Gestalt psychology

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complete shapes and figures is called closure. The law of closure states that individuals perceive objects such as shapes, letters, pictures, etc., as being whole when they are not complete. Specifically, when parts of a whole picture are missing, our perception fills in the visual gap. Research shows that the reason the mind completes a regular figure that is not perceived through sensation is to increase the regularity of surrounding stimuli. For example, the figure that depicts the law of closure portrays what we perceive as a circle on the left side of the image and a rectangle on the right side of the image. However, gaps are present in the shapes. If the law of closure did not exist, the image would depict an assortment of different lines with different lengths, rotations, and curvatures—but with the law of closure, we perceptually combine the lines into whole shapes.

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positive manner. Gestalt's theories of perception enforces that individual's tendency to perceive actions and characteristics as a whole rather than isolated parts, therefore humans are inclined to build a coherent and consistent impression of objects and behaviors in order to achieve an acceptable shape and form. The halo effect is what forms patterns for individuals, the halo effect being classified as a cognitive bias which occurs during impression formation. The halo effect can also be altered by physical characteristics, social status and many other characteristics. As well, the halo effect can have real repercussions on the individual's perception of reality, either negatively or positively, meaning to construct negative or positive images about other individuals or situations, something that could lead to

986:. Wertheimer's publication of these results in 1912 marks the beginning of Gestalt psychology. In comparison to von Ehrenfels and others who had used the term "gestalt" earlier in various ways, Wertheimer's unique contribution was to insist that the "gestalt" is perceptually primary. The gestalt defines the parts from which it is composed, rather than being a secondary quality that emerges from those parts. Wertheimer took the more radical position that one hears the melody first and only then may perceptually divide it up into notes. Similarly, in vision, one sees the form of the circle first, with its apprehension not mediated by a process of part-summation. Only after this primary apprehension might one notice that it is made up of lines or dots or stars. 1083:, a neurologist who had applied principles of Gestalt psychology to the functioning of the organism. Laura Perls had been a Gestalt psychologist before she became a psychoanalyst and before she began developing Gestalt therapy together with Fritz Perls. The extent to which Gestalt psychology influenced Gestalt therapy is disputed. On one hand, Laura Perls preferred not to use the term "Gestalt" to name the emerging new therapy, because she thought that the Gestalt psychologists would object to it; on the other hand, Fritz and Laura Perls clearly adopted some of Goldstein's work. 923:. Von Ehrenfels introduced the concept of Gestalt to philosophy and psychology in 1890, before the advent of Gestalt psychology as such. Von Ehrenfels observed that a perceptual experience, such as perceiving a melody or a shape, is more than the sum of its sensory components. He claimed that, in addition to the sensory elements of the perception, there is something additional that is an element in its own right, despite in some sense being derived from the organization of the component sensory elements. He called it 1488:

the two objects as two single uninterrupted entities. Stimuli remain distinct even with overlap. We are less likely to group elements with sharp abrupt directional changes as being one object. For example, the figure depicting the law of continuity shows a configuration of two crossed keys. When the image is perceived, we tend to perceive the key in the background as a single uninterrupted key instead of two separate halves of a key.

1716: 997:. Koffka was also a student of Stumpf's, having studied movement phenomena and psychological aspects of rhythm. In 1917, Köhler published the results of four years of research on learning in chimpanzees. Köhler showed, contrary to the claims of most other learning theorists, that animals can learn by "sudden insight" into the "structure" of a problem, over and above the associative and incremental manner of learning that 1471:

have trends of motion, which indicate the path that the object is on. The law of continuity implies the grouping together of objects that have the same trend of motion and are therefore on the same path. For example, if there is an array of dots and half the dots are moving upward while the other half are moving downward, we would perceive the upward moving dots and the downward moving dots as two distinct units.

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by food if it is not moving. His choice of food is determined only by size and movement. He will leap to capture any object the size of an insect or worm, providing it moves like one. He can be fooled easily not only by a piece of dangled meat but by any moving small object... He does remember a moving thing provided it stays within his field of vision and he is not distracted.

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form a coherent shape. Similarities between symmetrical objects increase the likelihood that objects are grouped to form a combined symmetrical object. For example, the figure depicting the law of symmetry shows a configuration of square and curled brackets. When the image is perceived, we tend to observe three pairs of symmetrical brackets rather than six individual brackets.

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circles all equal distance apart from one another forming a square. In this depiction, 18 of the circles are shaded dark, and 18 of the circles are shaded light. We perceive the dark circles as grouped together and the light circles as grouped together, forming six horizontal lines within the square of circles. This perception of lines is due to the law of similarity.

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contains 26 letters that are grouped to form words using a set of rules. If an individual reads an English word they have never seen, they use the law of past experience to interpret the letters "L" and "I" as two letters beside each other, rather than using the law of closure to combine the letters and interpret the object as an uppercase U.

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Several grouping principles are employed in this map: similarity allows the reader to selectively isolate cities, rivers, or state boundaries; closure allows the dashed boundary lines to be perceived as continuous borders; proximity makes the collection of river segments appear as a single watershed;

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can be explained through the application of Gestalt theories to social information processing. The constructive theories of social cognition are applied to the expectations of individuals. They have been perceived in this manner and the person judging the individual is continuing to view them in this

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Gestalt psychology struggled to precisely define terms like Prägnanz, to make specific behavioural predictions, and to articulate testable models of underlying neural mechanisms. It was criticized as being merely descriptive. These shortcomings led, by the mid-20th century, to growing dissatisfaction

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Figure-ground organization is a form of perceptual organization, which interprets perceptual elements in terms of their shapes and relative locations in the layout of surfaces in the 3-D world. Figure-ground organization structures the perceptual field into a figure (standing out at the front of the

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Through a series of experiments, Wertheimer discovered that a person observing a pair of alternating bars of light can, under the right conditions, experience the illusion of movement between one location and the other. He noted that this was a perception of motion absent any moving object. That is,

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In contrast, the Gestalt psychologists believed that breaking psychological phenomena down into smaller parts would not lead to understanding psychology. Instead, they viewed psychological phenomena as organized, structured wholes. They argued that the psychological "whole" has priority and that the

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Together, these three theories give rise to the view that the mind constructs all perceptions and abstract thoughts strictly from lower-level sensations, which are related solely by being associated closely in space and time. The Gestaltists took issue with the widespread atomistic view that the aim

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for similar kinds of features or features with similar properties; the Law of Proximity is crucial to identifying geographic patterns and regions; and the Laws of Closure and Continuity allow users to recognize features that may be obscured by other features (such as when a road goes over a river).

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A frog hunts on land by vision... He has no fovea, or region of greatest acuity in vision, upon which he must centre a part of the image... The frog does not seem to see or, at any rate, is not concerned with the detail of stationary parts of the world around him. He will starve to death surrounded

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The law of continuity (also known as the law of good continuation) states that elements of objects tend to be grouped together, and therefore integrated into perceptual wholes if they are aligned within an object. In cases where there is an intersection between objects, individuals tend to perceive

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Gestalt psychologists believed that humans tend to perceive objects as complete rather than focusing on the gaps that the object might contain. For example, a circle has good Gestalt in terms of completeness. However, we will also perceive an incomplete circle as a complete circle. That tendency to

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The law of symmetry states that the mind perceives objects as being symmetrical and forming around a center point. It is perceptually pleasing to divide objects into an even number of symmetrical parts. Therefore, when two symmetrical elements are unconnected the mind perceptually connects them to

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The law of similarity states that elements within an assortment of objects are perceptually grouped together if they are similar to each other. This similarity can occur in the form of shape, colour, shading or other qualities. For example, the figure illustrating the law of similarity portrays 36

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Based on the principles, phenomenon experimental analysis was derived, which asserts that any psychological research should take phenomena as a starting point and not be solely focused on sensory qualities. A related principle is that of the biotic experiment, which establishes the need to conduct

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The Gestalt psychologists practiced a set of theoretical and methodological principles that attempted to redefine the approach to psychological research. This is in contrast to investigations developed at the beginning of the 20th century, based on traditional scientific methodology, which divided

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The law of past experience implies that under some circumstances visual stimuli are categorized according to past experience. If objects tend to be observed within close proximity, or small temporal intervals, the objects are more likely to be perceived together. For example, the English language

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The law of common fate states that objects are perceived as lines that move along the smoothest path. Experiments using the visual sensory modality found that the movement of elements of an object produces paths that individuals perceive that the objects are on. We perceive elements of objects to

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noted in her presidential address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association: "What Perls has done has been to take a few terms from Gestalt psychology, stretch their meaning beyond recognition, mix them with notions—often unclear and often incompatible—from the depth

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is the same as in amphibians. The phenomenon of distortion of perception of an image stabilised on the retina gives some idea of the concepts of the subsequent levels of the hierarchy. This is a very interesting phenomenon. When a person looks at an immobile object, "fixes" it with his eyes, the

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in nature. For this reason, they are viewed by some as redundant or uninformative. For example, a textbook on visual perception states that, "The physiological theory of the gestaltists has fallen by the wayside, leaving us with a set of descriptive principles, but without a model of perceptual

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An example of the Gestalt movement in effect, as it is both a process and result, is a music sequence. People are able to recognise a sequence of perhaps six or seven notes, despite them being transposed into a different tuning or key. An early theory of gestalt grouping principles in music was

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The law of proximity states that when an individual perceives an assortment of objects, they perceive objects that are close to each other as forming a group. For example, in the figure illustrating the law of proximity, there are 72 circles, but we perceive the collection of circles in groups.

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Some of the central criticisms of Gestaltism are based on the preference Gestaltists are deemed to have for theory over data, and a lack of quantitative research supporting Gestalt ideas. This is not necessarily a fair criticism as highlighted by a recent collection of quantitative research on

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was to integrate the facts of inanimate nature, life, and mind into a single scientific structure. This meant that science would have to accommodate not only what Koffka called the quantitative facts of physical science but the facts of two other "scientific categories": questions of order and

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as fundamental aspect of Gestalt psychology. Moreover, the perception of the nature of a part depends upon the whole in which it is embedded. The maxim that the whole is more than the sum of its parts is not a precise description of the Gestaltist view. Rather, as Koffka writes, "The whole is

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Gestalt psychology contributed to the scientific study of problem solving. In fact, the early experimental work of the Gestaltists in Germany marks the beginning of the scientific study of problem solving. Later this experimental work continued through the 1960s and early 1970s with research

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Like figure-ground organization, perceptual grouping (sometimes called perceptual segregation) is a form of perceptual organization. Perceptual grouping is the process that determines how organisms perceive some parts of their perceptual fields as being more related than others, using such

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eyeballs do not remain absolutely immobile; they make small involuntary movements. As a result, the image of the object on the retina is constantly in motion, slowly drifting and jumping back to the point of maximum sensitivity. The image "marks time" in the vicinity of this point.

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with Gestaltism and a subsequent decline in its impact on psychology. Despite this decline, Gestalt psychology has formed the basis of much further research into the perception of patterns and objects and of research into behaviour, thinking, problem solving and psychopathology.

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Gestalt psychology is often associated with the adage, "The whole is greater than the sum of its parts". In Gestalt theory, information is perceived as wholes rather than disparate parts which are then processed summatively. As used in Gestalt psychology, the German word

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The principle of totality asserts that conscious experience must be considered globally by taking into account all the physical and mental aspects of the individual simultaneously, because the nature of the mind demands that each component be considered as part of a

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for describing the difficulties in both visual perception and problem solving that arise from the fact that one element of a whole situation already has a (fixed) function that has to be changed in order to perceive something or find the solution to a problem.

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Reification is the constructive or generative aspect of perception, by which the experienced object of perception contains more explicit spatial information than the sensory stimulus on which it is based. For instance, a triangle is perceived in picture

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psychologies, existentialism, and common sense, and he has called the whole mixture gestalt therapy. His work has no substantive relation to scientific Gestalt psychology. To use his own language, Fritz Perls has done 'his thing'; whatever it is, it is

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Specifically, we perceive that there is a group of 36 circles on the left side of the image and three groups of 12 circles on the right side of the image. This law is often used in advertising logos to emphasize which aspects of events are associated.

1044:, a German word which has been variously translated as significance, value, and meaning. Without incorporating the meaning of experience and behavior, Koffka believed that science would doom itself to trivialities in its investigation of human beings. 1454: 1373:

The Gestaltists were the first psychologists to systematically study perceptual grouping. According to Gestalt psychologists, the fundamental principle of perceptual grouping is the law of Prägnanz, also known as the law of good Gestalt.

912:"parts" are defined by the structure of the whole, rather than the other way round. Gestalt theories of perception are based on human nature being inclined to understand objects as an entire structure rather than the sum of its parts. 1739:

In map design, principles of Prägnanz or grouping are crucial for implying a conceptual order to the portrayed geographic features, thus facilitating the intended use of the map. The Law of Similarity is employed by selecting similar

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real experiments that sharply contrasted with and opposed classic laboratory experiments. This signified experimenting in natural situations, developed in real conditions, in which it would be possible to reproduce, with higher

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Nauts, Sanne; Langner, Oliver; Huijsmans, Inge; Vonk, Roos; Wigboldus, Daniël H. J. (2014). "Forming Impressions of Personality: A Replication and Review of Evidence for a Primacy-of-Warmth Effect in Impression Formation".

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objects are recognized independent of rotation, translation, and scale, as well as several other variations such as elastic deformations, different lighting, and different component features. For example, the objects in

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is a German word that directly translates to "pithiness" and implies salience, conciseness, and orderliness. The law of Prägnanz says that people tend to experience things as regular, orderly, symmetrical, and simple.

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vision of the scientific enterprise as a whole. Science, he said, is not the simple accumulation of facts. What makes research scientific is the incorporation of facts into a theoretical structure. The goal of the

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Lettvin, J.Y., Maturana, H.R., Pitts, W.H., and McCulloch, W.S. (1961). Two Remarks on the Visual System of the Frog. In Sensory Communication edited by Walter Rosenblith, MIT Press and John Wiley and Sons: New

1022:. It contains criticisms of then-current explanations of a number of problems of perception, and the alternatives offered by the Gestalt school. Koffka moved to the United States in 1924, eventually settling at 2897:

William Ray Woodward, Robert Sonné Cohen – World views and scientific discipline formation: science studies in the German Democratic Republic: papers from a German-American summer institute, 1988

825: 2807:; Presidential Address to Division 24 at the meeting of the American Psychological Association, Chicago, September 1975. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 14, pp 23–32. 1047:

Having survived the Nazis up to the mid-1930s, all the core members of the Gestalt movement were forced out of Germany to the United States by 1935. Köhler published another book,

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that predict the interpretation of sensation. Wertheimer defined a few principles that explain the ways humans perceive objects based on similarity, proximity, and continuity.

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The two men who served as Wertheimer's subjects in the phi experiments were Köhler and Koffka. Köhler was an expert in physical acoustics, having studied under physicist

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One historian of psychology, David J. Murray, has argued that Gestalt psychologists first discovered many principles later championed by cognitive psychology, including

3258: 3220: 1535:. The Gestalt psychologists demonstrated that people tend to perceive as figures those parts of our perceptual fields that are convex, symmetric, small, and enclosed. 931:

that, according to von Ehrenfels, allows a tune to be transposed to a new key, using completely different notes, while still retaining its identity. The idea of a

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processing. Indeed, some of their 'laws' of perceptual organisation today sound vague and inadequate. What is meant by a 'good' or 'simple' shape, for example?"

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The lowest-level concepts related to visual perception for a human being probably differ little from the concepts of a frog. In any case, the structure of the

1279:) is the tendency of ambiguous perceptual experiences to pop back and forth between two or more alternative interpretations. This is seen, for example, in the 978:'s application of Gestalt theory to personality. She was a student at Frankfurt Academy for Social Sciences, who interacted deeply with Wertheimer and Köhler. 689: 3367: 2669: 1531:

perceptual field) and a background (receding behind the figure). Pioneering work on figure-ground organization was carried out by the Danish psychologist

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that emphasises the processing of entire patterns and configurations, and not merely individual components. It emerged in the early twentieth century in

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Gestalt perception. Researchers continue to test hypotheses about the mechanisms underlying Gestalt principles such as the principle of similarity.

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movement suffered a series of setbacks. Koffka died in 1941 and Wertheimer in 1943. Wertheimer's long-awaited book on mathematical problem-solving,

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Sigall, Harold; Ostrove, Nancy (1975). "Beautiful but dangerous: Effects of offender attractiveness and nature of the crime on juridic judgment".

2146: 886:"atomism," also known as "elementalism," the view that all knowledge, even complex abstract ideas, is built from simple, elementary constituents 4851: 4342: 626: 3770: 3145: 3047: 2854: 2735: 2486: 2321: 2294: 2184: 2045: 2017: 1963: 3942: 1110:

the object of study into a set of elements that could be analyzed separately with the objective of reducing the complexity of this object.

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something else than the sum of its parts, because summing is a meaningless procedure, whereas the whole-part relationship is meaningful."

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Wagemans, Johan; Feldman, Jacob; Gepshtein, Sergei; Kimchi, Ruth; Pomerantz, James R.; van der Helm, Peter A.; van Leeuwen, Cees (2012).

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Wagemans, Johan; Elder, James H.; Kubovy, Michael; Palmer, Stephen E.; Peterson, Mary A.; Singh, Manish; von der Heydt, Rüdiger (2012).

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These principles are not necessarily separable modules to model individually, but they could be different aspects of a single unified

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Valentin Fedorovich Turchin – The phenomenon of science – a cybernetic approach to human evolution – Columbia University Press, 1977

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in the figure are all immediately recognized as the same basic shape, which is immediately distinguishable from the forms in

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The Gestaltists were the first to document and demonstrate empirically many facts about perception—including facts about the

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Jäkel F.; Singh M.; Wichmann F. A.; Herzog, M. H. (2016), "An overview of quantitative approaches in Gestalt perception.",

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is solving a problem based on insight—a quick, creative, unplanned response to situations and environmental interaction.

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Yu, Dian; Tam, Derek; Franconeri, Steven L. (2019). "Gestalt similarity groupings are not constructed in parallel".

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was published posthumously in 1945, but Köhler was left to guide the movement without his two long-time colleagues.

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The Psychology of Perception: A Philosophical Examination of Gestalt Theory and Derivative Theories of Perception

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One form of psychotherapy that, unlike Gestalt therapy, is actually consistently based on Gestalt psychology is

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is solving a problem deliberately based on previous experience and knowledge. Reproductive thinking proceeds

4935: 4846: 4453: 4375: 4133: 4098: 4083: 4078: 4068: 4017: 2394: 1559:—a problem solver reproduces a series of steps from memory, knowing that they will lead to a solution—or by 1515: 916: 621: 519: 290: 255: 242: 237: 227: 176: 136: 2587: 4861: 4664: 4503: 4380: 4360: 4307: 4217: 4172: 4143: 4118: 4048: 4036: 4002: 1840: 1820: 1360: 1276: 1018: 636: 569: 459: 369: 324: 300: 275: 207: 195: 161: 58: 4894: 3910: 4889: 4841: 4836: 4521: 4463: 4415: 4242: 4207: 4182: 4073: 3962: 1725: 1190: 867: 846: 616: 611: 529: 394: 359: 334: 232: 131: 126: 2916:

Entrenchment and the psychology of language learning: How we reorganize and adapt linguistic knowledge

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founded Gestalt psychology in the early 20th century. The dominant view in psychology at the time was

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For example Duncker's "X-ray" problem; Ewert & Lambert's "disk" problem in 1932, later known as

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Max Wertheimer distinguished two kinds of thinking: productive thinking and reproductive thinking.

1016:, Koffka introduced the Gestalt point of view to an American audience in 1922 by way of a paper in 1013: 963:(Contributions to the Analysis of Sensations, 1886), in formulating their very similar concepts of 875: 444: 434: 419: 384: 379: 364: 344: 339: 217: 156: 2221:"A century of Gestalt psychology in visual perception: II. Conceptual and theoretical foundations" 1720:

and continuity helps the reader "see" whole states even when boundaries are obscured under rivers.

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Journal "Gestalt Theory – An International Multidisciplinary Journal" in full text (open source)

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assumptions made by gestaltists and lack of theoretical coherence in modern Gestalt psychology.

859: 3170: 2877: 895:"associationism," the view that more complex ideas arise from the association of simpler ideas. 4784: 4774: 4699: 4674: 4355: 4312: 4237: 4138: 4123: 4007: 3972: 3869: 3843: 3809: 3766: 3741: 3710: 3702: 3668: 3628: 3585: 3460: 3331: 3293: 3176: 3151: 3141: 3043: 2975: 2965: 2927: 2850: 2731: 2708: 2568: 2550: 2482: 2400: 2362: 2317: 2290: 2258: 2240: 2180: 2136: 2097: 2041: 2013: 2007: 1959: 1790: 1765: 1760: 1242: 1158: 1119: 889:"sensationalism," the view that the simplest constituents—the atoms of thought—are elementary 663: 464: 389: 295: 280: 166: 1953: 4794: 4789: 4654: 4649: 4549: 4370: 4317: 4272: 4257: 4252: 4128: 4103: 3835: 3799: 3694: 3658: 3620: 3575: 3567: 3323: 3285: 3091: 2983: 2919: 2700: 2659: 2651: 2620:

Wertheimer, Max (2012). "Experimental Studies on Seeing Motion". In Spillman, Lothar (ed.).

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Aspects of Motion Perception: International Series of Monographs in Experimental Psychology

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By 1914, the first published references to Gestalt theory could be found in a footnote of

834: 265: 33: 3891: 3009: 3901: 3087: 1979: 1715: 4804: 4724: 4719: 4684: 4659: 4629: 4624: 4609: 4604: 4584: 4579: 4559: 4350: 2818: 2563: 2530: 2253: 2220: 1928: 1845: 1775: 1732:. The laws of similarity and proximity can, for example, be used as guides for placing 1519: 1296: 1272: 1266: 1238:

a complete three-dimensional shape is seen, where in actuality no such thing is drawn.

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Gestalt psychology in German culture, 1890–1967: Holism and the quest for objectivity

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Other important criticisms concern the lack of definition and support for the many

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Craighead, W. Edward; Nemeroff, Charles B. (19 April 2004). "Gestalt psychology".

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The World in your Head: A Gestalt View of the Mechanism of Conscious Experience

2795: 1344:, have provided alternate explanations of how perceived objects are classified. 1008:

In 1921, Koffka published a Gestalt-oriented text on developmental psychology,

4734: 4569: 4365: 4222: 4113: 3951: 3859: 3096: 3069: 1741: 1665: 1604: 1592: 1453: 1436: 1332:. They are even recognized despite perspective and elastic deformations as in 1316: 1284: 1262: 1086: 990: 952: 936: 901: 890: 879: 718: 374: 270: 108: 65: 3847: 3813: 3706: 3632: 3589: 3155: 2554: 2244: 4769: 4554: 4458: 2979: 2061: 1810: 1700: 1596: 1569:, another Gestalt psychologist who studied problem solving, coined the term 1556: 1253: 1186: 524: 3714: 3672: 2712: 2572: 2396:

Cognitive Illusions: Intriguing Phenomena in Judgement, Thinking and Memory

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10.1002/1520-6696(198401)20:1<9::aid-jhbs2300200103>3.0.co;2-u

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can help scientists understand essential aspects of how the visual system

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Fritz Perls in Berlin 1893–1933: Expressionism – Psychoanalysis – Judaism

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the eye recognizes disparate shapes as "belonging" to a single shape, in

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further extends a gestalt approach to the analysis of sound perception.

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Wertheimer, Max (1938) . "Gestalt theory". In Ellis, Willis D. (ed.).

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Henle, M (1984). "Robert M. Ogden and gestalt psychology in America".

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The Concise Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology and Behavioral Science

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The Oxford Handbook of the History of Psychology: Global Perspectives

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Köhler, Wolfgang (1971) . "Human perception". In Henle, Mary (ed.).

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conducted on relatively simple laboratory tasks of problem solving.

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International Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications – GTA

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The gestalt laws are used in several visual design fields, such as

1611:) is perhaps more primitive and fundamental than 'seeing' as such: 1714: 1478: 1452: 1435: 1418: 1401: 1306: 1252: 1212: 830:; meaning "form") is interpreted as "pattern" or "configuration". 3792:

Geographic Information Science & Technology Body of Knowledge

2624:. Michael Wertheimer, K. W. Watkins (trans.). Cambridge, MA: MIT. 4498: 3798:(Q2). University Consortium for Geographic Information Science. 564: 3924: 1299:

lights moving first one direction and then suddenly the other.

38: 3920: 3915: 1245:, which are treated by the visual system as "real" contours. 791: 2754:, Highland, New York 1982, The Gestalt Journal Press, p. 12. 2449:. Vienna: Philosophia Verlag. pp. 11–81. Archived from 1336:, and when depicted using different graphic elements as in 837:, which is only peripherally linked to Gestalt psychology. 758: 2135:. Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc. 1 May 2008. p. 756. 1679:, gestalt theories of perception are criticized for being 785: 764: 32:

Not to be confused with the psychotherapy of Fritz Perls,

2964:. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. 1241:

Reification can be explained by progress in the study of

770: 755: 2918:, American Psychological Association, pp. 245–267, 3826:

Heider, Grace M. (1977). "More about Hull and Koffka".

2730:. EHP – Edition Humanistische Psychology. p. 190. 915:

Wertheimer had been a student of Austrian philosopher,

882:

and was based on three closely interrelated theories:

3459:(2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. 3424:. Second edition. New York: W. H. Freeman and Company. 3318:

Brennan, James F.; Houde, Keith A. (26 October 2017).

2475:

King, D. Brett; Wertheimer, Michael (1 January 2005).

3507:

Visual perception: Physiology, psychology and ecology

3219:. Unleashing Executive and Orzanizational Potential. 2766:"Gestalt—Antecedent Influence or Historical Accident" 2316:(eBook ed.). London: Routledge. pp. 88–89. 1340:. Computational theories of vision, such as those by 806: 3524:. Ontario: Pearson Education Canada. pp. 20–22. 2588:"Experimentelle Studien über das Sehen von Bewegung" 797: 794: 788: 776: 773: 767: 4812: 4519: 4429: 4341: 4161: 3986: 1890:For more on the history of Gestalt psychology, see 1005:had demonstrated with dogs and cats, respectively. 782: 761: 2693:Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences 1896:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. 3140:(3rd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Wadsworth. 2524: 2522: 2520: 2518: 2516: 2514: 2512: 2510: 2214: 2212: 2210: 2208: 2206: 2204: 2202: 2200: 2198: 2196: 1656:Contemporary cognitive and perceptual psychology 1386:attempted to discover refinements of the law of 3763:Gestalt Psychology and the Cognitive Revolution 2912:"Entrenchment, Gestalt formation, and chunking" 2823:. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. pp. 2179:(6th ed.). Belmont, CA: Cengage Learning. 2175:Sternberg, Robert J.; Sternberg, Karin (2012). 993:, but had taken his degree in psychology under 847:History of psychology § Gestalt psychology 3834:(5). American Psychological Association: 383. 3450: 3448: 3446: 3042:. Hove, UK: Psychology Press. pp. 62–64. 3033: 3031: 3029: 3027: 1603:on the mechanism of frogs' eyes indicate that 3936: 3740:. Burlington: Elsevier Science. p. 291. 3552: 3550: 2349:Verstegen, Ian (2010). "Gestalt Psychology". 2280: 2278: 2276: 2274: 2272: 2170: 2168: 2166: 2164: 2062:"Definition of gestalt | Dictionary.com" 2012:. Oxford University Press, USA. p. 576. 878:. Structuralism was rooted firmly in British 683: 8: 3644: 3642: 3613:Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 3497: 3495: 3360:"Why Your Brain Thinks These Dots Are a Dog" 3210: 3208: 3206: 3204: 2905: 2903: 2637:"One man against the Nazis: Wolfgang Köhler" 2622:On Perceived Motion and Figural Organization 2434: 2432: 2430: 2428: 2388: 2386: 2384: 2382: 2380: 2378: 982:it was pure phenomenal motion. He dubbed it 3488:] (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. 3246: 3244: 3242: 3240: 3238: 3217:"Emergence: The Gestalt Approach to Change" 3175:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 401–404. 3063: 3061: 3059: 1917:] (in German). Berlin: Julius Springer. 1295:'s artwork, and the appearance of flashing 1226:, though no triangle is there. In pictures 3943: 3929: 3921: 3520:Carlson, Neil R.; Heth, C. Donald (2010). 3403:Tenney, James. (1961) 2015. “Meta+Hodos.” 3313: 3311: 3309: 2084: 2082: 1707:functions, not merely how it breaks down. 1185:The key principles of gestalt systems are 959:seem to have been inspired by Mach's work 690: 676: 99: 68:. Please do not remove this message until 3803: 3662: 3579: 3095: 2663: 2562: 2252: 1012:. With the help of American psychologist 88:Learn how and when to remove this message 2441:"Gestalt Theory: An Essay in Philosophy" 2006:Baker, David B., ed. (13 January 2012). 1652:, stereotyping, or even discrimination. 1149:, what would be habitual for a subject. 64:Relevant discussion may be found on the 3482:Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens 1944: 1911:Zur Psychologie des produktiven Denkens 1883: 1671:In some scholarly communities, such as 1177:is one example of such a contribution. 1026:in 1927. In 1935, Koffka published his 107: 3407:From Scratch: Writings in Music Theory 3370:from the original on 24 September 2015 2876:. New York: Harcourt, Brace. pp. 2847:The Selected Papers of Wolfgang Köhler 2797:Gestalt Psychology and Gestalt Therapy 2351:The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology 1826:Pattern recognition (machine learning) 1607:of 'gestalts' (in particular gestalts 1587:Support from cybernetics and neurology 729:as a rejection of basic principles of 3486:The psychology of productive thinking 3254:Gestalt Principles of form Perception 2940:from the original on 26 February 2022 2672:from the original on 26 February 2022 2608:from the original on 23 November 2018 2495:from the original on 26 February 2022 1915:The psychology of productive thinking 1639:Use in contemporary social psychology 1105:Theoretical framework and methodology 961:Beiträge zur Analyse der Empfindungen 817: 7: 3522:Psychology: The Science of Behaviour 3422:Thinking, problem solving, cognition 2330:from the original on 21 October 2020 3505:; Green, P.; Georgeson, M. (1996). 3391:A source book of Gestalt psychology 2820:A Source Book of Gestalt Psychology 2750:Joe Wysong/Edward Rosenfeld (eds): 2096:. Columbia University Press. 2018. 908:down into putative basic elements. 3261:from the original on 10 April 2012 3189:from the original on 15 April 2021 2752:An Oral History of Gestalt Therapy 2413:from the original on 15 April 2021 2149:from the original on 15 April 2021 25: 3509:(3rd ed.). LEA. p. 110. 3320:History and Systems of Psychology 3223:from the original on 21 June 2012 2478:Max Wertheimer and Gestalt Theory 2393:Pohl, Rüdiger F. (22 July 2016). 2110:from the original on 22 July 2019 2040:(3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. 1871:Vera Felicidade de Almeida Campos 1137:between conscious experience and 1099:Gestalt theoretical psychotherapy 4152: 3862: 3393:. Vol. 2. Psychology Press. 3114:Principles Of Gestalt Psychology 2873:Principles of Gestalt Psychology 2359:10.1002/9780470479216.corpsy0386 2038:Longman Pronunciation Dictionary 1958:. Psychology Press. p. 32. 1831:Pattern recognition (psychology) 1173:. Wertheimer's discovery of the 1118:of dynamic relationships. Thus, 1067:Gestalt psychology differs from 1028:Principles of Gestalt Psychology 751: 657: 115: 43: 3699:10.1016/j.cognition.2018.08.006 3280:Hamlyn, D. W. (27 March 2017). 2132:Britannica Concise Encyclopedia 3738:A History of Modern Psychology 3322:. Cambridge University Press. 3008:. Sharp.bu.edu. Archived from 2764:Barlow, Allen R. (Fall 1981). 2665:11858/00-001M-0000-002B-9E5F-5 1390:, which involved writing down 1315:Invariance is the property of 927:or "form-quality." It is this 1: 4248:Industrial and organizational 3788:"Visual Hierarchy and Layout" 2446:Foundations of Gestalt Theory 1856:Structural information theory 1348:Perceptual organisation forms 1287:. Other examples include the 1133:hypothesizes that there is a 1051:, in 1940 but thereafter the 1030:. This textbook laid out the 866:, exemplified by the work of 400:Industrial and organizational 4489:Human factors and ergonomics 3840:10.1037/0003-066x.32.5.383.a 3664:10.1016/j.visres.2016.06.004 3282:The Psychology of Perception 3038:Eysenck, Michael W. (2006). 2618:Available in translation as 1285:Rubin's Figure/Vase illusion 555:Human factors and ergonomics 3786:Tait, Alex (1 April 2018). 3765:. New York: Prentice Hall. 3455:Kellogg, Ronald T. (2003). 3117:. New York: Harcourt, Brace 2656:10.1037/0003-066x.33.10.939 2595:Zeitschrift für Psychologie 1539:Problem solving and insight 70:conditions to do so are met 4967: 3136:Sternberg, Robert (2003). 2914:, in Schmid, H. J. (ed.), 2849:. Liveright. p. 145. 2481:. Transaction Publishers. 1677:computational neuroscience 1650:self-fulfilling prophesies 1526:Figure-ground organization 1358: 941:Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 844: 31: 4875: 4178:Applied behavior analysis 4150: 3958: 3892:Resources in your library 3805:10.22224/gistbok/2018.2.4 3761:Murray, David J. (1995). 3572:10.1027/1864-9335/a000179 3389:Ellis, Willis D. (1999). 3097:10.4249/scholarpedia.5345 3068:Todorovic, Dejan (2008). 3040:Fundamentals of Cognition 2443:. In Smith, Barry (ed.). 2094:The Columbia Encyclopedia 1955:Foundations of Perception 1861:Topological data analysis 1599:and what became known as 984:phi ("phenomenal") motion 976:Gabriele von Wartensleben 955:. Both von Ehrenfels and 935:has roots in theories by 330:Applied behavior analysis 3435:Wertheimer, Max (1945). 2586:Wertheimer, Max (1912). 2285:Kolers, Paul A. (1972). 1591:In the 1940s and 1950s, 739:structuralist psychology 4454:Behavioral neuroscience 4018:Behavioral neuroscience 3906:Encyclopædia Britannica 3736:Schultz, Duane (2013). 2958:Steven., Lehar (2003). 2910:Gobet, Fernand (2017), 2803:5 February 2012 at the 1985:Encyclopædia Britannica 1952:Mather, George (2006). 1516:Auditory Scene Analysis 917:Christian von Ehrenfels 520:Behavioral neuroscience 177:Behavioral neuroscience 4504:Psychology of religion 4444:Behavioral engineering 4381:Human subject research 4037:Cognitive neuroscience 4003:Affective neuroscience 3480:Duncker, Karl (1935). 3257:. Interaction Design. 2535:Psychological Bulletin 2310:Hamlyn, D. W. (1957). 2289:. New York: Pergamon. 2225:Psychological Bulletin 2129:"Gestalt psychology". 1909:Duncker, Karl (1935). 1841:Principles of grouping 1721: 1492:Law of past experience 1484: 1458: 1441: 1424: 1407: 1361:Principles of grouping 1312: 1277:multistable perception 1269: 1218: 1159:perception of movement 1049:Dynamics in Psychology 1019:Psychological Bulletin 570:Psychology of religion 510:Behavioral engineering 196:Cognitive neuroscience 162:Affective neuroscience 4951:Psychological schools 4880:Wiktionary definition 4416:Self-report inventory 4411:Quantitative research 3828:American Psychologist 3420:Mayer, R. E. (1992). 3328:10.1017/9781316827178 3290:10.4324/9781315473291 3006:"Gestalt Isomorphism" 2644:American Psychologist 2439:Smith, Barry (1988). 1726:user interface design 1718: 1553:Reproductive thinking 1482: 1456: 1439: 1422: 1405: 1310: 1256: 1216: 1163:perception of contour 1094:Gestalt psychology." 868:Hermann von Helmholtz 845:Further information: 664:Psychology portal 4931:Cognitive psychology 4406:Qualitative research 4361:Behavior epigenetics 3457:Cognitive Psychology 3138:Cognitive psychology 3070:"Gestalt Principles" 2399:. Psychology Press. 2177:Cognitive Psychology 1980:"Gestalt psychology" 1673:cognitive psychology 1571:functional fixedness 1171:perceptual illusions 1167:perceptual constancy 1057:Productive Thinking, 1003:Edward Lee Thorndike 737:'s elementalist and 715:school of psychology 29:Theory of perception 4885:Wiktionary category 4449:Behavioral genetics 4421:Statistical surveys 4278:Occupational health 4013:Behavioral genetics 3439:. New York: Harper. 3437:Productive thinking 3111:Koffka, K. (1935). 3088:2008SchpJ...3.5345T 3012:on 17 February 2012 2870:Koffka, K. (1935). 2770:The Gestalt Journal 2726:Bocian, B. (2010). 2456:on 22 February 2012 1892:Ash, M. G. (1995). 1821:Pál Schiller Harkai 1806:Laws of association 1549:Productive thinking 1354:Perceptual grouping 1289:three-legged blivet 904:should be to break 876:Edward B. Titchener 515:Behavioral genetics 430:Occupational health 172:Behavioral genetics 103:Part of a series on 57:of this article is 4857:Schools of thought 4760:Richard E. Nisbett 4640:Donald T. Campbell 4318:Sport and exercise 3902:Gestalt psychology 3883:Gestalt psychology 2066:www.dictionary.com 1722: 1506:composer-theorist 1485: 1466:Law of common fate 1459: 1442: 1425: 1408: 1313: 1270: 1265:, two examples of 1219: 1079:, had worked with 1010:Growth of the Mind 921:School of Brentano 919:, a member of the 841:Origin and history 819:[ɡəˈʃtalt] 703:Gestalt psychology 632:Schools of thought 470:Sport and exercise 316:Applied psychology 18:Gestalt Psychology 4918: 4917: 4895:Wikimedia Commons 4822:Counseling topics 4785:Ronald C. Kessler 4775:Shelley E. Taylor 4700:Lawrence Kohlberg 4675:Stanley Schachter 4474:Consumer behavior 4356:Archival research 4124:Psycholinguistics 4008:Affective science 3878:Library resources 3870:Psychology portal 3772:978-0-13-320714-9 3560:Social Psychology 3215:Stevenson, Herb. 3147:978-0-15-508535-0 3049:978-1-84169-374-3 2924:10.1037/15969-012 2856:978-0-87140-253-0 2794:Mary Henle 1975: 2737:978-3-89797-068-7 2635:Henle, M (1978). 2488:978-1-4128-2826-0 2323:978-1-315-47329-1 2296:978-1-4831-7113-5 2186:978-1-133-31391-5 2047:978-1-4058-8118-0 2019:978-0-19-536655-6 1965:978-0-86377-834-6 1791:Hermann Friedmann 1766:Cognitive grammar 1761:Amodal perception 1483:Law of continuity 1475:Law of continuity 1423:Law of similarity 1415:Law of similarity 1243:illusory contours 1126:The principle of 971:, respectively. 891:sense impressions 700: 699: 597:Counseling topics 540:Consumer behavior 281:Psycholinguistics 167:Affective science 98: 97: 90: 16:(Redirected from 4958: 4852:Research methods 4795:Richard Davidson 4790:Joseph E. 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Gibson 1751: 1713: 1658: 1641: 1589: 1580: 1561:trial and error 1557:algorithmically 1541: 1528: 1503: 1494: 1477: 1468: 1457:Law of symmetry 1451: 1449:Law of symmetry 1434: 1417: 1400: 1363: 1357: 1350: 1319:whereby simple 1305: 1251: 1211: 1183: 1155: 1107: 1069:Gestalt therapy 1065: 1063:Gestalt therapy 860:Wolfgang Köhler 849: 843: 835:Gestalt therapy 824: 823: 822: 814: 808: 781: 754: 750: 696: 658: 656: 649: 648: 647: 646: 622:Psychotherapies 590: 580: 579: 500: 492: 491: 490: 489: 318: 308: 307: 306: 305: 266:Neuropsychology 150: 94: 83: 77: 74: 63: 48: 44: 37: 34:Gestalt therapy 30: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4964: 4962: 4954: 4953: 4948: 4943: 4938: 4936:Graphic design 4933: 4923: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4912: 4907: 4902: 4897: 4892: 4887: 4882: 4876: 4873: 4872: 4870: 4869: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4849: 4844: 4839: 4834: 4829: 4824: 4818: 4816: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4805:Roy Baumeister 4802: 4797: 4792: 4787: 4782: 4777: 4772: 4767: 4762: 4757: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4740:Michael Posner 4737: 4732: 4727: 4725:Elliot Aronson 4722: 4720:Walter Mischel 4717: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4697: 4692: 4687: 4685:Albert Bandura 4682: 4677: 4672: 4667: 4662: 4660:Leon Festinger 4657: 4652: 4647: 4642: 4637: 4632: 4630:Neal E. 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Watson 4557: 4552: 4547: 4542: 4537: 4532: 4527: 4525: 4520: 4517: 4516: 4512: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4496: 4491: 4486: 4481: 4476: 4471: 4466: 4461: 4456: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4433: 4431: 4427: 4426: 4424: 4423: 4418: 4413: 4408: 4403: 4398: 4393: 4388: 4383: 4378: 4373: 4368: 4363: 4358: 4353: 4351:Animal testing 4347: 4345: 4339: 4338: 4336: 4335: 4330: 4325: 4320: 4315: 4310: 4305: 4300: 4295: 4290: 4285: 4280: 4275: 4270: 4265: 4260: 4255: 4250: 4245: 4240: 4235: 4230: 4225: 4220: 4215: 4210: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4180: 4175: 4169: 4167: 4159: 4158: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4066: 4061: 4056: 4054:Cross-cultural 4051: 4046: 4045: 4044: 4034: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4010: 4005: 4000: 3994: 3992: 3984: 3983: 3981: 3980: 3975: 3970: 3965: 3959: 3956: 3955: 3950: 3948: 3947: 3940: 3933: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3913: 3908: 3895: 3894: 3888: 3887: 3876: 3875: 3874: 3873: 3857: 3856:External links 3854: 3853: 3852: 3820: 3819: 3778: 3771: 3753: 3747:978-1483270081 3746: 3728: 3677: 3638: 3619:(3): 410–414. 3603: 3566:(3): 153–163. 3546: 3537: 3527: 3512: 3491: 3472: 3465: 3442: 3427: 3412: 3396: 3381: 3351: 3336: 3305: 3298: 3272: 3234: 3200: 3181: 3161: 3146: 3128: 3103: 3055: 3048: 3023: 2997: 2970: 2950: 2933:978-3110341300 2932: 2899: 2890: 2862: 2855: 2837: 2809: 2787: 2756: 2743: 2736: 2718: 2683: 2627: 2578: 2506: 2487: 2467: 2424: 2405: 2374: 2367: 2341: 2322: 2302: 2295: 2268: 2192: 2185: 2160: 2141: 2121: 2102: 2078: 2053: 2046: 2025: 2018: 1998: 1971: 1964: 1943: 1942: 1940: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1929:Tower of Hanoi 1920: 1900: 1882: 1881: 1879: 1876: 1874: 1873: 1868: 1863: 1858: 1853: 1848: 1846:Rudolf Arnheim 1843: 1838: 1833: 1828: 1823: 1818: 1813: 1808: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1776:Gestaltzerfall 1773: 1768: 1763: 1758: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1712: 1709: 1657: 1654: 1640: 1637: 1636: 1635: 1618: 1617: 1588: 1585: 1579: 1576: 1540: 1537: 1527: 1524: 1520:Albert Bregman 1502: 1499: 1493: 1490: 1476: 1473: 1467: 1464: 1450: 1447: 1440:Law of closure 1433: 1432:Law of closure 1430: 1416: 1413: 1399: 1396: 1359:Main article: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1304: 1301: 1273:Multistability 1267:multistability 1250: 1249:Multistability 1247: 1210: 1207: 1195:multistability 1182: 1179: 1175:phi phenomenon 1154: 1151: 1128:psychophysical 1106: 1103: 1081:Kurt Goldstein 1064: 1061: 969:figural moment 957:Edmund Husserl 897: 896: 893: 887: 852:Max Wertheimer 842: 839: 698: 697: 695: 694: 687: 680: 672: 669: 668: 667: 666: 651: 650: 645: 644: 639: 634: 629: 624: 619: 614: 609: 604: 599: 593: 592: 591: 586: 585: 582: 581: 578: 577: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 501: 498: 497: 494: 493: 488: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 412: 407: 402: 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 372: 367: 362: 357: 352: 347: 342: 337: 332: 327: 321: 320: 319: 314: 313: 310: 309: 304: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 278: 273: 268: 263: 258: 253: 248: 245: 240: 235: 230: 225: 220: 215: 213:Cross-cultural 210: 205: 204: 203: 193: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 153: 152: 151: 146: 145: 142: 141: 140: 139: 134: 129: 121: 120: 112: 111: 105: 104: 96: 95: 51: 49: 42: 28: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4963: 4952: 4949: 4947: 4944: 4942: 4939: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4929: 4928: 4926: 4911: 4908: 4906: 4903: 4901: 4898: 4896: 4893: 4891: 4888: 4886: 4883: 4881: 4878: 4877: 4874: 4868: 4865: 4863: 4860: 4858: 4855: 4853: 4850: 4848: 4845: 4843: 4842:Psychologists 4840: 4838: 4835: 4833: 4832:Organizations 4830: 4828: 4825: 4823: 4820: 4819: 4817: 4815: 4811: 4806: 4803: 4801: 4798: 4796: 4793: 4791: 4788: 4786: 4783: 4781: 4780:John Anderson 4778: 4776: 4773: 4771: 4768: 4766: 4763: 4761: 4758: 4756: 4753: 4751: 4748: 4746: 4743: 4741: 4738: 4736: 4733: 4731: 4728: 4726: 4723: 4721: 4718: 4716: 4713: 4711: 4710:Ulric Neisser 4708: 4706: 4703: 4701: 4698: 4696: 4695:Endel Tulving 4693: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4681: 4680:Robert Zajonc 4678: 4676: 4673: 4671: 4668: 4666: 4663: 4661: 4658: 4656: 4653: 4651: 4648: 4646: 4643: 4641: 4638: 4636: 4635:Jerome Bruner 4633: 4631: 4628: 4626: 4623: 4621: 4618: 4616: 4613: 4611: 4608: 4606: 4603: 4601: 4600:B. F. Skinner 4598: 4596: 4593: 4591: 4588: 4586: 4583: 4581: 4578: 4576: 4573: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565:Clark L. Hull 4563: 4561: 4558: 4556: 4553: 4551: 4548: 4546: 4545:Sigmund Freud 4543: 4541: 4538: 4536: 4535:William James 4533: 4531: 4530:Wilhelm Wundt 4528: 4526: 4523: 4522:Psychologists 4518: 4510: 4509:Psychometrics 4507: 4505: 4502: 4500: 4497: 4495: 4492: 4490: 4487: 4485: 4482: 4480: 4477: 4475: 4472: 4470: 4469:Consciousness 4467: 4465: 4462: 4460: 4457: 4455: 4452: 4450: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4422: 4419: 4417: 4414: 4412: 4409: 4407: 4404: 4402: 4401:Psychophysics 4399: 4397: 4394: 4392: 4389: 4387: 4384: 4382: 4379: 4377: 4374: 4372: 4369: 4367: 4364: 4362: 4359: 4357: 4354: 4352: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4343:Methodologies 4340: 4334: 4331: 4329: 4326: 4324: 4321: 4319: 4316: 4314: 4311: 4309: 4306: 4304: 4303:Psychotherapy 4301: 4299: 4298:Psychometrics 4296: 4294: 4291: 4289: 4286: 4284: 4281: 4279: 4276: 4274: 4271: 4269: 4266: 4264: 4261: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4249: 4246: 4244: 4241: 4239: 4236: 4234: 4231: 4229: 4226: 4224: 4221: 4219: 4216: 4214: 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985: 979: 977: 972: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 949:David Hartley 946: 945:Immanuel Kant 942: 938: 934: 930: 926: 922: 918: 913: 909: 907: 906:consciousness 903: 894: 892: 888: 885: 884: 883: 881: 877: 873: 872:Wilhelm Wundt 869: 865: 864:structuralism 861: 857: 853: 848: 840: 838: 836: 831: 826: 820: 812: 811: 802: 748: 742: 740: 736: 732: 731:Wilhelm Wundt 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 708: 704: 693: 688: 686: 681: 679: 674: 673: 671: 670: 665: 655: 654: 653: 652: 643: 640: 638: 635: 633: 630: 628: 625: 623: 620: 618: 617:Psychologists 615: 613: 610: 608: 607:Organizations 605: 603: 600: 598: 595: 594: 589: 584: 583: 576: 575:Psychometrics 573: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 543: 541: 538: 536: 535:Consciousness 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 502: 496: 495: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 455:Psychotherapy 453: 451: 450:Psychometrics 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 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Retrieved 1983: 1974: 1954: 1947: 1923: 1914: 1910: 1903: 1893: 1886: 1851:Solomon Asch 1801:James Tenney 1786:Hans Wallach 1738: 1723: 1704: 1690: 1684: 1683:rather than 1680: 1670: 1663: 1659: 1642: 1631:human beings 1608: 1595:research in 1590: 1581: 1567:Karl Duncker 1565: 1552: 1548: 1546: 1542: 1529: 1511: 1508:James Tenney 1504: 1495: 1486: 1469: 1460: 1443: 1426: 1409: 1387: 1381: 1375: 1372: 1364: 1353: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1314: 1293:M. C. Escher 1271: 1240: 1235: 1231: 1227: 1223: 1220: 1184: 1156: 1143: 1125: 1112: 1108: 1096: 1091: 1085: 1066: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1027: 1017: 1014:Robert Ogden 1009: 1007: 988: 980: 973: 968: 964: 960: 932: 928: 924: 914: 910: 898: 850: 832: 746: 743: 710: 706: 702: 701: 560:Intelligence 291:Quantitative 256:Mathematical 251:Intelligence 243:Experimental 238:Evolutionary 228:Differential 84: 75: 53: 26: 4827:Disciplines 4800:Susan Fiske 4690:Roger Brown 4590:Carl Rogers 4575:Jean Piaget 4540:Ivan Pavlov 4396:Observation 4376:Experiments 4323:Suicidology 4218:Educational 4173:Anomalistic 4144:Theoretical 4119:Personality 4049:Comparative 4032:Cognitivism 4023:Behaviorism 3581:2066/128034 2699:(1): 9–19. 2601:: 161–265. 2034:Wells, John 1781:Graz School 1742:map symbols 1730:cartography 1685:explanatory 1681:descriptive 1645:halo effect 1601:cybernetics 1533:Edgar Rubin 1321:geometrical 1281:Necker cube 1259:Necker cube 1217:Reification 1209:Reification 1205:mechanism. 1199:invariance. 1191:reification 1135:correlation 1131:isomorphism 1077:Laura Perls 1037:Gestaltists 999:Ivan Pavlov 995:Carl Stumpf 856:Kurt Koffka 602:Disciplines 475:Suicidology 370:Educational 325:Anomalistic 301:Theoretical 276:Personality 208:Comparative 191:Cognitivism 182:Behaviorism 4946:Perception 4925:Categories 4890:Wikisource 4735:Paul Ekman 4570:Kurt Lewin 4464:Competence 4386:Interviews 4366:Case study 4243:Humanistic 4223:Ergonomics 4208:Counseling 4183:Assessment 4165:psychology 4114:Perception 4074:Ecological 3990:psychology 3968:Philosophy 3952:Psychology 3364:Gizmodo UK 3121:13 October 2971:0805841768 2944:14 October 2883:13 October 2830:16 October 2676:16 October 2612:14 October 2460:12 October 2334:19 October 1939:References 1697:prototypes 1605:perception 1593:laboratory 1512:Meta+Hodos 1342:David Marr 1317:perception 1311:Invariance 1303:Invariance 1263:Rubin vase 1181:Properties 1153:Principles 1141:activity. 1087:Mary Henle 991:Max Planck 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