a result of low reproductive success, artificial insemination with fresh/frozen-thawed sperm was developed
112:
The level of gene flow among populations can be estimated by observing the dispersal of individuals and recording their reproductive success. This direct method is only suitable for some types of organisms, more often indirect methods are used that infer gene flow by comparing allele frequencies
776:
Biologist
Gogarten suggests "the original metaphor of a tree no longer fits the data from recent genome research". Biologists instead use the metaphor of a mosaic to describe the different histories combined in individual genomes and use the metaphor of an intertwined net to visualize the rich
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out of Africa after which local differentiation led to the establishment of regional population as we see them now. Gene flow plays an important role in maintaining a grade of similarities and preventing speciation. In contrast the single origin theory assumes that there was a common ancestral
824:
In some instances, when a species has a sister species and breeding capabilities are possible due to the removal of previous barriers or through introduction due to human intervention, species can hybridize and exchange genes and corresponding traits. This exchange is not always clear-cut, for
572:
found on Lord Howe Island were found to have substantially different flowering times correlated with soil preference, resulting in a reproductive barrier inhibiting gene flow. Species can live in the same environment, yet show very limited gene flow due to reproductive barriers, fragmentation,
686:
variation data in urban and rural spider populations and found evidence for increased gene flow in urban
Western black widow spiders compared to rural populations. In addition, the genome of these spiders was more similar across rural populations than it was for urban populations, suggesting
703:
facilitation benefits an endangered species of tarantula and could help increase the population size. Negative effects would occur when increased gene flow is maladaptive and causes the loss of beneficial alleles. In the worst-case scenario, this would lead to genomic extinction through a
62:
to another. If the rate of gene flow is high enough, then two populations will have equivalent allele frequencies and therefore can be considered a single effective population. It has been shown that it takes only "one migrant per generation" to prevent populations from diverging due to
573:
specialist pollinators, or limited hybridization or hybridization yielding unfit hybrids. A cryptic species is a species that humans cannot tell is different without the use of genetics. Moreover, gene flow between hybrid and wild populations can result in loss of genetic diversity via
2038:
Crispo E, Moore JS, Lee-Yaw JA, Gray SM, Haller BC (July 2011). "Broken barriers: human-induced changes to gene flow and introgression in animals: an examination of the ways in which humans increase genetic exchange among populations and species and the consequences for biodiversity".
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Bobwhite quail were translocated from the southern part of the United States to
Ontario in order to increase population numbers and game for hunting. The hybrids that resulted from this translocation was less fit than the native population and were not adapted to survive the Northern
707:. It is also important to note that in the scheme of overall ecosystem health and biodiversity, urban facilitation is not necessarily beneficial, and generally applies to urban adapter pests. Examples of this include the previously mentioned Western black widow spider, and also the
71:
even when they are exchanging alleles, if the selection pressure is strong enough. Gene flow is an important mechanism for transferring genetic diversity among populations. Migrants change the distribution of genetic diversity among populations, by modifying
666:
pathway, or corridor, that can connect two formerly separated species. The effectiveness of this depends on individual species’ dispersal abilities and adaptiveness to different environments to use anthropogenic structures to travel. Human-driven
979:
Sika deer were introduced into
Western Europe, and they reproduce easily with the native red deer. This translocation of Sika deer has led to introgression and there are no longer "pure" red deer in the region, and all can be classified as
567:
Barriers to gene flow need not always be physical. Sympatric speciation happens when new species from the same ancestral species arise along the same range. This is often a result of a reproductive barrier. For example, two palm species of
76:(the proportion of members carrying a particular variant of a gene). High rates of gene flow can reduce the genetic differentiation between the two groups, increasing homogeneity. For this reason, gene flow has been thought to constrain
1535:
Rogers, D. L., & Montalvo, A. M. (2004). Genetically appropriate choices for plant materials to maintain biological diversity. University of
California. Report to the USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Region, Lakewood,
853:
While gene flow can greatly enhance the fitness of a population, it can also have negative consequences depending on the population and the environment in which they reside. The effects of gene flow are context-dependent.
1419:
Eldridge MD, King JM, Loupis AK, Spencer PB, Taylor AC, Pope LC, Hall GP (June 1999). "Unprecedented Low Levels of
Genetic Variation and Inbreeding Depression in an Island Population of the Black-Footed Rock-Wallaby".
144:) and the net migration rate per generation (m). Using the approximation based on the Island model, the effect of migration can be calculated for a population in terms of the degree of genetic differentiation(
498:
272:
is < 0.25. This means there is some migration happening. Measures of population structure range from 0 to 1. When gene flow occurs via migration the deleterious effects of inbreeding can be ameliorated.
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Hominid
Evolution: Past, Present, and Future : Proceedings of the Taung Diamond Jubilee International Symposium, Johannesburg and Mmabatho, Southern Africa, 27th January-4th February 1985
104:
has several inbred populations that live on various islands off the coast of
Australia. The population is so strongly isolated that lack of gene flow has led to high rates of inbreeding.
1808:
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individuals who can increase diversity and reduce the amount of inbreeding, and potentially increase population size. This was demonstrated in the lab with two bottleneck strains of
80:
and prevent range expansion by combining the gene pools of the groups, thus preventing the development of differences in genetic variation that would have led to differentiation and
642:
alone. While some degree of gene flow occurs in the course of normal evolution, hybridization with or without introgression may threaten a rare species' existence. For example, the
342:
212:) equals 0.2. However, when there is less than 1 migrant per generation (no migration), the inbreeding coefficient rises rapidly resulting in fixation and complete divergence (
2473:
Steeves TE, Maloney RF, Hale ML, Tylianakis JM, Gemmell NJ (December 2010). "Genetic analyses reveal hybridization but no hybrid swarm in one of the world's rarest birds".
374:
270:
240:
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were found to use different pollinators (bees and hummingbirds) that limited gene flow, resulting in genetic isolation, eventually producing two different species,
142:
1062:"Ecological speciation in an island snail: evidence for the parallel evolution of a novel ecotype and maintenance by ecologically dependent postzygotic isolation"
2383:
2358:
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which increased cub survival rate. A 2014 study found that high levels of genetic diversity and low levels of inbreeding were estimated in the breeding centers.
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resulting in gene flow between these populations. This gene flow has resulted in Neanderthal alleles in modern European population. Two theories exist for the
3016:
607:, in which crosses between the two populations reversed the effects of inbreeding and led to greater chances of survival in not only one generation but two.
2319:
2177:
Johnston C, Martin B, Fichant G, Polard P, Claverys JP (March 2014). "Bacterial transformation: distribution, shared mechanisms and divergent control".
100:(F) within a population. For example, many island populations have low rates of gene flow due to geographic isolation and small population sizes. The
757:
Viruses can transfer genes between species. Bacteria can incorporate genes from dead bacteria, exchange genes with living bacteria, and can exchange
4220:
3675:
773:'domains'. Thus determining the phylogenetic history of a species can not be done conclusively by determining evolutionary trees for single genes."
1881:
Genetic Pollution from Farm Forestry using eucalypt species and hybrids; A report for the RIRDC/L&WA/FWPRDC; Joint Venture Agroforestry Program
730:
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) refers to the transfer of genes between organisms in a manner other than traditional reproduction, either through
3026:
1819:
2384:"Horizontal Gene Transfer - A New Paradigm for Biology (From Evolutionary Theory Conference Summary), Esalen Center for Theory & Research"
2359:"Horizontal Gene Transfer - A New Paradigm for Biology (from Evolutionary Theory Conference Summary), Esalen Center for Theory & Research"
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is an abundant species of duck that interbreeds readily with a wide range of other ducks and poses a threat to the integrity of some species.
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which already displayed the anatomical characteristics we see today. This theory minimizes the amount of parallel evolution that is needed.
3340:
84:. In some cases dispersal resulting in gene flow may also result in the addition of novel genetic variants under positive selection to the
1109:"Genetic structure and shell shape variation within a rocky shore whelk suggest both diverging and constraining selection with gene flow"
903:
throughout the world. The first is known as the multiregional model in which modern human variation is seen as a product of radiation of
4066:
2986:
379:
3728:
3388:
1605:, Anstett MC, Lexer C, Hutton I, Clarkson JJ, Norup MV, et al. (May 2006). "Sympatric speciation in palms on an oceanic island".
2288:
1995:
Miles LS, Rivkin LR, Johnson MT, Munshi-South J, Verrelli BC (September 2019). "Gene flow and genetic drift in urban environments".
1044:
936: revealed a genome-wide trend of increased shared variation in sympatry, indicative of pervasive interspecific gene flow.
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1818:. Corvallis, OR: USDA Forest Service; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology. pp. 26–27. Archived from
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Su H, Qu LJ, He K, Zhang Z, Wang J, Chen Z, Gu H (March 2003). "The Great Wall of China: a physical barrier to gene flow?".
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Allendorf FW, Leary RF, Spruell P, Wenburg JK (2001-11-01). "The problems with hybrids: setting conservation guidelines".
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Hedrick PW, Fredrickson R (2010). "Genetic rescue guidelines with examples from Mexican wolves and Florida panthers".
1107:
Gemmell MR, Trewick SA, Crampton JS, Vaux F, Hills SF, Daly EE, Marshall BA, Beu AG, Morgan-Richards M (2018-11-26).
1460:"Genomic sweep and potential genetic rescue during limiting environmental conditions in an isolated wolf population"
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114:
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Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest
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2795:"Large-scale genetic survey provides insights into the captive management and reintroduction of giant pandas"
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2979:
2618:"Disentangling Immediate Adaptive Introgression from Selection on Standing Introgressed Variation in Humans"
743:
672:
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Human activities such as movement of species and modification of landscape can result in genetic pollution,
816:. However, these molecular ancestors were likely to be present in different organisms at different times."
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3795:
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3685:
3586:
3557:
3530:
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3123:
1750:"A test of the 'genetic rescue' technique using bottlenecked donor populations of Drosophila melanogaster"
1362:
Cunningham, Charles; Parra, Jorge E; Coals, Lucy; Beltrán, Marcela; Zefania, Sama; Székely, Tamás (2018).
1261:"Adaptive introgression of anticoagulant rodent poison resistance by hybridization between old world mice"
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Storfer, Andrew (February 1999). "Gene flow and endangered species translocations: a topic revisited".
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Martin SH, Dasmahapatra KK, Nadeau NJ, Salazar C, Walters JR, Simpson F, et al. (November 2013).
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Bolnick DI, Nosil P (September 2007). "Natural selection in populations subject to a migration load".
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2896:, Center for Ecology, Evolution and Behavior and T.H. Morgan School of Biological Sciences, May 1998.
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is the only way in which humans attempt to induce gene flow in ex situ situation. One example is the
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862:
801:
639:
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Stringer CB, Andrews P (March 1988). "Genetic and fossil evidence for the origin of modern humans".
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2020:
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1364:"Social interactions predict genetic diversification: an experimental manipulation in shorebirds"
1241:
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1089:
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694:) in the northern US and southern Canada. A study by Marrote et al. sequenced fourteen different
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This urban facilitation model was tested on a human health pest, the Western black widow spider (
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73:
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2012:
1974:
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2004:
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across species boundaries. "Sequence comparisons suggest recent horizontal transfer of many
622:
530:, which has hindered the gene flow of native plant populations. One of these native plants,
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and genetic swamping. These processes can lead to homogenization or replacement of local
2616:
Jagoda E, Lawson DJ, Wall JD, Lambert D, Muller C, Westaway M, et al. (March 2018).
2851:
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evolved via allopatric speciation, through limited gene flow and geographic isolation.
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3293:
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2836:"Pollinator preference and the evolution of floral traits in monkeyflowers (Mimulus)"
2835:
2486:
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2024:
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that contained all of the genes ancestral to those shared among the three domains of
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626:
64:
2545:
2206:
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1734:
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whose habitat is located on the opposite side of the Great Wall of China where
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2746:"Genome-wide evidence for speciation with gene flow in Heliconius butterflies"
1718:
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93:
81:
77:
59:
28:
19:
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1902:
1726:
1458:
Adams JR, Vucetich LM, Hedrick PW, Peterson RO, Vucetich JA (November 2011).
1387:
1186:
1134:
711:, which was able to use roads by which to travel and overpopulate Australia.
536:, demonstrated a lower prevalence of genetic differentiation than the plants
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85:
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2016:
1978:
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1202:
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182:. When there is one migrant per generation, the inbreeding coefficient (
2584:
2561:"The complete genome sequence of a Neanderthal from the Altai Mountains"
2237:
2190:
1945:"The ectoparasites of hybrid ducks in New Zealand (Mallard x Grey Duck)"
1626:
1335:"Effects of life history traits on genetic diversity in plant species".
3755:
3655:
3503:
3498:
3212:
2964:
2722:
1943:
Bulgarella M, Quenu M, Shepherd LD, Morgan-Richards M (December 2018).
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643:
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Shan L, Hu Y, Zhu L, Yan L, Wang C, Li D, et al. (October 2014).
2144:
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2086:
2008:
1077:
734:(direct uptake of genetic material by a cell from its surroundings),
585:. In human populations, genetic differentiation can also result from
49:
24:
2411:
Mallet, James (2005). "Hybridization as an invasion of the genome".
690:
Another example of urban facilitation is that of migrating bobcats (
2940:
2087:"Urbanization as a facilitator of gene flow in a human health pest"
3711:
3520:
3419:
837:
512:
18:
922:
Comparisons between sympatric and allopatric populations of
825:
sometimes the hybrids may look identical to the original species
493:{\displaystyle Nm=((1/F_{ST})-1)/4={\tfrac {1-F_{ST}}{4*F_{ST}}}}
346:
The formula can be modified to solve for the migration rate when
3670:
805:
781:
762:
589:, due to differences in caste, ethnicity, customs and religion.
521:
When gene flow is blocked by physical barriers, this results in
2968:
2222:"Gene transfer agents: phage-like elements of genetic exchange"
1155:"Gene Flow and the Geographic Structure of Natural Populations"
2128:"Climate connectivity of the bobcat in the Great Lakes region"
1949:
International Journal for Parasitology: Parasites and Wildlife
885:
they are the only iguana that has evolved the ability to swim.
812:
has its own history and traces back to an individual molecule
777:
exchange and cooperative effects of horizontal gene transfer.
874:
the direction of what resources are abundant at a given time.
754:(transfer by a virus-like element produced by a bacterium) .
658:
affects gene flow of urban populations. The first is through
2952:
16:
Transfer of genetic variation from one population to another
2272:
31:
to another population through immigration of individuals.
2085:
Miles LS, Johnson JC, Dyer RJ, Verrelli BC (July 2018).
443:
1218:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
382:
352:
281:
248:
218:
188:
174:). This formula accounts for the proportion of total
150:
123:
88:
of a species or population (adaptive introgression.)
1878:
Potts BM, Barbour RC, Hingston AB (September 2001).
4129:
4054:
3958:
3885:
3841:
3696:
3600:
3417:
3376:
3245:
3035:
1748:Heber S, Briskie JV, Apiolaza LA (13 August 2012).
2126:Marrotte RR, Bowman J, Wilson PJ (February 2020).
492:
368:
336:
264:
234:
204:
166:
136:
800:with rare HGT events suggest there was no single
682:). A study by Miles et al. collected genome-wide
1033:Frankham R, Briscoe DA, Ballou JD (2002-03-14).
742:between two bacterial cells in direct contact),
2220:Lang AS, Zhaxybayeva O, Beatty JT (June 2012).
1554:
1552:
1550:
2688:
2686:
2980:
1515:. Oxford University Press. pp. 329–346.
869:to occur as a result of differing geography.
792:in the presence of HGT. Combining the simple
8:
1513:Molecular Genetic Approaches in Conservation
517:Examples of speciation affecting gene flow.
178:variation among populations, averaged over
2987:
2973:
2965:
2941:Transcontainer research on biocontainment
2936:Co-Extra research on gene flow mitigation
2869:
2859:
2834:Schemske DW, Bradshaw HD (October 1999).
2810:
2769:
2641:
2592:
2245:
2153:
2143:
2102:
1968:
1783:
1773:
1681:
1483:
1395:
1284:
1124:
1113:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
633:as a result of either a numerical and/or
477:
456:
442:
431:
410:
401:
381:
357:
351:
316:
301:
286:
280:
253:
247:
223:
217:
193:
187:
155:
149:
128:
122:
4221:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
2953:SIGMEA research on the biosafety of GMOs
1845:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1310:Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
1990:
1988:
1018:
2318:: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (
2311:
1925:
1915:
788:, it is difficult to trace organismal
3984:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
2665:Tobias PV, Strong V, White W (1985).
2080:
2078:
1807:Aubry C, Shoal R, Erickson V (2005).
1453:
1451:
1036:Introduction to Conservation Genetics
7:
1148:
1146:
1144:
1028:
1026:
1024:
1022:
910:population originating in Africa of
337:{\displaystyle F_{ST}=1/(4N_{e}m+1)}
1322:10.1146/annurev.es.25.110194.001123
769:including across the boundaries of
3389:Evolutionary developmental biology
942:The captive genetic management of
861:fragmented landscapes such as the
654:There are two main models for how
14:
2448:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
1343:(1345): 1291–1298. January 1997.
67:. Populations can diverge due to
4243:
4234:
4233:
2487:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04895.x
1662:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
1511:. In Smith TB, Wayne RK (eds.).
1464:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
1434:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1999.98115.x
1230:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00179.x
4046:Extended evolutionary synthesis
3235:Gene-centered view of evolution
2799:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2622:Molecular Biology and Evolution
2413:Trends in Ecology and Evolution
1857:10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83
746:(injection of foreign DNA by a
4174:Hologenome theory of evolution
4041:History of molecular evolution
3267:Evolutionarily stable strategy
3156:Last universal common ancestor
1039:. Cambridge University Press.
684:single nucleotide polymorphism
428:
419:
395:
392:
331:
306:
115:effective population size
1:
3968:Renaissance and Enlightenment
2920:10.1016/S0006-3207(98)00066-4
2460:10.1016/S0169-5347(01)02290-X
750:virus into the host cell) or
23:Gene flow is the transfer of
4179:Missing heritability problem
3806:Gamete differentiation/sexes
2226:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
2179:Nature Reviews. Microbiology
1961:10.1016/j.ijppaw.2018.09.005
1775:10.1371/journal.pone.0043113
1658:"Vulpes lagopus) population"
1153:Slatkin, Montgomery (1987).
500:, Nm = number of migrants.
4288:
3811:Life cycles/nuclear phases
3363:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
2425:10.1016/j.tree.2005.02.010
2334:"Horizontal Gene Transfer"
723:
614:
4229:
3309:Parent–offspring conflict
3114:Earliest known life forms
3002:
1719:10.1007/s10592-009-9999-5
1277:10.1016/j.cub.2011.06.043
1126:10.1093/biolinnean/bly142
1060:Stankowski S (May 2013).
940:Human-mediated gene flow:
752:GTA-mediated transduction
715:Gene flow between species
102:Black Footed Rock Wallaby
4162:Cultural group selection
4026:The eclipse of Darwinism
3998:On the Origin of Species
3973:Transmutation of species
2861:10.1073/pnas.96.21.11910
726:Horizontal gene transfer
720:Horizontal gene transfer
593:Human assisted gene-flow
4167:Dual inheritance theory
4006:History of paleontology
2908:Biological Conservation
2715:10.1126/science.3125610
2530:10.1126/science.1070315
1179:10.1126/science.3576198
865:are an ideal place for
605:Drosophila melanogaster
554:grows. This is because
3855:Punctuated equilibrium
3176:Non-adaptive radiation
3124:Evolutionary arms race
2053:10.1002/bies.201000154
1674:10.1098/rspb.2017.2814
1573:10.1038/sj.hdy.6800237
1476:10.1098/rspb.2011.0261
1349:10.1098/rstb.1996.0112
859:Fragmented Population:
850:
544:Heteropappus hispidus,
526:barriers, such as the
518:
494:
370:
369:{\displaystyle F_{ST}}
338:
266:
265:{\displaystyle F_{ST}}
242:= 1). The most common
236:
235:{\displaystyle F_{ST}}
206:
205:{\displaystyle F_{ST}}
168:
167:{\displaystyle F_{ST}}
138:
98:inbreeding coefficient
32:
4147:Evolutionary medicine
4021:Mendelian inheritance
3729:Biological complexity
3717:Programmed cell death
3409:Phenotypic plasticity
3129:Evolutionary pressure
3119:Evidence of evolution
3017:Timeline of evolution
2812:10.1093/molbev/msu210
2762:10.1101/gr.159426.113
2634:10.1093/molbev/msx314
2132:Ecology and Evolution
1707:Conservation Genetics
1538:www. f s I ed. u s/ r
1380:10.1093/beheco/ary012
841:
660:habitat fragmentation
523:Allopatric speciation
516:
509:Allopatric speciation
504:Barriers to gene flow
495:
371:
339:
267:
237:
207:
169:
139:
137:{\displaystyle N_{e}}
54:) is the transfer of
22:
4121:Teleology in biology
4016:Blending inheritance
3394:Genetic assimilation
3257:Artificial selection
2996:Evolutionary biology
1422:Conservation Biology
998:Biological dispersal
925:Heliconius melpomene
808:. Each contemporary
802:last common ancestor
786:phylogenetic markers
680:Latrodectus hesperus
675:of similar species.
563:Sympatric speciation
380:
350:
279:
246:
216:
186:
148:
121:
4270:Population genetics
4184:Molecular evolution
4142:Ecological genetics
4011:Transitional fossil
3801:Sexual reproduction
3641:endomembrane system
3570:pollinator-mediated
3526:dolphins and whales
3304:Parental investment
2852:1999PNAS...9611910S
2707:1988Sci...239.1263S
2585:10.1038/nature12886
2577:2014Natur.505...43P
2522:2002Sci...296..707G
2273:permanent dead link
2238:10.1038/nrmicro2802
2191:10.1038/nrmicro3199
1766:2012PLoSO...743113H
1627:10.1038/nature04566
1619:2006Natur.441..210S
1171:1987Sci...236..787S
957:Two populations of
528:Great Wall of China
108:Measuring gene flow
37:population genetics
4157:Cultural evolution
3272:Fisher's principle
3201:Handicap principle
3191:Parallel evolution
3055:Adaptive radiation
2958:2011-10-07 at the
2946:2011-09-26 at the
1668:(1875): 20172814.
1507:Neigel JE (1996).
1368:Behavioral Ecology
970:Mimulus cardinalis
944:threatened species
889:Human Populations:
878:Island Population:
867:adaptive radiation
851:
640:outward appearance
579:assortative mating
519:
490:
488:
366:
334:
262:
232:
202:
164:
134:
96:, measured by the
74:allele frequencies
58:material from one
33:
4257:
4256:
3873:Uniformitarianism
3826:Sex-determination
3331:Sexual dimorphism
3326:Natural selection
3230:Unit of selection
3196:Signalling theory
2676:978-0-8451-4202-8
2516:(5568): 707–711.
2475:Molecular Ecology
2145:10.1002/ece3.6049
2104:10.1111/mec.14783
2097:(16): 3219–3230.
2091:Molecular Ecology
2009:10.1111/mec.15221
2003:(18): 4138–4151.
1997:Molecular Ecology
1894:978-0-642-58336-9
1522:978-0-19-534466-0
1470:(1723): 3336–44.
1165:(4803): 787–792.
1078:10.1111/mec.12287
1066:Molecular Ecology
1008:Genetic admixture
863:Galapagos Islands
847:Galapagos Islands
617:Genetic pollution
611:Genetic pollution
575:genetic pollution
487:
4277:
4247:
4237:
4236:
4036:Modern synthesis
3796:Multicellularity
3791:Mosaic evolution
3676:auditory ossicle
3358:Social selection
3341:Flowering plants
3336:Sexual selection
2989:
2982:
2975:
2966:
2924:
2923:
2903:
2897:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2873:
2863:
2831:
2825:
2824:
2814:
2790:
2784:
2783:
2773:
2741:
2735:
2734:
2701:(4845): 1263–8.
2690:
2681:
2680:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2645:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2596:
2556:
2550:
2549:
2505:
2499:
2498:
2481:(23): 5090–100.
2470:
2464:
2463:
2443:
2437:
2436:
2408:
2402:
2401:
2399:
2398:
2392:
2386:. Archived from
2380:
2374:
2373:
2371:
2370:
2361:. Archived from
2355:
2349:
2348:
2346:
2345:
2336:. Archived from
2330:
2324:
2323:
2317:
2309:
2307:
2306:
2300:
2294:. Archived from
2293:
2285:
2278:
2274:
2266:
2260:
2259:
2249:
2217:
2211:
2210:
2174:
2168:
2167:
2157:
2147:
2138:(4): 2131–2144.
2123:
2117:
2116:
2106:
2082:
2073:
2072:
2035:
2029:
2028:
1992:
1983:
1982:
1972:
1940:
1934:
1933:
1927:
1923:
1921:
1913:
1911:
1905:. Archived from
1886:
1875:
1869:
1868:
1840:
1834:
1833:
1831:
1830:
1824:
1813:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1787:
1777:
1745:
1739:
1738:
1702:
1696:
1695:
1685:
1653:
1647:
1646:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1556:
1545:
1533:
1527:
1526:
1504:
1498:
1497:
1487:
1455:
1446:
1445:
1416:
1410:
1409:
1399:
1359:
1353:
1352:
1332:
1326:
1325:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1288:
1271:(15): 1296–301.
1256:
1250:
1249:
1213:
1207:
1206:
1150:
1139:
1138:
1128:
1104:
1098:
1097:
1057:
1051:
1050:
1030:
871:Darwin's finches
740:genetic material
548:Prunus armeniaca
541:Ziziphus jujuba,
499:
497:
496:
491:
489:
486:
485:
484:
465:
464:
463:
444:
435:
418:
417:
405:
375:
373:
372:
367:
365:
364:
343:
341:
340:
335:
321:
320:
305:
294:
293:
271:
269:
268:
263:
261:
260:
241:
239:
238:
233:
231:
230:
211:
209:
208:
203:
201:
200:
176:molecular marker
173:
171:
170:
165:
163:
162:
143:
141:
140:
135:
133:
132:
4287:
4286:
4280:
4279:
4278:
4276:
4275:
4274:
4260:
4259:
4258:
4253:
4225:
4152:Group selection
4125:
4050:
3954:
3881:
3843:Tempo and modes
3837:
3692:
3596:
3413:
3372:
3248:
3241:
3218:Species complex
3031:
3022:History of life
2998:
2993:
2960:Wayback Machine
2948:Wayback Machine
2932:
2927:
2905:
2904:
2900:
2891:
2887:
2846:(21): 11910–5.
2833:
2832:
2828:
2805:(10): 2663–71.
2792:
2791:
2787:
2756:(11): 1817–28.
2750:Genome Research
2743:
2742:
2738:
2692:
2691:
2684:
2677:
2664:
2663:
2659:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2558:
2557:
2553:
2507:
2506:
2502:
2472:
2471:
2467:
2454:(11): 613–622.
2445:
2444:
2440:
2410:
2409:
2405:
2396:
2394:
2390:
2382:
2381:
2377:
2368:
2366:
2357:
2356:
2352:
2343:
2341:
2332:
2331:
2327:
2310:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2291:
2289:"Archived copy"
2287:
2286:
2282:
2267:
2263:
2219:
2218:
2214:
2176:
2175:
2171:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2084:
2083:
2076:
2037:
2036:
2032:
1994:
1993:
1986:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1924:
1914:
1909:
1895:
1884:
1877:
1876:
1872:
1842:
1841:
1837:
1828:
1826:
1822:
1811:
1806:
1805:
1801:
1747:
1746:
1742:
1704:
1703:
1699:
1655:
1654:
1650:
1613:(7090): 210–3.
1601:
1600:
1596:
1558:
1557:
1548:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1506:
1505:
1501:
1457:
1456:
1449:
1418:
1417:
1413:
1361:
1360:
1356:
1334:
1333:
1329:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1265:Current Biology
1258:
1257:
1253:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1152:
1151:
1142:
1106:
1105:
1101:
1072:(10): 2726–41.
1059:
1058:
1054:
1047:
1032:
1031:
1020:
1016:
1003:Genetic erosion
994:
984:Bobwhite quail:
964:Mimulus lewisii
901:human evolution
895:interbred with
836:
822:
728:
722:
717:
652:
619:
613:
600:
595:
565:
511:
506:
473:
466:
452:
445:
406:
378:
377:
353:
348:
347:
312:
282:
277:
276:
249:
244:
243:
219:
214:
213:
189:
184:
183:
151:
146:
145:
124:
119:
118:
110:
43:(also known as
17:
12:
11:
5:
4285:
4284:
4281:
4273:
4272:
4262:
4261:
4255:
4254:
4252:
4251:
4241:
4230:
4227:
4226:
4224:
4223:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4203:
4202:
4201:
4191:
4186:
4181:
4176:
4171:
4170:
4169:
4164:
4159:
4149:
4144:
4139:
4133:
4131:
4127:
4126:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4117:
4116:
4111:
4106:
4105:
4104:
4094:
4089:
4084:
4079:
4074:
4064:
4058:
4056:
4052:
4051:
4049:
4048:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4023:
4018:
4013:
4008:
4003:
4002:
4001:
3992:Charles Darwin
3989:
3988:
3987:
3975:
3970:
3964:
3962:
3956:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3947:
3942:
3937:
3932:
3930:Non-ecological
3927:
3922:
3917:
3912:
3907:
3902:
3897:
3891:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3870:
3861:
3847:
3845:
3839:
3838:
3836:
3835:
3830:
3829:
3828:
3823:
3818:
3813:
3808:
3798:
3793:
3788:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3747:
3746:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3720:
3719:
3714:
3703:
3701:
3694:
3693:
3691:
3690:
3689:
3688:
3683:
3681:nervous system
3678:
3673:
3668:
3660:
3659:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3607:
3605:
3598:
3597:
3595:
3594:
3589:
3584:
3579:
3574:
3573:
3572:
3562:
3561:
3560:
3555:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3517:
3516:
3511:
3501:
3491:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3458:
3457:
3447:
3442:
3441:
3440:
3430:
3424:
3422:
3415:
3414:
3412:
3411:
3406:
3401:
3396:
3391:
3386:
3380:
3378:
3374:
3373:
3371:
3370:
3365:
3360:
3355:
3354:
3353:
3348:
3343:
3333:
3328:
3323:
3318:
3313:
3312:
3311:
3306:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3285:
3284:
3274:
3269:
3264:
3259:
3253:
3251:
3243:
3242:
3240:
3239:
3238:
3237:
3227:
3222:
3221:
3220:
3215:
3205:
3204:
3203:
3193:
3188:
3183:
3181:Origin of life
3178:
3173:
3168:
3166:Microevolution
3163:
3161:Macroevolution
3158:
3153:
3148:
3147:
3146:
3136:
3131:
3126:
3121:
3116:
3111:
3106:
3101:
3099:Common descent
3096:
3095:
3094:
3084:
3079:
3077:Baldwin effect
3074:
3073:
3072:
3067:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3041:
3039:
3033:
3032:
3030:
3029:
3024:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3003:
3000:
2999:
2994:
2992:
2991:
2984:
2977:
2969:
2963:
2962:
2950:
2938:
2931:
2930:External links
2928:
2926:
2925:
2914:(2): 173–180.
2898:
2885:
2826:
2785:
2736:
2682:
2675:
2657:
2628:(3): 623–630.
2608:
2571:(7481): 43–9.
2551:
2500:
2465:
2438:
2419:(5): 229–237.
2403:
2375:
2350:
2325:
2280:
2261:
2212:
2169:
2118:
2074:
2030:
1984:
1955:(3): 335–342.
1935:
1912:on 2004-01-02.
1893:
1870:
1835:
1799:
1740:
1713:(2): 615–626.
1697:
1648:
1594:
1546:
1528:
1521:
1499:
1447:
1428:(3): 531–541.
1411:
1374:(3): 609–618.
1354:
1327:
1316:(1): 167–188.
1300:
1251:
1224:(9): 2229–43.
1208:
1140:
1119:(4): 827–843.
1099:
1052:
1045:
1017:
1015:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1005:
1000:
993:
990:
989:
988:
981:
974:
952:
937:
917:
886:
875:
835:
832:
827:phenotypically
821:
818:
780:"Using single
765:among diverse
732:transformation
724:Main article:
721:
718:
716:
713:
696:microsatellite
668:climate change
651:
648:
615:Main article:
612:
609:
599:
598:Genetic rescue
596:
594:
591:
564:
561:
538:Vitex negundo,
510:
507:
505:
502:
483:
480:
476:
472:
469:
462:
459:
455:
451:
448:
441:
438:
434:
430:
427:
424:
421:
416:
413:
409:
404:
400:
397:
394:
391:
388:
385:
363:
360:
356:
333:
330:
327:
324:
319:
315:
311:
308:
304:
300:
297:
292:
289:
285:
259:
256:
252:
229:
226:
222:
199:
196:
192:
161:
158:
154:
131:
127:
109:
106:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4283:
4282:
4271:
4268:
4267:
4265:
4250:
4246:
4242:
4240:
4232:
4231:
4228:
4222:
4219:
4217:
4214:
4212:
4209:
4207:
4204:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4195:
4194:Phylogenetics
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4180:
4177:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4165:
4163:
4160:
4158:
4155:
4154:
4153:
4150:
4148:
4145:
4143:
4140:
4138:
4135:
4134:
4132:
4128:
4122:
4119:
4115:
4112:
4110:
4107:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4098:
4097:Structuralism
4095:
4093:
4090:
4088:
4085:
4083:
4080:
4078:
4075:
4073:
4072:Catastrophism
4070:
4069:
4068:
4065:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4053:
4047:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4037:
4034:
4032:
4031:Neo-Darwinism
4029:
4027:
4024:
4022:
4019:
4017:
4014:
4012:
4009:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3999:
3995:
3994:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3985:
3981:
3980:
3979:
3976:
3974:
3971:
3969:
3966:
3965:
3963:
3961:
3957:
3951:
3948:
3946:
3945:Reinforcement
3943:
3941:
3938:
3936:
3933:
3931:
3928:
3926:
3923:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3911:
3908:
3906:
3903:
3901:
3898:
3896:
3893:
3892:
3890:
3888:
3884:
3878:
3877:Catastrophism
3874:
3871:
3869:
3868:Macromutation
3865:
3864:Micromutation
3862:
3860:
3856:
3852:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3844:
3840:
3834:
3831:
3827:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3817:
3814:
3812:
3809:
3807:
3804:
3803:
3802:
3799:
3797:
3794:
3792:
3789:
3787:
3784:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3771:Immune system
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3745:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3737:
3735:
3732:
3730:
3727:
3725:
3722:
3718:
3715:
3713:
3710:
3709:
3708:
3705:
3704:
3702:
3700:
3695:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3663:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3631:symbiogenesis
3629:
3628:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3608:
3606:
3604:
3599:
3593:
3590:
3588:
3585:
3583:
3580:
3578:
3575:
3571:
3568:
3567:
3566:
3563:
3559:
3556:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3515:
3512:
3510:
3507:
3506:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3479:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3456:
3453:
3452:
3451:
3448:
3446:
3443:
3439:
3436:
3435:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3425:
3423:
3421:
3416:
3410:
3407:
3405:
3402:
3400:
3397:
3395:
3392:
3390:
3387:
3385:
3382:
3381:
3379:
3375:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3352:
3349:
3347:
3344:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3337:
3334:
3332:
3329:
3327:
3324:
3322:
3319:
3317:
3314:
3310:
3307:
3305:
3302:
3301:
3300:
3299:Kin selection
3297:
3295:
3294:Genetic drift
3292:
3290:
3287:
3283:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3275:
3273:
3270:
3268:
3265:
3263:
3260:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3252:
3250:
3244:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3219:
3216:
3214:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3206:
3202:
3199:
3198:
3197:
3194:
3192:
3189:
3187:
3184:
3182:
3179:
3177:
3174:
3172:
3169:
3167:
3164:
3162:
3159:
3157:
3154:
3152:
3149:
3145:
3142:
3141:
3140:
3137:
3135:
3132:
3130:
3127:
3125:
3122:
3120:
3117:
3115:
3112:
3110:
3107:
3105:
3102:
3100:
3097:
3093:
3090:
3089:
3088:
3085:
3083:
3080:
3078:
3075:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3042:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3025:
3023:
3020:
3018:
3015:
3013:
3010:
3008:
3005:
3004:
3001:
2997:
2990:
2985:
2983:
2978:
2976:
2971:
2970:
2967:
2961:
2957:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2933:
2929:
2921:
2917:
2913:
2909:
2902:
2899:
2895:
2889:
2886:
2881:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2830:
2827:
2822:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2804:
2800:
2796:
2789:
2786:
2781:
2777:
2772:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2755:
2751:
2747:
2740:
2737:
2732:
2728:
2724:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2696:
2689:
2687:
2683:
2678:
2672:
2669:. A.R. Liss.
2668:
2661:
2658:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2574:
2570:
2566:
2562:
2555:
2552:
2547:
2543:
2539:
2535:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2519:
2515:
2511:
2504:
2501:
2496:
2492:
2488:
2484:
2480:
2476:
2469:
2466:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2442:
2439:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2404:
2393:on 2012-07-21
2389:
2385:
2379:
2376:
2365:on 2012-07-21
2364:
2360:
2354:
2351:
2340:on 2005-10-16
2339:
2335:
2329:
2326:
2321:
2315:
2301:on 2006-02-18
2297:
2290:
2284:
2281:
2276:
2275:
2269:
2265:
2262:
2257:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2239:
2235:
2232:(7): 472–82.
2231:
2227:
2223:
2216:
2213:
2208:
2204:
2200:
2196:
2192:
2188:
2185:(3): 181–96.
2184:
2180:
2173:
2170:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2151:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2122:
2119:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2081:
2079:
2075:
2070:
2066:
2062:
2058:
2054:
2050:
2047:(7): 508–18.
2046:
2042:
2034:
2031:
2026:
2022:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1991:
1989:
1985:
1980:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1950:
1946:
1939:
1936:
1931:
1919:
1908:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1890:
1883:
1882:
1874:
1871:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1851:(1): 83–109.
1850:
1846:
1839:
1836:
1825:on 2023-05-30
1821:
1817:
1810:
1803:
1800:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1781:
1776:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1760:(8): e43113.
1759:
1755:
1751:
1744:
1741:
1736:
1732:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1701:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1679:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1652:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1636:
1632:
1628:
1624:
1620:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1604:
1598:
1595:
1590:
1586:
1582:
1578:
1574:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1555:
1553:
1551:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1532:
1529:
1524:
1518:
1514:
1510:
1503:
1500:
1495:
1491:
1486:
1481:
1477:
1473:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1454:
1452:
1448:
1443:
1439:
1435:
1431:
1427:
1423:
1415:
1412:
1407:
1403:
1398:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1358:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1331:
1328:
1323:
1319:
1315:
1311:
1304:
1301:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1282:
1278:
1274:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1255:
1252:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1212:
1209:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1136:
1132:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1103:
1100:
1095:
1091:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1056:
1053:
1048:
1046:9780521639859
1042:
1038:
1037:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1023:
1019:
1013:
1009:
1006:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
995:
991:
985:
982:
978:
975:
972:
971:
966:
965:
960:
959:monkeyflowers
956:
953:
949:
945:
941:
938:
935:
931:
927:
926:
921:
918:
915:
914:
908:
907:
902:
898:
894:
890:
887:
883:
882:marine iguana
879:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
857:
856:
855:
848:
844:
843:Marine iguana
840:
833:
831:
828:
820:Hybridization
819:
817:
815:
811:
807:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
783:
778:
774:
772:
768:
764:
760:
755:
753:
749:
748:bacteriophage
745:
741:
738:(transfer of
737:
733:
727:
719:
714:
712:
710:
706:
700:
697:
693:
688:
685:
681:
676:
674:
673:hybridization
669:
663:
661:
657:
649:
647:
645:
641:
636:
632:
628:
627:introgression
624:
623:hybridization
618:
610:
608:
606:
597:
592:
590:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
562:
560:
557:
553:
549:
545:
542:
539:
535:
534:
529:
524:
515:
508:
503:
501:
481:
478:
474:
470:
467:
460:
457:
453:
449:
446:
439:
436:
432:
425:
422:
414:
411:
407:
402:
398:
389:
386:
383:
361:
358:
354:
344:
328:
325:
322:
317:
313:
309:
302:
298:
295:
290:
287:
283:
274:
257:
254:
250:
227:
224:
220:
197:
194:
190:
181:
177:
159:
156:
152:
129:
125:
116:
107:
105:
103:
99:
95:
89:
87:
83:
79:
75:
70:
66:
61:
57:
53:
51:
46:
42:
38:
30:
26:
21:
4206:Polymorphism
4189:Astrobiology
4137:Biogeography
4092:Saltationism
4082:Orthogenesis
4067:Alternatives
3996:
3982:
3915:Cospeciation
3910:Cladogenesis
3859:Saltationism
3816:Mating types
3739:Color vision
3724:Avian flight
3646:mitochondria
3384:Canalisation
3288:
3262:Biodiversity
3007:Introduction
2911:
2907:
2901:
2893:
2888:
2843:
2839:
2829:
2802:
2798:
2788:
2753:
2749:
2739:
2698:
2694:
2666:
2660:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2568:
2564:
2554:
2513:
2509:
2503:
2478:
2474:
2468:
2451:
2447:
2441:
2416:
2412:
2406:
2395:. Retrieved
2388:the original
2378:
2367:. Retrieved
2363:the original
2353:
2342:. Retrieved
2338:the original
2328:
2303:. Retrieved
2296:the original
2283:
2270:
2264:
2229:
2225:
2215:
2182:
2178:
2172:
2135:
2131:
2121:
2094:
2090:
2044:
2040:
2033:
2000:
1996:
1952:
1948:
1938:
1907:the original
1880:
1873:
1848:
1844:
1838:
1827:. Retrieved
1820:the original
1815:
1802:
1757:
1753:
1743:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1665:
1661:
1651:
1610:
1606:
1603:Savolainen V
1597:
1567:(3): 212–9.
1564:
1560:
1541:
1537:
1531:
1512:
1502:
1467:
1463:
1425:
1421:
1414:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1340:
1336:
1330:
1313:
1309:
1303:
1268:
1264:
1254:
1221:
1217:
1211:
1162:
1158:
1116:
1112:
1102:
1069:
1065:
1055:
1035:
983:
976:
968:
962:
954:
939:
933:
929:
923:
920:Butterflies:
919:
913:Homo sapiens
911:
906:Homo erectus
904:
897:Neanderthals
893:Homo sapiens
892:
888:
877:
858:
852:
823:
798:cladogenesis
779:
775:
771:phylogenetic
756:
744:transduction
729:
705:hybrid swarm
701:
691:
689:
679:
677:
664:
656:urbanization
653:
650:Urbanization
620:
604:
601:
569:
566:
559:gene pools.
556:Ulmus pumila
555:
552:Ulmus pumila
551:
547:
543:
540:
537:
533:Ulmus pumila
531:
520:
345:
275:
111:
90:
48:
44:
40:
34:
4216:Systematics
4087:Mutationism
3905:Catagenesis
3833:Snake venom
3766:Eusociality
3744:in primates
3734:Cooperation
3662:In animals
3482:butterflies
3455:Cephalopods
3445:Brachiopods
3377:Development
3351:Mate choice
3104:Convergence
3087:Coevolution
3045:Abiogenesis
1926:|work=
948:giant panda
934:H. timareta
932:, and
814:cenancestor
794:coalescence
736:conjugation
583:outbreeding
4077:Lamarckism
4055:Philosophy
3978:David Hume
3940:Peripatric
3935:Parapatric
3920:Ecological
3900:Anagenesis
3895:Allopatric
3887:Speciation
3851:Gradualism
3776:Metabolism
3636:chromosome
3626:Eukaryotes
3404:Modularity
3321:Population
3247:Population
3208:Speciation
3186:Panspermia
3139:Extinction
3134:Exaptation
3109:Divergence
3082:Cladistics
3070:Reciprocal
3050:Adaptation
2397:2005-12-31
2369:2005-12-31
2344:2005-12-31
2305:2005-12-31
2279:dead link
1829:2023-11-16
1809:"Glossary"
1014:References
977:Sika deer:
891:In Europe
692:Lynx rufus
376:is known:
94:inbreeding
82:adaptation
78:speciation
60:population
29:population
4211:Protocell
4062:Darwinism
3950:Sympatric
3699:processes
3587:Tetrapods
3536:Kangaroos
3462:Dinosaurs
3399:Inversion
3368:Variation
3289:Gene flow
3282:Inclusive
3092:Mutualism
3037:Evolution
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2041:BioEssays
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1918:cite book
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796:model of
790:phylogeny
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4264:Category
4239:Category
4114:Vitalism
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3786:Morality
3781:Monogamy
3656:plastids
3621:Flagella
3577:Reptiles
3558:sea cows
3541:primates
3450:Molluscs
3428:Bacteria
3316:Mutation
3249:genetics
3225:Taxonomy
3171:Mismatch
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