456:(or "Kirchner", as it is often spelled) may have observed such microorganisms prior to this. One of his books written in 1646 contains a chapter in Latin, which reads in translation: "Concerning the wonderful structure of things in nature, investigated by microscope...who would believe that vinegar and milk abound with an innumerable multitude of worms." Kircher defined the invisible organisms found in decaying bodies, meat, milk, and secretions as "worms." His studies with the microscope led him to the belief, which he was possibly the first to hold, that disease and putrefaction, or decay were caused by the presence of invisible living bodies, writing that "a number of things might be discovered in the blood of fever patients." When Rome was struck by the bubonic plague in 1656, Kircher investigated the blood of plague victims under the microscope. He noted the presence of "little worms" or "animalcules" in the blood and concluded that the disease was caused by microorganisms.
190:: "pollution"), a noxious form of "bad air" emanating from rotting organic matter. Miasma was considered to be a poisonous vapor or mist filled with particles from decomposed matter (miasmata) that was identifiable by its foul smell. The theory posited that diseases were the product of environmental factors such as contaminated water, foul air, and poor hygienic conditions. Such infections, according to the theory, were not passed between individuals but would affect those within a locale that gave rise to such vapors.
449:, considered "the Father of Microbiology". Leeuwenhoek is said to be the first to see and describe bacteria in 1674, yeast cells, the teeming life in a drop of water (such as algae), and the circulation of blood corpuscles in capillaries. The word "bacteria" didn't exist yet, so he called these microscopic living organisms "animalcules", meaning "little animals". Those "very little animalcules" he was able to isolate from different sources, such as rainwater, pond and well water, and the human mouth and intestine.
465:, published in Rome in 1658. Kircher's conclusion that disease was caused by microorganisms was correct, although it is likely that what he saw under the microscope were in fact red or white blood cells and not the plague agent itself. Kircher also proposed hygienic measures to prevent the spread of disease, such as isolation, quarantine, burning clothes worn by the infected, and wearing facemasks to prevent the inhalation of germs. It was Kircher who first proposed that living beings enter and exist in the blood.
96:. Even when a pathogen is the principal cause of a disease, environmental and hereditary factors often influence the severity of the disease, and whether a potential host individual becomes infected when exposed to the pathogen. Pathogens are disease-carrying agents that can pass from one individual to another, both in humans and animals. Infectious diseases are caused by biological agents such as pathogenic microorganisms (viruses, bacteria, and fungi) as well as parasites.
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438:, the theory that living creatures arise from nonliving matter. He observed that maggots only arose from rotting meat that was uncovered. When meat was left in jars covered by gauze, the maggots would instead appear on the gauze's surface, later understood as rotting meat's smell passing through the mesh to attract flies that laid eggs.
142:
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appears to have had some idea of the contagion theory, commenting, "I have survived three plagues and visited several people who had two plague spots which I touched. But it did not hurt me, thank God. Afterwards when I returned home, I took up
Margaret," (born 1534), "who was then a baby, and put my
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From pp. 131–32: " … there was the awful spectacle of men dying like sheep, through having caught the infection in nursing each other. This caused the greatest mortality. On the one hand, if they were afraid to visit each other, they perished from neglect; indeed many houses were emptied of their
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From p. 292: "This new malady and pest, therefore, either suddenly falls into the water, or penetrates into the very corn, or into other food of men and cattle. Or even, as may be the case, the infection remains suspended in the air itself; and when, as we breathe, we inhale the air mingled with
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of cholera violating the first postulate. For this same reason, the third postulate specifies "should", rather than "must", because not all host organisms exposed to an infectious agent will acquire the infection, potentially due to differences in prior exposure to the pathogen.Limiting the second
606:
and that matter from autopsies was implicated in its spread, Semmelweis made doctors wash their hands with chlorinated lime water before examining pregnant women. He then documented a sudden reduction in the mortality rate from 18% to 2.2% over a period of a year. Despite this evidence, he and his
523:
disease known as "muscardine" in French and "calcinaccio" or "mal del segno" in
Italian, causing white fungal spots along the caterpillar. From 1835 to 1836, Bassi published his findings that fungal spores transmitted the disease between individuals. In recommending the rapid removal of diseased
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in the soil and the air were responsible for causing specific diseases. Von
Plenciz noted the distinction between diseases which are both epidemic and contagious (like measles and dysentery), and diseases which are contagious but not epidemic (like rabies and leprosy). The book cites Anton van
286:(Three Books on Agriculture, 36 BC): "Precautions must also be taken in the neighborhood of swamps... because there are bred certain minute creatures which cannot be seen by the eyes, which float in the air and enter the body through the mouth and nose and there cause serious diseases."
418:), a set of three books covering the nature of contagious diseases, categorization of major pathogens, and theories on preventing and treating these conditions. Fracastoro blamed "seeds of disease" that propagate through direct contact with an infected host, indirect contact with
159:
The miasma theory was the predominant theory of disease transmission before the germ theory took hold towards the end of the 19th century; it is no longer accepted as a correct explanation for disease by the scientific community. It held that diseases such as
67:
or "germs" can cause disease. These small organisms, which are too small to be seen without magnification, invade humans, other animals, and other living hosts. Their growth and reproduction within their hosts can cause disease. "Germ" refers to not just a
558:
in Paris. By 1853, he was convinced that malaria and yellow fever were spread by mosquitos. He even identified the particular group of mosquitos that transmit yellow fever as the "domestic species" of "striped-legged mosquito", which can be recognised as
329:), Galen explained that patients might relapse during recovery from fever because some "seed of the disease" lurked in their bodies, which would cause a recurrence of the disease if the patients did not follow a physician's therapeutic regimen.
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postulate, it was later discovered that viruses cannot be grown in pure cultures because they are obligate intracellular parasites, making it impossible to fulfill the second postulate. Similarly, pathogenic misfolded proteins, known as
597:
were relatively safe. Investigating further, Semmelweis made the connection between puerperal fever and examinations of delivering women by doctors, and further realized that these physicians had usually come directly from
496:
Leeuwenhoek to show how ubiquitous such animalcules are and was unique for describing the presence of germs in ulcerating wounds. Ultimately, the theory espoused by von
Plenciz was not accepted by the scientific community.
563:, the actual vector. He published his theory in 1854 in the Gaceta Oficial de Cumana ("Official Gazette of Cumana"). His reports were assessed by an official commission, which discarded his mosquito theory.
675:
In the book's second edition, published in 1855, Snow theorized that cholera was caused by cells smaller than human epithelial cells, leading to Robert Koch's 1884 confirmation of the bacterial species
1724:
From p. 90 of "The invisible world revealed by the microscope or, thoughts on animalcules.", second edition, 1850 (May have appeared in first edition, too. (Revise date in article to 1846, if so.))
1287:
129:
in the 1880s. By the end of that decade, the miasma theory was struggling to compete with the germ theory of disease. Viruses were initially discovered in the 1890s. Eventually, a "golden era" of
760:
when in direct contact with the external environment's air by removing the curved tubing, Pasteur demonstrated that bacteria must travel between sites of infection to colonize environments.
121:
was commonplace in Europe, though doctors were unaware of how it worked or how to extend the principle to other diseases. A transitional period began in the late 1850s with the work of
725:
experiment illustrates that liquid nutrients are spoiled by particles in the air rather than the air itself. These results of these experiments supported the germ theory of disease.
660:
for his early 18th century writings that claimed swamp miasma spread malaria, rebutting that bad air from decomposing organisms was not present in all cases. In his 1849 pamphlet
1083:
Singer, Charles and
Dorothea (1917) "The scientific position of Girolamo Fracastoro with especial reference to the source, character and influence of his theory of infection,"
1483:
Santer M (2009). "Richard
Bradley: a unified, living agent theory of the cause of infectious diseases of plants, animals, and humans in the first decades of the 18th century".
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The microorganism must be re-isolated from the inoculated, diseased experimental host and identified as being identical to the original specific causative agent.
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theorised that the plague and "all pestilential distempers" were caused by "poisonous insects", living creatures viewable only with the help of microscopes.
1049:
Tsoucalas G, Spengos K, Panayiotakopoulos G, Papaioannou T, Karamanou M (15 February 2018). "Epilepsy, Theories and
Treatment Inside Corpus Hippocraticum".
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pioneered using microscopy in relation to diseases and independently developed a theory that all infectious diseases were due to parasitic infection with "
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unwashed hands on her face, because I had forgotten; otherwise I should not have done it, which would have been tempting God." In 1546, Italian physician
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866:, involving bones breaking through the skin, were more likely to become infected due to exposure to environmental microorganisms. He recognized that
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838:, many pathogens are accepted as causative agents of specific diseases without fulfilling all of the criteria. In 1988, American microbiologist
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Kircher was the first to attribute infectious disease to a microscopic pathogen, inventing the germ theory of disease, which he outlined in his
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630:(1850) that perhaps "many of the most serious maladies which afflict humanity, are produced by peculiar states of invisible animalcular life".
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to remove the handles of contaminated pumps, he noted that the outbreak's cases were already declining as scared residents fled the region.
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as the causative agent. In recognizing a biological origin, Snow recommended boiling and filtering water, setting the precedent for modern
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554:" (microorganisms). With the help of his friend M. Adele de Rosseville, he presented his theory in a formal presentation before the
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The microorganism must be found in abundance in all organisms with the disease, but should not be found in healthy organisms.
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Studies in
History and Philosophy of Science Part C: Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences
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in 1857, Pasteur applied the findings to recommend improved ventilation and screening of silkworm eggs, an early form of
275:) stated that the world contained various "seeds", some of which could sicken a person if they were inhaled or ingested.
133:
ensued, during which the germ theory quickly led to the identification of the actual organisms that cause many diseases.
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318:), Galen speculated that plagues were spread by "certain seeds of plague", which were present in the air. And in his
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One theory of the spread of contagious diseases that were not spread by direct contact was that they were spread by
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During the early 19th century, driven by economic concerns over collapsing silk production, Italian entomologist
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697:, Snow showed that areas supplied by this company experienced fourteen times as many deaths as residents using
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1375:"Flies from meat and wasps from trees: Reevaluating Francesco Redi's spontaneous generation experiments"
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1142:"The seeds of disease: an explanation of contagion and infection from the Greeks to the Renaissance"
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During his lifetime, Koch recognized that the postulates were not universally applicable, such as
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inmates for want of a nurse: on the other, if they ventured to do so, death was the consequence."
603:
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93:
350:(1025). He mentioned that people can transmit disease to others by breath, noted contagion with
831:, only spread by transmitting their structure to other proteins, rather than self-replicating.
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Through a statistical analysis tying cholera cases to specific water pumps associated with the
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In the 18th century, more proposals were made, but struggled to catch on. In 1700, physician
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Susser, Mervyn; Stein, Zena (August 2009). "10: Germ Theory, Infection, and
Bacteriology".
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Del Mal del Segno, Calcinaccio o
Moscardino : Malattia che Affligge i Bachi da Seta
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The cultured microorganism should cause disease when introduced into a healthy organism.
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caterpillars and disinfection of their surfaces, Bassi outlined methods used in modern
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of the cholera epidemic depicts the spread of the disease in the form of poisonous air.
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following births assisted by doctors and medical students. However, those attended by
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Building on Redi's work, Pasteur disproved spontaneous generation by constructing
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1192:(London, England: Henry G. Bohn, 1851), Book VI, lines 1093–1130, pp. 291–92;
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The microorganism must be isolated from a diseased organism and grown in pure
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208:
2160:"Natural history of Bartonella infections (an exception to Koch's postulate)"
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Microorganisms are said to have been first directly observed in the 1670s by
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1278:"The Physician Who Presaged the Germ Theory of Disease Nearly 500 Years Ago"
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1960:
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Similar to Bassi, Pasteur extended his research on germ theory by studying
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After reading Pasteur's papers on bacterial fermentation, British surgeon
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of Koch's postulates to establish correlation between microbial genes and
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While Koch's postulates retain historical importance for emphasizing that
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3122:
2756:
2726:
2612:
2103:
1237:
594:
473:
394:–1370) of Bologna, Italy mentioned Galen's "seeds of plague" in his work
341:
73:
64:
1847:"Extension Of The Germ Theory To The Etiology Of Certain Common Disease"
532:
named the causative fungal species after Bassi, currently classified as
141:
3041:
2283:
2014:
1999:"Über den augenblicklichen Stand der bakteriologischen Choleradiagnose"
1496:
767:, a disease that causes brown spots on silkworms. While Swiss botanist
575:
161:
89:
56:
40:
1219:. Vol. Book 1. London, England: G. Bell and Sons, Ltd. p. 9.
1114:(London, England: J.M. Dent & Sons, Ltd., 1910), Book III, § 51,
705:. While Snow received praise for convincing the Board of Guardians of
3336:
1815:
867:
419:
244:) that were present in and dispersible through the air. In his poem,
173:
85:
1998:
354:, and discussed the transmission of disease through water and dirt.
870:
could be applied to the site of injury as an effective antiseptic.
107:
in 1762. However, such views were held in disdain in Europe, where
3498:
2341:
2119:"Principia aetiologica: taking causality beyond Koch's postulates"
1736:"Memorials to John Snow – Pioneer in Anaesthesia and Epidemiology"
828:
716:
472:
argued that microorganisms he called "worms" were responsible for
237:
233:
140:
108:
81:
77:
20:
589:) in 1847, noticed the dramatically high maternal mortality from
3430:
2681:
2209:"Molecular Koch's postulates applied to microbial pathogenicity"
1559:
Bad Sign, Rubble, or Muscardine: Disease that Afflicts Silkworms
1336:
229:, that diseases could spread from an infected person to others.
2685:
2363:
1678:"Ignaz Semmelweis, Carl Mayrhofer, and the rise of germ theory"
1528:
Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas
756:
containing nutrient broth. Since the flask contents were only
1604:"Sick or Silk: How Silkworms Spun the Germ Theory of Disease"
337:
A hybrid form of miasma and contagion theory was proposed by
181:
2078:"Causation and disease: the Henle-Koch postulates revisited"
3624:
Committee on the Environment, Public Health and Food Safety
797:
between specific microorganisms and diseases, now known as
951:"Definition of Germ in English from the Oxford dictionary"
491:. It outlined a theory of contagion stating that specific
2055:. Washington DC: American Society of Microbiology Press.
307:) that some patients might have "seeds of fever". In his
626:, spent time with his microscope, and speculated in his
1637:"The inside history of a great medical discovery. 1915"
225:) was the first person to write, in his account of the
80:, or other pathogens that can cause disease, such as
1265:. New Canaan, CT: Keats Publishing Inc. p. 212.
701:
pumps that obtained water from the upriver, cleaner
3742:
3701:
3588:
3577:
3514:
3439:
3355:
3283:
3188:
2993:
2719:
2583:
2515:
2402:
2264:Pitt, Dennis; Aubin, Jean-Michel (1 October 2012).
729:During the mid-19th century, French microbiologist
611:by most of the contemporary medical establishment.
1984:Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte
1018:
2003:Zeitschrift für Hygiene und Infektionskrankheiten
1982:Koch R (1884). "Die Aetiologie der Tuberkulose".
1312:Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl' Insetti
2053:Robert Koch: a life in medicine and bacteriology
693:, which supplied sewage-polluted water from the
622:, the Sussex doctor more famous for discovering
114:remained dominant among scientists and doctors.
1433:"The Life and Work of Athanaseus Kircher, S.J."
546:In 1838 French specialist in tropical medicine
664:Snow proposed that cholera spread through the
398:(Helpful commentaries on the books of Galen).
2697:
2623:History of the creation-evolution controversy
2375:
2164:Clinical and Diagnostic Laboratory Immunology
2158:Jacomo V, Kelly PJ, Raoult D (January 2002).
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
396:Commentaria non-parum utilia in libros Galeni
8:
1188:Lucretius with Rev. John S. Watson, trans.,
982:Eras in Epidemiology: The Evolution of Ideas
99:Basic forms of germ theory were proposed by
1927:"Koch's postulates and infectious proteins"
1263:Table Talk Conversations with Martin Luther
3659:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
3585:
2704:
2690:
2682:
2382:
2368:
2360:
1925:Walker L, Levine H, Jucker M (July 2006).
434:published experimental evidence rejecting
92:. Diseases caused by pathogens are called
72:but to any type of microorganism, such as
3619:Centre for Disease Prevention and Control
3609:Center for Disease Control and Prevention
2653:Relationship between religion and science
2291:
2266:"Joseph Lister: Father of Modern Surgery"
2183:
2134:
2093:
1950:
1852:Comptes rendus de l'Académie des Sciences
1771:
1701:
1652:
1165:
1110:Thucydides with Richard Crawley, trans.,
994:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195300666.003.0010
793:published four criteria for establishing
691:Southwark and Vauxhall Waterworks Company
2334:Supplemental Lecture (98/03/28 update),
2082:The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine
1317:Experiments on the Generation of Insects
662:On the Mode of Communication of Cholera,
656:. Snow criticized the Italian anatomist
368:–636) mentioned "plague-bearing seeds" (
3664:Health departments in the United States
1811:On the Mode of Communication of Cholera
942:
916:History of emerging infectious diseases
602:. Asserting that puerperal fever was a
3669:Council on Education for Public Health
1017:Last JM, ed. (2007), "miasma theory",
506:Germ theory's key 19th century figures
3727:Professional degrees of public health
3634:Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
1888:
1886:
1803:
1801:
1799:
1597:
1595:
1197:it, we must necessarily absorb those
1025:, Westminster College, Pennsylvania:
452:Yet German Jesuit priest and scholar
7:
3824:
3717:Bachelor of Science in Public Health
2351:Science's war on infectious diseases
2308:from the original on 22 January 2023
1906:from the original on 4 February 2023
1867:from the original on 22 January 2023
1616:from the original on 19 January 2023
1485:Perspectives in Biology and Medicine
1290:from the original on 18 January 2023
836:correlation does not imply causation
487:(1705–1786) published a book titled
416:On Contagion and Contagious Diseases
289:The Greek physician Galen (AD 129 –
3836:
2985:Workers' right to access the toilet
2826:Human right to water and sanitation
648:is credited as a founder of modern
422:, or through particles in the air.
412:De Contagione et Contagiosis Morbis
2530:Central dogma of molecular biology
2029:from the original on 28 April 2023
1442:from the original on 17 April 2016
1413:from the original on 14 April 2019
741:killed the microorganisms causing
654:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
640:1854 Broad Street cholera outbreak
125:. This work was later extended by
14:
3258:Commercial determinants of health
1826:from the original on 6 March 2023
1609:American Society for Microbiology
1602:Lovett, Brian (6 December 2019).
1436:The Museum of Jurassic Technology
1063:10.2174/1381612823666171024153144
530:Giuseppe Gabriel Balsamo-Crivelli
344:(known as Avicenna in Europe) in
3835:
3823:
3812:
3811:
2841:National public health institute
2666:
2665:
2228:10.1093/cid/10.Supplement_2.S274
1580:from the original on 1 July 2023
1462:"The History of the Germ Theory"
1373:Parke, Emily C. (1 March 2014).
1354:from the original on 1 July 2023
1276:Morgan, Ewan (22 January 2021).
1112:History of the Peloponnesian War
880:
542:Louis-Daniel Beauperthuy, France
483:In 1762, the Austrian physician
16:Prevailing theory about diseases
3238:Open-source healthcare software
2980:Sociology of health and illness
2123:Journal of Medical Microbiology
1734:Snowise, Neil G. (7 May 2021).
1233:Encyclopedia of the Black Death
1211:Varro MT, Storr-Best L (1912).
789:In 1884, German bacteriologist
309:On the Different Types of Fever
3599:Caribbean Public Health Agency
3411:Sexually transmitted infection
3308:Statistical hypothesis testing
3069:Occupational safety and health
2970:Sexual and reproductive health
2883:Occupational safety and health
2555:One gene–one enzyme hypothesis
2216:Reviews of Infectious Diseases
1472:(1415): 312. 11 February 1888.
1261:Smith, Preserved, ed. (1979).
771:discovered the fungal species
357:During the early Middle Ages,
103:in 1546, and expanded upon by
1:
3253:Social determinants of health
1986:. Vol. 2. pp. 1–88.
1845:Pasteur, Louis (3 May 1880).
1654:10.1093/milmed/166.suppl_1.68
1051:Current Pharmaceutical Design
1021:A Dictionary of Public Health
476:and other diseases. In 1720,
388:
377:
362:
323:
312:
301:
290:
269:
262:
251:
219:
212:
3313:Analysis of variance (ANOVA)
3074:Human factors and ergonomics
2336:www.mansfield.ohio-state.edu
1894:"The Middle Years 1862–1877"
1859:. Translated by H.C. Ernst.
1740:Journal of Medical Biography
1530:. Hafner Publishing Co Ltd.
174:
26:Scanning electron microscope
3494:Good manufacturing practice
3298:Randomized controlled trial
2271:Canadian Journal of Surgery
2117:Inglis TJ (November 2007).
1466:The British Medical Journal
1391:10.1016/j.shpsc.2013.12.005
485:Marcus Antonius von Plenciz
430:In 1668, Italian physician
117:By the early 19th century,
3892:
3564:Theory of planned behavior
3489:Good agricultural practice
3394:Public health surveillance
3286:epidemiological statistics
2930:Public health intervention
2355:www.creatingtechnology.org
2176:10.1128/CDLI.9.1.8-18.2002
1879:Modern History Sourcebook.
1861:French Academy of Sciences
1676:Carter KC (January 1985).
699:Lambeth Waterworks Company
637:
556:French Academy of Sciences
503:
462:Scrutinium Physico-Medicum
401:The 16th century Reformer
284:Rerum rusticarum libri III
282:(116–27 BC) wrote, in his
250:(On the Nature of Things,
194:Development of germ theory
182:
152:
51:is the currently accepted
3807:
3686:World Toilet Organization
3681:World Health Organization
3248:Public health informatics
2955:Right to rest and leisure
2784:Globalization and disease
2661:
1943:10.1007/s00401-006-0072-x
1756:10.1177/09677720211013807
1694:10.1017/S0025727300043738
1158:10.1017/s0025727300042241
1140:Nutton V (January 1983).
1085:Annals of Medical History
745:while avoiding damage to
733:showed that treating the
567:Ignaz Semmelweis, Austria
3732:Schools of public health
3524:Diffusion of innovations
3223:Health impact assessment
2935:Public health laboratory
2831:Management of depression
2342:The Germ Theory Timeline
1571:10.5962/bhl.title.152962
1551:Bassi, Agostino (1836).
1329:10.5962/bhl.title.149072
1309:Redi, Francesco (1668).
548:Louis-Daniel Beauperthuy
3795:Social hygiene movement
3722:Doctor of Public Health
3554:Social cognitive theory
3356:Infectious and epidemic
3138:Fecal–oral transmission
2346:germtheorytimeline.info
1190:On the Nature of Things
1027:Oxford University Press
986:Oxford University Press
668:, replicating in human
628:Thoughts on Animalcules
587:Allgemeines Krankenhaus
583:Vienna General Hospital
526:preventative healthcare
500:19th and 20th centuries
426:The Early Modern Period
374:On the Nature of Things
3790:Germ theory of disease
3569:Transtheoretical model
2575:Spontaneous generation
2525:Germ theory of disease
2502:Zoology (through 1859)
2332:Germ Theory of Disease
2222:(Suppl 2): S274–S276.
1194:see especially p. 292.
726:
723:spontaneous generation
658:Giovanni Maria Lancisi
445:, an early pioneer in
436:spontaneous generation
280:Marcus Terentius Varro
207:, the Greek historian
150:
49:germ theory of disease
44:
3674:Public Health Service
3559:Social norms approach
3549:PRECEDE–PROCEED model
2995:Preventive healthcare
2888:Pharmaceutical policy
2737:Chief Medical Officer
2596:Philosophy of biology
2136:10.1099/jmm.0.47179-0
2076:Evans AS (May 1976).
1931:Acta Neuropathologica
1635:Agramonte, A (2001).
911:Germ theory denialism
824:asymptomatic carriers
743:postpartum infections
720:
713:Louis Pasteur, France
528:. Italian naturalist
511:Agostino Bassi, Italy
443:Anton van Leeuwenhoek
347:The Canon of Medicine
144:
24:
3750:Sara Josephine Baker
3649:Public Health Agency
3534:Health communication
3399:Disease surveillance
3365:Asymptomatic carrier
3347:Statistical software
3035:Preventive nutrition
2863:Medical anthropology
2752:Environmental health
2628:Human Genome Project
2540:Great chain of being
2507:Zoology (since 1859)
2442:Evolutionary thought
2412:Agricultural science
2340:William C. Campbell
2129:(Pt 11): 1419–1422.
1902:. 10 November 2016.
1561:] (in Italian).
1319:] (in Italian).
1098:16 June 2020 at the
988:. pp. 107–122.
785:Robert Koch, Germany
779:disease surveillance
735:female genital tract
489:Opera medico-physica
296:) speculated in his
278:The Roman statesman
145:A representation by
119:smallpox vaccination
3869:Infectious diseases
3760:Carl Rogers Darnall
3755:Samuel Jay Crumbine
3529:Health belief model
3382:Notifiable diseases
3318:Regression analysis
3153:Waterborne diseases
2742:Cultural competence
2633:Humboldtian science
2570:Sequence hypothesis
2477:Molecular evolution
1808:Snow, John (1855).
1526:Winslow CE (1967).
1283:Scientific American
955:Oxford Dictionaries
684:boil-water advisory
408:Girolamo Fracastoro
166:chlamydia infection
101:Girolamo Fracastoro
94:infectious diseases
3358:disease prevention
3293:Case–control study
2965:Security of person
2814:Health care reform
2643:Natural philosophy
2591:History of science
2391:History of biology
2330:Stephen T. Abedon
2284:10.1503/cjs.007112
2015:10.1007/BF02284324
1877:Fordham University
1647:(9 Suppl): 68–78.
1497:10.1353/pbm.0.0124
864:compound fractures
727:
644:British physician
615:Gideon Mantell, UK
604:contagious disease
535:Beauveria bassiana
454:Athanasius Kircher
383:). Later in 1345,
359:Isidore of Seville
257:), the Roman poet
151:
105:Marcus von Plenciz
45:
3851:
3850:
3803:
3802:
3713:Higher education
3544:Positive deviance
3539:Health psychology
3515:Health behavioral
3442:safety management
3416:Social distancing
3190:Population health
3170:Smoking cessation
3118:Pharmacovigilance
3089:Injury prevention
3057:Infection control
2975:Social psychology
2925:Prisoners' rights
2868:Medical sociology
2836:Public health law
2732:Biological hazard
2679:
2678:
2545:Hierarchy of life
2492:Plant systematics
2472:Molecular biology
2207:Falkow S (1988).
1899:Pasteur Institute
1641:Military Medicine
1230:Byrne JP (2012).
1057:(42): 6369–6372.
896:Alexander Fleming
854:Joseph Lister, UK
848:virulence factors
844:molecular version
799:Koch's postulates
707:St James's Parish
652:for studying the
385:Tommaso del Garbo
339:Persian physician
327: 176–178 AD
298:On Initial Causes
255: 56 BC
172:were caused by a
59:. It states that
53:scientific theory
3881:
3864:Biology theories
3839:
3838:
3827:
3826:
3815:
3814:
3709:Health education
3586:
3440:Food hygiene and
3421:Tropical disease
3233:Infant mortality
3208:Community health
3084:Controlled Drugs
3020:Health promotion
2950:Right to housing
2794:Health economics
2706:
2699:
2692:
2683:
2669:
2668:
2648:Natural theology
2384:
2377:
2370:
2361:
2318:
2317:
2315:
2313:
2295:
2261:
2255:
2254:
2253:on 3 March 2019.
2252:
2246:. Archived from
2213:
2204:
2198:
2197:
2187:
2155:
2149:
2148:
2138:
2114:
2108:
2107:
2097:
2073:
2067:
2066:
2045:
2039:
2038:
2036:
2034:
1994:
1988:
1987:
1979:
1973:
1972:
1954:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1890:
1881:
1880:
1874:
1872:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1814:(2nd ed.).
1805:
1794:
1793:
1775:
1731:
1725:
1722:
1716:
1715:
1705:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1656:
1632:
1626:
1625:
1623:
1621:
1599:
1590:
1589:
1587:
1585:
1579:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1523:
1517:
1516:
1480:
1474:
1473:
1458:
1452:
1451:
1449:
1447:
1429:
1423:
1422:
1420:
1418:
1370:
1364:
1363:
1361:
1359:
1353:
1306:
1300:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1273:
1267:
1266:
1258:
1252:
1251:
1227:
1221:
1220:
1217:Varro on Farming
1208:
1202:
1199:seeds of disease
1186:
1180:
1179:
1169:
1137:
1120:
1108:
1102:
1081:
1075:
1074:
1046:
1040:
1039:
1024:
1014:
1008:
1007:
977:
971:
970:
968:
966:
957:. Archived from
947:
890:
885:
884:
862:recognized that
754:swan neck flasks
747:mucous membranes
721:Louis Pasteur's
670:lower intestines
666:fecal–oral route
624:dinosaur fossils
572:Ignaz Semmelweis
393:
390:
382:
379:
370:pestifera semina
367:
364:
328:
325:
317:
314:
306:
303:
295:
292:
274:
271:
267:
264:
256:
253:
227:plague of Athens
224:
221:
217:
214:
185:
184:
179:
3891:
3890:
3884:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3879:
3878:
3854:
3853:
3852:
3847:
3799:
3770:Margaret Sanger
3738:
3697:
3581:
3579:
3573:
3516:
3510:
3482:Safety scandals
3441:
3435:
3357:
3351:
3285:
3279:
3275:Social medicine
3268:Race and health
3203:Child mortality
3184:
3143:Open defecation
3025:Human nutrition
3015:Family planning
3003:Behavior change
2989:
2945:Right to health
2858:Maternal health
2848:Health politics
2799:Health literacy
2715:
2710:
2680:
2675:
2657:
2638:Natural history
2579:
2517:
2511:
2467:Model organisms
2404:
2398:
2388:
2327:
2322:
2321:
2311:
2309:
2263:
2262:
2258:
2250:
2211:
2206:
2205:
2201:
2157:
2156:
2152:
2116:
2115:
2111:
2075:
2074:
2070:
2063:
2047:
2046:
2042:
2032:
2030:
1997:Koch R (1893).
1996:
1995:
1991:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1924:
1923:
1919:
1909:
1907:
1892:
1891:
1884:
1870:
1868:
1844:
1843:
1839:
1829:
1827:
1807:
1806:
1797:
1748:SAGE Publishing
1733:
1732:
1728:
1723:
1719:
1682:Medical History
1675:
1674:
1670:
1634:
1633:
1629:
1619:
1617:
1601:
1600:
1593:
1583:
1581:
1577:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1538:
1525:
1524:
1520:
1482:
1481:
1477:
1460:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1443:
1431:
1430:
1426:
1416:
1414:
1372:
1371:
1367:
1357:
1355:
1351:
1321:Florence, Italy
1308:
1307:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1275:
1274:
1270:
1260:
1259:
1255:
1248:
1229:
1228:
1224:
1210:
1209:
1205:
1201:into our body."
1187:
1183:
1146:Medical History
1139:
1138:
1123:
1109:
1105:
1100:Wayback Machine
1082:
1078:
1048:
1047:
1043:
1037:
1016:
1015:
1011:
1004:
979:
978:
974:
964:
962:
961:on 6 April 2016
949:
948:
944:
939:
931:Zymotic disease
886:
879:
876:
856:
787:
774:Nosema bombycis
715:
679:Vibrio cholerae
642:
636:
617:
591:puerperal fever
581:working at the
569:
544:
513:
508:
502:
478:Richard Bradley
428:
391:
380:
365:
335:
333:The Middle Ages
326:
315:
304:
293:
272:
265:
254:
247:De rerum natura
236:-like "seeds" (
222:
215:
201:
199:Greece and Rome
196:
157:
139:
31:Vibrio cholerae
17:
12:
11:
5:
3889:
3888:
3885:
3877:
3876:
3871:
3866:
3856:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3833:
3821:
3808:
3805:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3798:
3797:
3792:
3787:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3746:
3744:
3740:
3739:
3737:
3736:
3735:
3734:
3729:
3724:
3719:
3711:
3705:
3703:
3699:
3698:
3696:
3695:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3677:
3676:
3671:
3666:
3661:
3653:
3652:
3651:
3646:
3638:
3637:
3636:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3621:
3613:
3612:
3611:
3603:
3602:
3601:
3592:
3590:
3583:
3578:Organizations,
3575:
3574:
3572:
3571:
3566:
3561:
3556:
3551:
3546:
3541:
3536:
3531:
3526:
3520:
3518:
3512:
3511:
3509:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3501:
3491:
3486:
3485:
3484:
3479:
3474:
3469:
3464:
3459:
3454:
3445:
3443:
3437:
3436:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3413:
3408:
3403:
3402:
3401:
3391:
3390:
3389:
3379:
3378:
3377:
3367:
3361:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3342:
3334:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3289:
3287:
3284:Biological and
3281:
3280:
3278:
3277:
3272:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3260:
3250:
3245:
3243:Multimorbidity
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3200:
3194:
3192:
3186:
3185:
3183:
3182:
3180:Vector control
3177:
3172:
3167:
3165:School hygiene
3162:
3161:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3148:Sanitary sewer
3145:
3140:
3135:
3125:
3120:
3115:
3114:
3113:
3106:Patient safety
3103:
3102:
3101:
3096:
3091:
3086:
3081:
3076:
3066:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3039:
3038:
3037:
3032:
3022:
3017:
3012:
3011:
3010:
2999:
2997:
2991:
2990:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2977:
2972:
2967:
2962:
2957:
2952:
2947:
2942:
2937:
2932:
2927:
2922:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2910:
2905:
2900:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2845:
2844:
2843:
2838:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2817:
2816:
2811:
2801:
2796:
2791:
2789:Harm reduction
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2764:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2723:
2721:
2717:
2716:
2711:
2709:
2708:
2701:
2694:
2686:
2677:
2676:
2674:
2673:
2662:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2655:
2650:
2645:
2640:
2635:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2615:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2593:
2587:
2585:
2581:
2580:
2578:
2577:
2572:
2567:
2562:
2557:
2552:
2547:
2542:
2537:
2532:
2527:
2521:
2519:
2513:
2512:
2510:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2408:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2379:
2372:
2364:
2358:
2357:
2348:
2338:
2326:
2325:External links
2323:
2320:
2319:
2256:
2199:
2150:
2109:
2088:(2): 175–195.
2068:
2061:
2040:
1989:
1974:
1917:
1882:
1837:
1820:John Churchill
1795:
1726:
1717:
1668:
1627:
1591:
1563:Lodi, Lombardy
1543:
1537:978-0028548807
1536:
1518:
1475:
1453:
1424:
1365:
1301:
1268:
1253:
1246:
1240:. p. 29.
1222:
1203:
1181:
1121:
1103:
1091: : 1–34;
1076:
1041:
1035:
1009:
1002:
972:
941:
940:
938:
935:
934:
933:
928:
926:Rudolf Virchow
923:
918:
913:
908:
903:
898:
892:
891:
888:Biology portal
875:
872:
855:
852:
840:Stanley Falkow
820:
819:
816:
813:
806:
786:
783:
714:
711:
703:Seething Wells
638:Main article:
635:
632:
620:Gideon Mantell
616:
613:
607:theories were
568:
565:
543:
540:
517:Agostino Bassi
512:
509:
504:Main article:
501:
498:
432:Francesco Redi
427:
424:
334:
331:
294: 200/216
200:
197:
195:
192:
153:Main article:
147:Robert Seymour
138:
135:
61:microorganisms
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3887:
3886:
3875:
3872:
3870:
3867:
3865:
3862:
3861:
3859:
3844:
3843:
3834:
3832:
3831:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3810:
3809:
3806:
3796:
3793:
3791:
3788:
3786:
3783:
3781:
3778:
3776:
3773:
3771:
3768:
3766:
3765:Joseph Lister
3763:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3753:
3751:
3748:
3747:
3745:
3741:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3718:
3715:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3707:
3706:
3704:
3700:
3693:
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3675:
3672:
3670:
3667:
3665:
3662:
3660:
3657:
3656:
3654:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3644:Health Canada
3642:
3641:
3639:
3635:
3632:
3631:
3629:
3625:
3622:
3620:
3617:
3616:
3614:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3604:
3600:
3597:
3596:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3589:Organizations
3587:
3584:
3576:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3560:
3557:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3525:
3522:
3521:
3519:
3513:
3505:
3502:
3500:
3497:
3496:
3495:
3492:
3490:
3487:
3483:
3480:
3478:
3475:
3473:
3470:
3468:
3465:
3463:
3460:
3458:
3455:
3453:
3450:
3449:
3447:
3446:
3444:
3438:
3432:
3429:
3427:
3426:Vaccine trial
3424:
3422:
3419:
3417:
3414:
3412:
3409:
3407:
3404:
3400:
3397:
3396:
3395:
3392:
3388:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3380:
3376:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3368:
3366:
3363:
3362:
3360:
3354:
3348:
3345:
3341:
3339:
3335:
3333:
3331:
3326:
3324:
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3310:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3303:Relative risk
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3288:
3282:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3263:Health equity
3261:
3259:
3256:
3255:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3228:Health system
3226:
3224:
3221:
3219:
3218:Global health
3216:
3214:
3211:
3209:
3206:
3204:
3201:
3199:
3198:Biostatistics
3196:
3195:
3193:
3191:
3187:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3144:
3141:
3139:
3136:
3134:
3131:
3130:
3129:
3126:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3112:
3109:
3108:
3107:
3104:
3100:
3097:
3095:
3092:
3090:
3087:
3085:
3082:
3080:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3067:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
3043:
3040:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3027:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3016:
3013:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3004:
3001:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2940:Right to food
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2909:
2906:
2904:
2901:
2899:
2896:
2895:
2894:
2891:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2878:
2874:
2873:Mental health
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2842:
2839:
2837:
2834:
2833:
2832:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2821:Housing First
2819:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2809:Health system
2807:
2806:
2805:
2804:Health policy
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2724:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2713:Public health
2707:
2702:
2700:
2695:
2693:
2688:
2687:
2684:
2672:
2664:
2663:
2660:
2654:
2651:
2649:
2646:
2644:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2634:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2624:
2621:
2619:
2616:
2614:
2611:
2609:
2606:
2602:
2599:
2598:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2588:
2586:
2582:
2576:
2573:
2571:
2568:
2566:
2563:
2561:
2558:
2556:
2553:
2551:
2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2538:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2522:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2427:Biotechnology
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2409:
2407:
2401:
2396:
2392:
2385:
2380:
2378:
2373:
2371:
2366:
2365:
2362:
2356:
2352:
2349:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2324:
2307:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2272:
2267:
2260:
2257:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2210:
2203:
2200:
2195:
2191:
2186:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2154:
2151:
2146:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2120:
2113:
2110:
2105:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2072:
2069:
2064:
2062:1-55581-143-4
2058:
2054:
2050:
2044:
2041:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2005:(in German).
2004:
2000:
1993:
1990:
1985:
1978:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1953:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1918:
1905:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1889:
1887:
1883:
1878:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1841:
1838:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1812:
1804:
1802:
1800:
1796:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1730:
1727:
1721:
1718:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1669:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1631:
1628:
1615:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1576:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1555:
1547:
1544:
1539:
1533:
1529:
1522:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1502:
1498:
1494:
1491:(4): 566–78.
1490:
1486:
1479:
1476:
1471:
1467:
1463:
1457:
1454:
1441:
1437:
1434:
1428:
1425:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1369:
1366:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1338:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1313:
1305:
1302:
1289:
1285:
1284:
1279:
1272:
1269:
1264:
1257:
1254:
1249:
1247:9781598842531
1243:
1239:
1235:
1234:
1226:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1207:
1204:
1200:
1195:
1191:
1185:
1182:
1177:
1173:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1136:
1134:
1132:
1130:
1128:
1126:
1122:
1117:
1113:
1107:
1104:
1101:
1097:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1080:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1045:
1042:
1038:
1036:9780195160901
1032:
1028:
1023:
1022:
1013:
1010:
1005:
1003:9780199863754
999:
995:
991:
987:
983:
976:
973:
960:
956:
952:
946:
943:
936:
932:
929:
927:
924:
922:
919:
917:
914:
912:
909:
907:
904:
902:
899:
897:
894:
893:
889:
883:
878:
873:
871:
869:
868:carbolic acid
865:
861:
860:Joseph Lister
853:
851:
849:
845:
841:
837:
832:
830:
825:
817:
814:
811:
807:
804:
803:
802:
800:
796:
792:
784:
782:
780:
776:
775:
770:
766:
761:
759:
755:
750:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
731:Louis Pasteur
724:
719:
712:
710:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
687:
685:
681:
680:
673:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
651:
647:
641:
634:John Snow, UK
633:
631:
629:
625:
621:
614:
612:
610:
605:
601:
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
577:
573:
566:
564:
562:
561:Aedes aegypti
557:
553:
549:
541:
539:
537:
536:
531:
527:
522:
519:researched a
518:
510:
507:
499:
497:
494:
490:
486:
481:
479:
475:
471:
470:Nicolas Andry
466:
464:
463:
457:
455:
450:
448:
444:
439:
437:
433:
425:
423:
421:
417:
413:
409:
404:
403:Martin Luther
399:
397:
386:
381: AD 613
375:
371:
360:
355:
353:
349:
348:
343:
340:
332:
330:
321:
316: 175 AD
310:
305: 175 AD
299:
287:
285:
281:
276:
260:
249:
248:
243:
239:
235:
230:
228:
223: 400 BC
210:
206:
198:
193:
191:
189:
188:Ancient Greek
178:
177:
171:
167:
163:
156:
155:Miasma theory
148:
143:
137:Miasma theory
136:
134:
132:
128:
124:
123:Louis Pasteur
120:
115:
113:
112:miasma theory
110:
106:
102:
97:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
75:
71:
66:
62:
58:
54:
50:
42:
38:
34:
32:
27:
23:
19:
3874:Microbiology
3840:
3828:
3816:
3789:
3785:Radium Girls
3780:Typhoid Mary
3467:Microbiology
3337:
3329:
3213:Epidemiology
3111:Organization
3062:Oral hygiene
3052:Hand washing
3030:Healthy diet
2960:Right to sit
2853:Labor rights
2524:
2482:Paleontology
2422:Biochemistry
2354:
2345:
2335:
2310:. Retrieved
2278:(5): E8–E9.
2275:
2269:
2259:
2248:the original
2219:
2215:
2202:
2167:
2163:
2153:
2126:
2122:
2112:
2085:
2081:
2071:
2052:
2043:
2031:. Retrieved
2006:
2002:
1992:
1983:
1977:
1934:
1930:
1920:
1908:. Retrieved
1897:
1875:– via
1869:. Retrieved
1856:
1850:
1840:
1828:. Retrieved
1810:
1743:
1739:
1729:
1720:
1688:(1): 33–53.
1685:
1681:
1671:
1644:
1640:
1630:
1618:. Retrieved
1607:
1582:. Retrieved
1558:
1553:
1546:
1527:
1521:
1488:
1484:
1478:
1469:
1465:
1456:
1444:. Retrieved
1435:
1427:
1415:. Retrieved
1382:
1378:
1368:
1356:. Retrieved
1316:
1311:
1304:
1292:. Retrieved
1281:
1271:
1262:
1256:
1232:
1225:
1216:
1206:
1198:
1189:
1184:
1149:
1145:
1111:
1106:
1088:
1084:
1079:
1054:
1050:
1044:
1020:
1012:
981:
975:
963:. Retrieved
959:the original
954:
945:
921:Robert Hooke
906:Epidemiology
857:
842:published a
833:
821:
788:
772:
762:
751:
728:
695:River Thames
688:
686:directives.
677:
674:
661:
650:epidemiology
643:
627:
618:
586:
579:obstetrician
570:
560:
545:
533:
514:
488:
482:
467:
460:
458:
451:
447:microbiology
440:
429:
415:
411:
400:
395:
373:
369:
356:
352:tuberculosis
345:
336:
319:
308:
297:
288:
283:
277:
273: 55 BC
266: 99 BC
245:
241:
231:
202:
158:
131:bacteriology
116:
98:
48:
46:
39:that causes
29:
18:
3842:WikiProject
3582:and history
3462:Engineering
3175:Vaccination
3047:Food safety
2608:Ethnobotany
2497:RNA biology
2405:disciplines
2170:(1): 8–18.
1863:: 1033–44.
1152:(1): 1–34.
1116:pp. 131–32.
901:Cell theory
791:Robert Koch
769:Carl Nägeli
552:animalcules
493:animalcules
392: 1305
170:Black Death
127:Robert Koch
3858:Categories
3595:Caribbean
3472:Processing
3406:Quarantine
3328:Student's
3128:Sanitation
2762:History of
2550:Lamarckism
2457:Immunology
2312:22 January
2009:: 319–33.
1937:(1): 1–4.
1910:22 January
1871:22 January
1830:22 January
1620:19 January
1584:19 January
1417:18 January
1358:18 January
1294:18 January
1093:see p. 14.
937:References
739:boric acid
410:published
366: 560
216: 460
209:Thucydides
3775:John Snow
3702:Education
3692:Full list
3580:education
3504:ISO 22000
3457:Chemistry
3370:Epidemics
3323:ROC curve
3133:Emergency
2913:Radiation
2893:Pollution
2877:Ministers
2774:Euthenics
2618:Dysgenics
2601:Teleology
2565:RNA world
2560:Protocell
2535:Darwinism
2516:Theories,
2487:Phycology
1790:233985110
1764:1758-1087
1750:: 47–50.
1399:1369-8486
1385:: 34–42.
795:causality
758:fermented
646:John Snow
600:autopsies
576:Hungarian
372:) in his
320:Epidemics
259:Lucretius
205:Antiquity
168:, or the
70:bacterium
65:pathogens
63:known as
55:for many
37:bacterium
28:image of
3818:Category
3517:sciences
3452:Additive
3123:Safe sex
3094:Medicine
3008:Theories
2779:Genomics
2757:Eugenics
2747:Deviance
2727:Auxology
2671:Category
2613:Eugenics
2518:concepts
2462:Medicine
2447:Genetics
2395:timeline
2306:Archived
2302:22992425
2244:13602080
2194:11777823
2145:17965339
2051:(1999).
2049:Brock TD
2027:Archived
1969:22210933
1961:16703338
1904:Archived
1865:Archived
1824:Archived
1782:33960862
1663:11569397
1614:Archived
1575:Archived
1513:22544615
1505:19855125
1446:18 April
1440:Archived
1411:Archived
1407:24509515
1349:Archived
1337:18018365
1288:Archived
1238:ABC-CLIO
1096:Archived
1071:29076418
874:See also
609:rejected
595:midwives
521:silkworm
474:smallpox
342:Ibn Sina
74:protists
57:diseases
3830:Commons
3743:History
3640:Canada
3615:Europe
3099:Nursing
3079:Hygiene
3042:Hygiene
2767:Liberal
2720:General
2584:Related
2452:Geology
2437:Ecology
2417:Anatomy
2403:Fields,
2293:3468637
2236:3055197
2095:2595276
2023:9388121
1952:8544537
1773:9925902
1712:3883083
1703:1139480
1345:9363778
1176:6339840
1167:1139262
965:5 April
810:culture
765:pébrine
420:fomites
162:cholera
109:Galen's
90:viroids
82:viruses
41:cholera
3630:India
3605:China
3477:Safety
3158:Worker
2432:Botany
2300:
2290:
2242:
2234:
2192:
2185:119901
2182:
2143:
2104:782050
2102:
2092:
2059:
2033:2 July
2021:
1967:
1959:
1949:
1816:London
1788:
1780:
1770:
1762:
1710:
1700:
1661:
1534:
1511:
1503:
1405:
1397:
1343:
1335:
1244:
1174:
1164:
1069:
1033:
1000:
829:prions
242:semina
183:μίασμα
176:miasma
86:prions
3655:U.S.
3499:HACCP
3448:Food
3340:-test
3332:-test
2918:Light
2903:Water
2251:(PDF)
2240:S2CID
2212:(PDF)
2019:S2CID
1965:S2CID
1786:S2CID
1746:(1).
1578:(PDF)
1557:[
1509:S2CID
1352:(PDF)
1315:[
1213:"XII"
737:with
238:Latin
234:spore
88:, or
78:fungi
3431:WASH
3387:List
3375:List
2908:Soil
2314:2023
2298:PMID
2232:PMID
2190:PMID
2141:PMID
2100:PMID
2057:ISBN
2035:2019
1957:PMID
1912:2023
1873:2023
1832:2023
1778:PMID
1760:ISSN
1708:PMID
1659:PMID
1622:2023
1586:2023
1532:ISBN
1501:PMID
1448:2016
1419:2023
1403:PMID
1395:ISSN
1360:2023
1341:OCLC
1333:LCCN
1296:2023
1242:ISBN
1172:PMID
1067:PMID
1031:ISBN
998:ISBN
967:2016
574:, a
47:The
35:the
2898:Air
2288:PMC
2280:doi
2224:doi
2180:PMC
2172:doi
2131:doi
2090:PMC
2011:doi
1947:PMC
1939:doi
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