1900:
activities. However, the enemy effort was definitely lacking in overall direction, unity of purpose and coordination between participating agencies. Early in the German endeavor the uranium problem had been separately approached by a number of more or less competing groups. There was one group under Army
Ordnance, another under the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physics, and still another under the Postal Department. A certain amount of bickering over the supply of material and a non-cooperative attitude in the exchange of information existed between those groups. The research efforts of the Postal Department amounted to little and did not continue for very long. The first two of the above groups were unified in 1942 under the Reich's Research Council. On the whole, beneficial results, from the German standpoint, were obtained through that unification. But conflicting jurisdiction between the German Government and Service branches still existed. Up until the later stages of the war difficulties were apparent in regard to the deferment of scientific personnel from military service. Many German scientists worked along their own lines and were not required to work at particular projects. Development of atomic weapon was not believed to be possible .
1137:) failed, but Watzlawek continued to explore potential applications of nuclear energy and wrote a detailed textbook on technical nuclear physics. It includes one of the most detailed presentations of contemporary German knowledge about the various processes of isotope separation, and recommends their combined usage to get to sufficient amounts of enriched uranium. Walther Gerlach refused to print this textbook, but it is preserved as a typed manuscript and it appeared after the War in 1948 virtually unchanged (with just a few additions on the US atomic bomb released in 1945). In October 1944, Hugo Watzlawek wrote an article on the potential usage of nuclear energy and its many potential applications. In his view, to follow up this route of research and development was the "new pathway" to becoming the "Master of the World".
1370:, concluded after reading the transcripts that Heisenberg had never done the calculation before. Heisenberg himself, in the transcript, said that, "quite honestly I have never worked it out as I never believed one could get pure 235." A week after the bombing, Heisenberg had given a more formal lecture to his colleagues on the physics of the atomic bomb, which corrected many of his early mistakes and indicated a much smaller critical mass. Historians have cited Heisenberg's error as evidence of the degree to which his role in the project had been confined almost entirely to reactors, as the original equation is much more similar to how a reactor would work than to an atomic bomb.
1554:, near the end of World War II, French armed forces occupied Hechingen. Bopp did not get along with them and described the initial French policy objectives towards the KWIP as exploitation, forced evacuation to France, and seizure of documents and equipment. The French occupation policy was not qualitatively different from that of the American and Soviet occupation forces, it was just carried out on a smaller scale. In order to put pressure on Bopp to evacuate the KWIP to France, the French Naval Commission imprisoned him for five days and threatened him with further imprisonment if he did not cooperate in the evacuation. During his imprisonment, the
38:
5116:
83:
599:
1359:
Later that evening, the scientists were allowed to listen to a longer BBC announcement, which invited further debate. Throughout all of this, Heisenberg made arguments that it would take very large amounts of enriched uranium ("about a ton") to make such a weapon. In justifying his reasoning, he gave a brief explanation of how one would calculate the critical mass for an atomic bomb which contained serious errors.
1931:
1878:, which finished the work on this topic at Leipzig. Thereafter, despite increased expenditures, the Berlin groups and their extern branches did not succeed in getting a reactor critical until the end of World War II. However, this was realized by the Fermi group in December 1942, so that the German advantage was definitively lost, even with respect to research on energy production.
1945:
1267:
1170:
technologies, their personnel, and related materials to rival allies was a driving force of their efforts. This typically meant getting to these resources first, which to some extent put the
Soviets at a disadvantage in some geographic locations easily reached by the Western Allies, even if the area was destined to be in the Soviet zone of occupation by the
1129:: the study group under the direction of Prof. Dr. Ing. Herbert Wagner (1900–1982) searched for alternative sources of energy for airplanes and became interested in nuclear energy in 1940. In August 1941, they finished a detailed internal survey of the history and potential of technical nuclear physics and its applications (
1889:
Compared with the
British and American war research efforts united in the Manhattan Project, to this day the prime example of "big science," the Uranverein was only a loosely knit, decentralized network of researchers with quite different research agendas. Rather than teamwork as on the American end,
1414:
What the Farm Hall reports make transparently clear is that, while they knew a few general principles — the use of fast fission from separated U and the possibility of plutonium — they had not seriously investigated any of the details. All of the really hard problems were left untackled and
1358:
had announced the use of the atomic bomb after the attack on
Hiroshima. Reactions from the Germans varied; Hahn expressed guilt for his role in the discovery of nuclear fission, while many others, including Heisenberg, expressed incredulity at the report ("I don’t believe a word of the whole thing").
1831:
For the
Manhattan Project, the second condition was met on 9 October 1941 or shortly thereafter. Germany for a long time was thought to have fallen short of what was required to make an atomic bomb. Mutual distrust existed between the German government and some scientists. By the end of 1941, it was
1525:
dropped 1,506 tons of high-explosive and 178 tons of incendiary bombs on the plant. Riehl visited the site with the
Soviets and said that the facility was mostly destroyed. Riehl also recalled long after the war that the Soviets knew precisely why the Americans had bombed the facility—the attack had
1022:
Speer states that the project to develop the atom bomb was scuttled in the autumn of 1942. Though the scientific solution was there, it would have taken all of
Germany's production resources to produce a bomb, and then no sooner than 1947. Development did continue with a "uranium motor" for the navy
1003:
the
Minister of Science, Education and National Culture was ineffective and was not achieving its purpose. The hope was that Göring would manage the RFR with the same discipline and efficiency as he had the aviation sector. A meeting was held on 6 July 1942 to discuss the function of the RFR and set
578:
These three efforts, as noted, were independent and lasted until the fall of 1939, when the outbreak of World War II disrupted the work at Göttingen, and also prompted the HWA (Army
Ordnance) to take over the work from the Reich Research Council. After the fact, this early work was designated as the
663:
to make all preparations to be able to answer beyond doubt the question of whether generating nuclear energy was feasible. It would certainly be very nice if it were possible to acquire a new source of energy, it would also very probably have military importance; a negative answer would be just as
616:(RFR, Reich Research Council) of the Reich Education Ministry (REM), and ordered the RFR to halt all experiments and work on nuclear energy. Esau protested that the discovery of nuclear fission was too recent to warrant such an action, but was ignored. These actions were initiated by the physicist
250:
The program was split up among nine major institutes where the directors dominated research and set their own objectives. Subsequently, the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission began to diminish as many researchers applied their talents to more pressing wartime demands. The most
1905:
As a consequence of the foregoing, atomic energy development in
Germany did not pass beyond the laboratory stage; utilization for power production rather than for an explosive was the principal consideration; and, though German science was interested in this new field, other scientific objectives
711:
felt it was better that the whole thing should be dropped and the FĂĽhrer also reacted that way." He said they presented the matter in this way for their personal safety as the probability (of success) was nearly zero, but if many thousands (of) people developed nothing, that could have "extremely
971:
The point in 1942 when the army relinquished control of the project was its zenith in terms of the number of personnel devoted to the effort, and this was no more than about seventy scientists, with about forty devoting more than half their time to nuclear fission research. After this the number
1914:
are stark. The Manhattan Project consumed some US$ 2 billion (1945, ~US$ 27 billion in 2023 dollars) in government funds, and employed at its peak some 120,000 people, mostly in the sectors of construction and operations. In total the Manhattan Project involved the labor of some 500,000 people,
1278:
effort in Germany was the location, capture, and interrogation of German atomic scientists. This involved some significant effort as many of them had become scattered during the chaotic last weeks of the war in Europe. Ultimately, nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in
1169:
Near the end of World War II, the principal Allied war powers each made plans for exploitation of German science. In light of the implications of nuclear weapons, German nuclear fission and related technologies were singled out for special attention. In addition to exploitation, denial of these
1899:
The general plan of conducting the subject research in some respects followed a pattern employed in the United States. Research assignments were farmed out to many small groups, generally of some university or technical school, or to industrial firms specializing in one or more of the related
339:
chain reaction for a significant amount of time and to achieve the complete separation of at least tiny amounts of the uranium isotopes". The scholarly consensus is that it failed to achieve these goals, and that despite fears at the time, the Germans had never been close to producing nuclear
1389:
both offers up an explanation for their "failure" and also elevates their moral authority above the Allied scientists, despite the fact that they worked for the Nazis. In the postwar, several scientists, notably von Weizsäcker and Heisenberg, gave this version of the story to journalists and
1843:
As to condition four, the high priority allocated to the Manhattan Project allowed for the recruitment and concentration of capable scientists on the project. In Germany, on the other hand, a great many young scientists and technicians who would have been of great use to such a project were
1226:, which eventually became the French occupation zone. This move allowed the Americans to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research. The only section of the institute which remained in Berlin was the low-temperature physics section, headed by
571:, Riehl recognized the possibility of uranium production as a business opportunity for the company, and July 1939 contacted the Army Ordnance Office on the matter. Army Ordnance eventually provided an order for the production of uranium oxide, which took place in the Auer plant in
1894:
The Manhattan Project's Alsos investigation ultimately concluded in a classified report, on the basis of documents and materials confiscated from research sites in Germany, Austria, and France, as well as interrogation of over 40 personnel connected with the program, that:
1851:, a scientific Manhattan Project leader, had a "unique double aptitude for theoretical and experimental work" in the 20th century, the successes at Leipzig until 1942 resulted from the cooperation between the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg and the experimentalist
1181:, a broad dragnet that encompassed a wide range of advanced fields, including jet and rocket propulsion, nuclear physics, and other developments with military applications such as infrared technology. Operations directed specifically towards German nuclear fission were
1149:
was already under way in Norway when the Germans invaded on 9 April 1940. The Norwegian production facilities for heavy water were quickly secured (though some heavy water had already been removed) and improved by the Germans. The Allies and Norwegians had
1353:
Prior to the announcement of Hiroshima, the German scientists, though worried about the future, expressed confidence in their value to the Allies on the basis of their advanced knowledge of nuclear matters. The British then told the scientists that the
2202:
for the discovery and the radiochemical proof of nuclear fission. Some American historians have documented their view of the history of the discovery of nuclear fission and believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn. See
1505:, confirmed that the Oranienburg plant was involved in the production of uranium and thorium metals. Since the plant was to be in the future Soviet zone of occupation and the Red Army's troops would get there before the Western Allies, General
1568:, who had a better relationship with the French, persuaded the French to appoint him as Deputy Director of the KWIP. This incident caused tension between the physicists and spectroscopists at the KWIP and within its umbrella organization the
754:(uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). It was in effect broken up between institutes where the different directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas. The dominant personnel, facilities, and areas of research were:
1810:
The United States, British, and Canadian governments worked together to create the Manhattan Project that developed the uranium and plutonium atomic bombs. Its success has been attributed to meeting all four of the following conditions:
1832:
already apparent among German science and military elites that the German nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the German war effort in the near term, and control of the project was relinquished by the
3552:
1050:. Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. He was director of the Physics Department II at the Frederick William University (later, University of Berlin), which was commissioned and funded by the
1855:. Most important was their experimental proof of an effective neutron increase in April 1942. At the end of July of the same year, the group around Fermi also succeeded in the neutron increase within a reactor-like arrangement.
1792:, had Communist contacts. On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist, and they issued Ardenne a protective letter (
2161:. The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen.
1582:
At the close of World War II, the Soviet Union had special search teams operating in Austria and Germany, especially in Berlin, to identify and obtain equipment, material, intellectual property, and personnel useful to the
1004:
its agenda. The meeting was a turning point in Nazi attitudes towards science, as well as recognition that the policies which drove Jewish scientists out of Germany were a mistake, as the Reich needed their expertise.
1118:, in 1940. Von Ardenne had also conducted research on isotope separation. Taking Ewald's suggestion he began building a prototype for the RPM. The work was hampered by war shortages and ultimately ended by the war.
1346:. The legal authority for this, the legal status of the prisoners, and the ultimate intentions of the British were unclear to all involved, to the great discomfort of the scientists. The manor house was wired with
5078:
334:
Developments took place in several phases, but in the words of historian Mark Walker, it ultimately became "frozen at the laboratory level" with the "modest goal" to "build a nuclear reactor which could sustain a
727:
When it was apparent that the nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the war in the near term, control of the KWIP was returned in January 1942 to its umbrella organization, the
1104:. He financed the laboratory with income he received from his inventions and from contracts with other concerns. For example, his research on nuclear physics and high-frequency technology was financed by the
1201:
Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the later years of the war.
537:
wrote a letter on 24 April 1939 to Army Ordnance which also mentioned the military application of nuclear chain reactions. Harteck would not receive a reply until August 1939, however, as part of the second
1350:, and conversations between the German scientists were monitored and translated into English. It is unclear whether the scientists were aware, or whether they suspected, that they were being monitored.
703:
Heisenberg said in 1939 that the physicists at the (second) meeting said that "in principle atomic bombs could be made.... it would take years.... not before five." He said, "I didn't report it to the
1373:
At Farm Hall, the German scientists discussed why Germany did not create an atomic bomb, and the United States and United Kingdom did. The transcripts reveal them developing what has been called the
331:
demands for more manpower (many scientists and technical personnel were conscripted, despite possessing technical and engineering skills), substantially reduced the number of able German physicists.
1335:, the chief scientific advisor to Operation Alsos, thought von Laue might be beneficial to the postwar rebuilding of Germany and would benefit from the high level contacts he would have in England.
1133:, signed by Herbert Wagner and Hugo Watzlawek (1912–1995) in Berlin. Their application to the Aviation Ministry (RLM) to found and fund an Institute for Nuclear Technology and Nuclear Chemistry (
273:. Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear-fission research than did
5807:
1415:
unsolved. ... They had decided that making a bomb in wartime Germany was unfeasible on technical and economic grounds. It was simply too big and too costly. Morality had nothing to do with it.
3752:
5028:
1054:(OKH, Army High Command) to conduct physics research projects. He was also head of the research department of the HWA, assistant secretary of the Science Department of the OKW, and
5691:
972:
diminished dramatically, and many of those not working with the main institutes stopped working on nuclear fission and devoted their efforts to more pressing war related work.
5704:
1131:Übersicht und Darstellung der historischen Entwicklung der modernen technischen Kernphysik und deren Anwendungsmöglichkeit sowie Zusammenfassung eigener Arbeitsziele und Pläne
1497:
Work of the American Operation Alsos teams, in November 1944, uncovered leads which took them to a company in Paris that handled rare earths and had been taken over by the
5404:
612:
In August 1939, just before the German invasion of Poland precipitated the formal start of World War II, the Army Ordnance Office (HWA) moved to take over the work of the
5765:
5755:
395:. Their article was published on 6 January 1939. On 19 December 1938, eighteen days before the publication, Otto Hahn communicated these results and his conclusion of a
3147:
707:
until two weeks later and very casually because I did not want the FĂĽhrer to get so interested that he would order great efforts immediately to make the atomic bomb.
5519:
1249:
1475:. Adding to the capabilities in the final stages of metallic uranium production were the strengths of the Degussa corporation's capabilities in metals production.
5535:
4972:
1189:, the latter being done in collaboration with the British. In lieu of the codename for the Soviet operation, it is referred to by the historian Oleynikov as the
1919:
was budgeted a mere 8 million reichsmarks, equivalent to about US$ 2 million (1945,~US$ 27 million in 2023 dollars) – a thousandth of the American expenditure.
1788:), who all had made a pact that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of the
1362:
The transcripts were declassified in 1992, and this particular section of discussion was subjected to expert scrutiny. Two scientists on the Manhattan Project,
1240:
American Alsos teams carrying out Operation BIG raced through Baden-WĂĽrttemberg near the war's end in 1945, uncovering, collecting, and selectively destroying
3774:
4309:(2001). "The Conceptual Completion and Extensions of Quantum Mechanics 1932–1941. Epilogue: Aspects of the Further Development of Quantum Theory 1942–1999".
2238:, p. 363-4 and Appendix F; see the entries for Esau, Harteck and Joos. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B.
987:; after late 1943 the Reich Ministry for Armament and War Production), decided on its continuation merely for the aim of energy production. On 9 June 1942,
516:(Nuclear Physics Association). This initial work at Göttingen lasted until the fall of 1939, when Joos and Hanle were drafted into other military research.
5874:
5660:
5021:
1723:
1058:(plenipotentiary) for high explosives. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear fission research than did
5571:
2405:, pp. 363–4 and Appendix F; see the entries for Diebner and Döpel. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B.
1096:
In 1928, von Ardenne had come into his inheritance with full control as to how it could be spent, and he established his private research laboratory the
980:
5737:
2182:
5730:
5696:
5090:
5056:
770:
5854:
5844:
5790:
5297:
1728:
1248:. These were all shipped to the US for study and utilization in the US atomic program. Although many of these materials remain unaccounted for, the
5615:
5352:
1958:
5849:
5397:
5014:
1828:
Even with all four of these conditions in place the Manhattan Project succeeded only after the war in Europe had been brought to a conclusion.
792:
327:
heritage who did not leave were quickly purged, further thinning the ranks of researchers. The politicization of the universities, along with
2025:
1385:
not to build a bomb for Hitler, either by dragging their feet, being insufficiently enthusiastic, or, in some versions, active sabotage. The
5723:
2453:, See the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entries for the HWA and the RFR in Appendix B. Also see p. 372 and footnote 50 on p. 372.
5665:
5083:
1624:
1517:
that the plant be destroyed by aerial bombardment, in order to deny its uranium production equipment to the Soviets. On 15 March 1945, 612
700:, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced.
5550:
1844:
conscripted into the German armed forces, while others had fled the country before the war due to antisemitism and political persecution.
3046:
233:. Eventually, the German military determined that nuclear fission would not contribute significantly to the war, and in January 1942 the
5869:
4318:
3675:
3270:, pp. 369 and 373, Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl and Kurt Diebner), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft).
1019:. In the final analysis, placing the RFR under Göring's administrative control had little effect on the German nuclear weapon project.
5061:
4437:
3824:
3650:
2749:
843:
4797:
5864:
5670:
5540:
5390:
4711:
4581:
4194:
4125:
3994:
3846:
3727:
3073:
2641:
2321:
Siegfried Flügge: Exploiting Atomic Energy. From the Laboratory Experiment to the Uranium Machine – Research Results in Dahlem
738:). HWA control of the project was subsequently passed to the RFR in July 1942. The nuclear weapon project thereafter maintained its
1157:
Graphite (carbon) as an alternative was not considered, because the neutron absorption coefficient value for carbon calculated by
5566:
5066:
4538:
4519:
4356:
4292:
3935:
1963:
1871:
1785:
1773:
1636:
1320:
693:
685:
4452:"From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry (Ergebnisse 24)"
991:
issued a decree for the reorganization of the RFR as a separate legal entity under the RMBM; the decree appointed Reich Marshal
4688:
Volume 54, Issue 4, 14ff (2001), individual letters by Klaus Gottstein, Harry J. Lipkin, Donald C. Sachs, and David C. Cassidy.
5824:
5586:
5334:
5095:
5037:
1151:
5115:
37:
19:
This article is about German nuclear research during World War II. For nuclear power decommissioning in modern Germany, see
4955:
5675:
5610:
5147:
1628:
2498:
648:
493:
364:
323:
régime of 1933–1945 had driven many physicists, engineers, and mathematicians out of Germany as early as 1933. Those of
215:
began on September 1, 1939, the day of the invasion of Poland. The program eventually expanded into three main efforts:
186:
5422:
3459:
Keinerlei Untergang: German Armaments Engineers during the Second World War and in the Service of the Victorious Powers
5802:
5785:
5514:
5137:
4991:
4973:(June 2008) Annotated bibliography on the German atomic bomb project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues
3699:
Der experimentelle Nachweis der effektiven Neutronenvermehrung in einem Kugel-Schichten-System aus D2O und Uran-Metall
3244:
1670:
730:
456:
51:
2742:
Erinnerungen, fortgeschrieben. Ein Forscherleben im Jahrhudert des Wandels der Wissenschaften und politischen Systeme
2109:Ăśber den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle
5760:
5477:
5462:
5457:
4200:
Hoffmann, Dieter (2005). "Between Autonomy and Accommodation: The German Physical Society during the Third Reich".
1741:
1733:
1707:
1651:
1584:
1034:
Over time, the HWA and then the RFR controlled the German nuclear weapon project. The most influential people were
916:
505:
432:
344:
competed with each other to obtain surviving components of the German nuclear industry (personnel, facilities, and
4944:
Volume 8, Number 2, 116–163 (2006). Mark Walker is Professor of History at Union College in Schenectady, New York.
4399:
The author has been a group leader at the Institute of Technical Physics of the Russian Federal Nuclear Center in
3770:
1490:(Army Ordnance Office) in Gottow. The G-1 experiment performed at the HWA testing station, under the direction of
464:, a physicist at the Reich Research Council of the REM, organized a meeting for what become informally known as a
4994:
2681:
2199:
1950:
1604:
2113:
On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons
1619:
had arrived earlier, although Kikoin did not recall a vanguard group. Targets on the top of their list were the
1244:
elements, including capturing a prototype reactor at Haigerloch and records, heavy water, and uranium ingots at
5859:
5633:
2313:
Die Ausnutzung der Atomenergie. Vom Laboratoriumsversuch zur Uranmaschine – Forschungsergebnisse in Dahlem
1890:
on the German side we find cut-throat competition, personal rivalries, and fighting over the limited resources.
1570:
742:(war importance) designation, and funding continued from the military, but it was then split into the areas of
3720:
Reaktorunfälle und die Handlungen der Feuerwehr: Leipzig, Tschernobyl und Fukushima – eine erste Analyse.
4550:"Eine Waffenschmiede? Kernwaffen- und Reaktorforschung am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fĂĽr Physik (Ergebnisse 26)"
5472:
5467:
5164:
3214:, p. 369 Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft).
2978:
United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services – The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany
2555:
2501:"Geheimdokumente zu den Forschungszentren": Gottow, Hamburg, Berlin, Leipzig und Wien, Heidelberg, StraĂźburg
2299:
2179:
1756:(Reich Postal Ministry), was also sent to the Soviet Union to work on their atomic bomb project, along with
1347:
379:
20:
5142:
5073:
341:
124:
4240:
Werner Heisenberg and the German Uranium Project / Otto Hahn and the Declarations of Mainau and Göttingen
3608:
1338:
The ten scientists were secretly relocated and kept confined and incommunicado with the broader world in
5623:
5485:
5357:
5169:
5105:
5100:
4730:
Document 95. Werner Heisenberg. The Theoretical Basis for the Generation of Energy from Uranium Fission
4048:
1781:
1752:
1632:
1106:
887:
869:
524:
1603:
officer's uniforms, from the bomb project's only laboratory, Laboratory No. 2, in Moscow, and included
460:(REM, Reich Ministry of Education), of potential military and economic applications of nuclear energy.
4963:
3702:
1227:
5628:
5591:
4640:
4596:
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4209:
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3894:
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3240:
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2855:
2066:
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in Southern Germany due to air raids on Berlin, and became the Institute's Deputy Director. When the
1518:
1015:(plenipotentiary) for nuclear physics research under the RFR; in December 1943, Esau was replaced by
956:
854:
1655:
312:
research in December 1942, and was succeeded by Walther Gerlach after he resigned in December 1943.
5796:
5319:
5276:
4628:
4106:
Document 115. Werner Heisenberg: Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy
2737:
1973:
1747:
1740:(Department of Experimental Genetics). All four eventually worked for Riehl in the Soviet Union at
1402:). Most professional historians of science who have worked on this subject do not believe that the
1178:
1114:. Von Ardenne attracted top-notch personnel to work in his facility, such as the nuclear physicist
1101:
1090:
632:
560:
242:
189:
in Berlin in December 1938, but ended only a few months later, shortly ahead of the September 1939
2339:, p. 369, Appendix F, see the entry for Riehl, and Appendix D, see the entry for Auergesellschaft.
5812:
5051:
4549:
4498:
4462:
4451:
4390:
4247:
4225:
4022:
3956:
Crawford, Elisabeth; Sime, Ruth Lewin; Walker, Mark (1997). "A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice".
3034:
2090:
1910:
In terms of financial and human resources, the comparisons between the Manhattan Project and the
1596:
1171:
1086:
797:
735:
509:
404:
230:
190:
142:
3591:
2772:; the original typescript is available in the online-Archive of the Deutsches Museum MĂĽnchen at
2158:
1494:, had lattices of 6,800 uranium oxide cubes (about 25 tons), in the nuclear moderator paraffin.
1161:
was too high, probably due to the boron in the graphite pieces having high neutron absorption.
5324:
5246:
5200:
5190:
4707:
4577:
4534:
4515:
4433:
4352:
4314:
4306:
4288:
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4174:
4121:
4104:
Volume 160, Number 4059, 211–15 (16 August 1947). See also the annotated English translation:
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3990:
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3820:
3723:
3706:
3682:
3671:
3646:
3026:
2825:
2745:
2637:
2082:
2021:
1805:
1711:
1706:
Zimmer's path to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project was through a prisoner of war camp in
1510:
1429:
1312:
1288:
1261:
1186:
1126:
1111:
1009:
992:
883:
681:
598:
301:
290:
4145:
werden – Zu einem bislang unbekannten Typoskript vom Oktober 1944 (Inneratomic Energy as the
3718:
This was the first accident that disrupted a nuclear energy assembly; cf. Reinhard Steffler,
3376:
For information on the American and Russian exploitation of Germany after World War II, see:
2796:
werden – Zu einem bislang unbekannten Typoskript vom Oktober 1944 (Inneratomic Energy as the
1100:, in Berlin-Lichterfelde, to conduct his own research on radio and television technology and
403:, who had fled Germany in July to the Netherlands and then to Sweden. Meitner and her nephew
5580:
5363:
5339:
5281:
5158:
4892:
second expanded edition, (Barth, 1939) 133–151. See also the annotated English translation:
4648:
4604:
4490:
4382:
4271:
4217:
4164:
4083:
4014:
3973:
3902:
3873:
3834:
3705:. Published 1946 in: Heisenberg, W., Collected Works Vol. A II (Eds. W. Blum, H.-P DĂĽrr and
3166:
3016:
2863:
2815:
2074:
1993:
1715:
1699:
1690:
1563:
1522:
1467:
1462:
1407:
1115:
1078:
934:
555:
481:
374:
150:
1125:
and von Ardenne's team in Berlin-Lichterfelde, there was also a small research team in the
563:, on the technical use of nuclear energy from uranium. As Auer had a substantial amount of
5314:
5251:
5152:
5132:
4759:
Zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung: Die deutsche physikalische Gesellschaft im dritten Reich
4574:
Die Spezialisten: Deutsche Naturwissenschaftler und Techniker in der Sowjetunion nach 1945
4470:
4447:
4425:
4344:
2186:
1882:
1612:
1592:
1547:
1514:
1394:, who reprinted and amplified it uncritically in the 1950s. At that time, accuracy of the
1332:
1316:
1300:
1275:
1182:
1043:
1016:
912:
895:
848:
697:
664:
important, since we could be sure that the enemy would also not be able to make use of it.
529:
447:
439:
412:
336:
309:
305:
296:
266:
222:
146:
5291:
2699:
1852:
1666:
1232:
677:
473:
4644:
4600:
4486:
4256:
4213:
3969:
3898:
3869:
3012:
2859:
2070:
1287:
were picked up by the Alsos team and incarcerated in England as part of what was called
5271:
5256:
5205:
4931:
Historia Scientiarum; International Journal for the History of Science Society of Japan
4841:
4809:
4340:
4328:
3694:
2773:
1936:
1859:
1682:
1616:
1555:
1535:
1458:
1423:
has been perpetuated in many popular accounts of the German atomic program, notably in
1214:(KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to
1047:
930:
652:
550:
270:
4587:
Bernstein, Jeremy; Cassidy, David (1995). "Bomb Apologetics: Farm Hall, August 1945".
4557:
Research Program "History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in the National Socialist Era"
4459:
Research Program "History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in the National Socialist Era"
4275:
3753:"Manhattan District History, Book 1, Volume 14, Foreign Intelligence Supplement No. 1"
2119:
Volume 27, Number 1, 11–15 (1939). The authors were identified as associated with the
1501:. This, combined with information gathered in the same month through an Alsos team in
415:" – a term coined by Frisch. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939.
5838:
5329:
5261:
5231:
5226:
4502:
4394:
4302:
4229:
4063:
3038:
2094:
2054:
1968:
1660:
1588:
1506:
1442:
1424:
1363:
1343:
1190:
1158:
1089:, which was thought applicable to U production and enrichment. This was picked up by
1063:
1059:
1000:
948:
788:
758:
673:
656:
628:
534:
489:
485:
469:
428:
278:
274:
4765:
4238:
559:(usually known as just "Auer"), a German industrial firm, read a June 1939 paper by
5452:
5429:
5370:
5286:
5266:
5241:
5221:
5195:
5185:
4706:. (1967 interviews with Werner Heisenberg and Paul Harteck). Westport CT: Meckler.
3236:
1848:
1757:
1647:
1608:
1491:
1391:
1328:
1308:
1296:
1223:
1067:
1039:
1035:
1005:
996:
988:
976:
865:
812:
717:
708:
644:
617:
520:
461:
400:
286:
262:
258:
154:
138:
88:
43:
4985:
4696:
4036:
Science, Technology, and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany
1174:. At times, all parties were heavy-handed in their pursuit and denial to others.
383:("Natural Sciences") reporting that they had detected and identified the element
4739:
Heisenberg, Werner, introduction by David Cassidy, translation by William Sweet
3812:
3638:
3252:
2374:
2372:
2319:
No. 387, Supplement (15 August 1939). English translation: Document No. 74
1686:
1678:
1472:
1292:
1146:
801:
747:
636:
621:
572:
501:
477:
226:
4169:
4136:
2820:
2787:
1772:(KWIPC, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry and Electrochemistry, today the
995:
as its president. The reorganization was done under the initiative of Minister
915: – Director of the Second Experimental Physics Institute at the
4832:
4494:
4386:
4333:
The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949
4221:
4005:
Gimbel, John (1986). "U.S. Policy and German Scientists: The Early Cold War".
3928:
Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich
3248:
2843:
2078:
1926:
1815:
A strong initial drive, by a small group of scientists, to launch the project.
1789:
1777:
1674:
1551:
1502:
1367:
1324:
1245:
1219:
1028:
857:, fission products, isotope separation, and measurement of nuclear constants.
774:
497:
451:
349:
54:) being disassembled by American and British soldiers and others in April 1945
47:
5106:
Universität Leipzig, Institute for Physics; Institute for Theoretical Physics
4660:
Cassidy, David C. (1992). "Heisenberg, German Science, and the Third Reich".
4088:
4071:
3030:
2086:
5545:
5437:
5413:
5236:
4829:
German Historical Institute Washington, D.C., Occasional Paper No. 14 (1995)
4400:
2172:
Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment
1543:
1465:, set up an industrial-scale production of high-purity uranium oxide at the
1339:
1304:
1215:
1024:
834:
640:
624:. In September 1939, Diebner organized a meeting in Berlin on 16 September.
370:
328:
282:
210:
196:
119:
4367:
4178:
2829:
1703:
on reactor-grade uranium production and was also sent to the Soviet Union.
1542:. In 1944, he went with most of the KWIP staff when they were evacuated to
1266:
886: – Director of the Department of Theoretical Physics at the
704:
504:
was invited, but he did not attend. After this, informal work began at the
4722:
Die theoretischen Grundlagen fĂĽr die Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung
3643:
Serving the Reich : the struggle for the soul of physics under Hitler
791: – Director of the Institute for Physical Chemistry at the
820:
606:
392:
345:
316:
4728:, Volume 9, 201–212 (1943). See also the annotated English translation:
4151:
Master of the World – On a Hitherto Unknown Typescript from October 1944
2802:
Master of the World – On a Hitherto Unknown Typescript from October 1944
2671:, Appendix F; see the entry for Schumann. Also see footnote 1 on p. 207.
2053:
Grasso, Giacomo; Oppici, Carlo; Rocchi, Federico; Sumini, Marco (2009).
1252:
displayed a cube of uranium attained from this mission from March 2020.
4998:
4813:
Hitlers Bombe. Die geheime Geschichte der deutschen Kernwaffenversuche.
4026:
1761:
868: – Director of the Physical Chemistry Department of the
743:
668:
This group, like the one before it, referred to itself informally as a
564:
436:
388:
4868:
Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture
4652:
4157:
NTM Zeitschrift fĂĽr Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin
3946:
3906:
3877:
3021:
2996:
2867:
2808:
NTM Zeitschrift fĂĽr Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin
2685:
2296:
Kann der Energieinhalt der Atomkerne technisch nutzbar gemacht werden?
1992:
Due to the surrender of Germany. The program effort ceased due to the
841:(KWIC, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, after World War II the
769:(KWImF, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, after 1948 the
340:
weapons. With the war in Europe ending in the spring of 1945, various
5509:
4608:
3977:
2151:
Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction
1875:
720:
asked how long America would take and was told 1944 though the group
712:
disagreeable consequences for us." So we turned the slogan around to
568:
384:
324:
320:
4018:
3817:
Serving the Reich: the struggle for the soul of physics under Hitler
3536:
Danger and survival: Choices about the bomb in the first fifty years
1915:
nearly 1% of the entire US civilian labor force. By comparison, the
1478:
The Oranienburg plant provided the uranium sheets and cubes for the
1027:. However, by the summer of 1943, Speer released the remaining 1200
692:(KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, after World War II the
427:
On 22 April 1939, after hearing a colloquium paper by his colleague
4870:(California, 1998). For a critical review of this book, please see
4862:
4512:
German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949
4351:. American Chemical Society and the Chemical Heritage Foundations.
2558:
account and interpretation of the role of the RFR in Document 111:
823:, Thuringia; he was also an advisor to the HWA on nuclear physics.
819:(testing station) in Gottow and of the RFR experimental station in
4752:
The Mental Aftermath: The Mentality of German Physicists 1945–1949
4098:
Research in Germany on the Technical Applications of Atomic Energy
3553:"Radioactive find points to 'success' of Nazi atomic bomb program"
2055:"A Neutronics Study of the 1945 Haigerloch B-VIII Nuclear Reactor"
1770:
Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut fĂĽr physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie
1265:
844:
Max Planck Institut fĂĽr Chemie – Otto Hahn Institut
597:
4473:(2006). "The Politics of Memory: Otto Hahn and the Third Reich".
4349:
Stalin's Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb
1331:, although he had nothing to do with the nuclear weapon project.
975:
On 4 June 1942, a conference regarding the project, initiated by
583:, with the HWA's reorganized project being designated the second
193:, for which many notable German physicists were drafted into the
185:). The first effort started in April 1939, just months after the
2719:, Appendix F; see entry for Ardenne. Also see the entry for the
1600:
352:
5386:
5010:
5006:
4572:
Albrecht, Ulrich, Andreas Heinemann-GrĂĽder, and Arend Wellmann
4118:
Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources
2735:, pp. 83–84, 170, 183, and Reference n. 85 on p. 247. See also
1824:
A concentration of brilliant scientists devoted to the project.
399:
of the uranium nucleus in a letter to his colleague and friend
3856:
Bernstein, Jeremy (2002). "Heisenberg and the critical mass".
3580:. I. Physikalisches Institut, Justus-Liebig-Universität, 1989.
2521:
2519:
1818:
Unconditional government support from a certain point in time.
1355:
1031:
of uranium stock for the production of solid-core ammunition.
4966:
Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting
4958:
Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting
4763:
Max-Planck-Institut fĂĽr Wissenschafts Geschichte Preprint 192
1410:
put it in an annotated edition of the Farm Hall transcripts:
5382:
5114:
4879:
Heisenberg, Hitler und die Bombe. Gespraeche mit Zeitzeugen.
1599:. These teams were composed of scientific staff members, in
904:, isotope separation, and measurement of nuclear constants.
4285:
Surviving the Swastika: Scientific Research in Nazi Germany
2347:
2345:
1760:, Nobel laureate and director of Research Laboratory II at
1398:
was challenged forcefully by von Laue (who coined the term
962:
Transuranic elements and measurement of nuclear constants.
3256:
Bericht ĂĽber einen WĂĽrfelversuch mit Uranoxyd und Paraffin
2278:
2276:
567:
on hand as a waste product from the process of extracting
201:. A second effort under the administrative purview of the
3839:
Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall
2577:
Record of Conference Regarding the Reich Research Council
672:. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included
1821:
Essentially unlimited manpower and industrial resources.
533:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office), and his teaching assistant
4894:
Document 75. Erich Schumann: Armed Forces and Research
4794:
Peter Debye: "A Typical Scientist in an Untypical Time"
4409:
Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb
1538:
was a staff scientist at the KWIP, and worked with the
523:, director of the physical chemistry department at the
239:
turned the program over to the Reich Research Council (
4001:(1967 interviews with Heisenberg, Harteck and others).
3948:
Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg
3915:
by Klaus Gottstein and a reply by Jeremy Bernstein in
3329:
Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project
2636:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 314–20.
2263:
2261:
1780:, director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the
1237:, who was in charge of the experimental uranium pile.
5101:
Universität Hamburg, Department of Physical Chemistry
4531:
Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb
1177:
The best known US denial and exploitation effort was
890:
until summer 1942; thereafter acting director of the
734:(KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, after World War II the
180:
166:
5079:
Institute for Physics Chemistry and Electrochemistry
4772:
The German Physical Society Under National Socialism
3703:
Forschungszentren/Leipzig/Neutronenvermehrung (1942)
2774:
https://digital.deutsches-museum.de/item/FA-002-752/
512:. Formally the group of physicists was known as the
5778:
5748:
5716:
5684:
5649:
5603:
5559:
5528:
5502:
5495:
5445:
5307:
5214:
5178:
5125:
5044:
4264:
Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics
2607:, Appendix F; see the entries for Esau and Gerlach.
724:thought it would take longer, three or four years.
454:, along with Hanle, notified Wilhelm Dames, at the
112:
95:
75:
67:
59:
30:
4897:
4733:
4559:. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science.
4116:Hentschel, Klaus; Hentschel, Ann M., eds. (1996).
4109:
3885:Bernstein, Jeremy (2004). "Heisenberg in Poland".
3795:
3771:"How many people worked on the Manhattan Project?"
3739:
3474:
3340:
3267:
3211:
2716:
2668:
2604:
2580:
2563:
2542:
2450:
2402:
2378:
2336:
2324:
2235:
2212:
1858:In June 1942, some six months before the American
767:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut fĂĽr medizinische Forschung
468:(Uranium Club). The group included the physicists
4072:"1982: Jubiläumsjahr der Kernspaltungs¬forschung"
2539:The FĂĽhrer's Decree on the Reich Research Council
4368:"German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project"
3668:The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer
1627:), the Frederick William University (today, the
1250:National Museum of Nuclear Science & History
750:production, uranium isotope separation, and the
377:sent a manuscript to the German science journal
141:undertook several research programs relating to
4916:Heisenberg, Goudsmit and the German Atomic Bomb
4463:Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
4248:Max Planck Institute for the History of Science
3462:
2525:
2267:
2248:
2246:
2244:
1774:Fritz Haber Institute of the Max-Planck Society
1750:, who had worked on isotope separation for the
1526:been directed at them rather than the Germans.
1412:
999:of the RMBM; it was necessary as the RFR under
875:Heavy water production and isotope production.
661:
4120:. Translated by Hentschel, Ann M. Birkhäuser.
3047:"Lost Nuclear Material Resurfaces In Maryland"
2302:Volume 27, Issues 23/24, 402–10 (9 June 1939).
1885:summarizes the organizational differences as:
1135:Reichsinstituts fĂĽr Kerntechnik und Kernchemie
771:Max-Planck-Institut fĂĽr medizinische Forschung
5808:German persecution of Soviet prisoners of war
5398:
5022:
4852:Lise Meitner: Ein Leben fuer die Wissenschaft
4726:Zeitschrift fĂĽr die gesamte Naturwissenschaft
2684:. sachsen.de. 20 January 2006. Archived from
2018:Technology transfer out of Germany after 1945
1154:and destroyed stocks of heavy water by 1943.
985:Reichsministerium fĂĽr Bewaffnung und Munition
933: – Scientific Director of the
877:5 physical chemists, physicists, and chemists
620:, an advisor to the HWA, in association with
553:, the head of the scientific headquarters at
8:
4979:Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age
4859:Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age
4420:(first paperback ed.). Cambridge Press.
4311:The Historical Development of Quantum Theory
3593:Robert Döpel and his Model of Global Warming
2627:
2625:
1840:(RFR, Reich Research Council) in July 1942.
1093:, who ran a private research establishment.
659:. Its purpose, as Bagge later recalled, was
294:
252:
240:
234:
216:
208:
202:
194:
172:
158:
4802:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker (editors)
3722:Elbe-Dnjepr-Verlag Leipzig-Mockrehna 2011.
3100:, pp. 268–74 and Reference n. 40 on p. 262.
3074:"Dark Cube: Heisenberg's Race for the Bomb"
2123:, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938.
1866:for the first time anywhere, Döpel's L-IV "
1724:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research
1098:Forschungslaboratorium fĂĽr Elektronenphysik
894:(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics), in
5653:
5499:
5405:
5391:
5383:
5029:
5015:
5007:
4704:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945
4693:Werner Heisenberg: controversial scientist
4418:Science, Technology and National Socialism
4187:Otto Hahn – Achievement and Responsibility
3987:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945
3433:
3409:
3303:
3223:
2351:
1482:experiments conducted at the KWIP and the
1152:sabotaged Norwegian heavy water production
981:Reich Ministry for Armament and Ammunition
411:and correctly interpreted the results as "
4804:Physiker zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung
4416:Renneberg, Monika; Walker, Mark (2002) .
4168:
4087:
3522:
3486:
3477:, Appendix F; see the entry for Thiessen.
3445:
3397:
3364:
3279:
3199:
3187:
3133:
3121:
3109:
3020:
2964:
2940:
2928:
2819:
2390:
1720:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut fĂĽr Hirnforschung
247:) while continuing to fund the activity.
5791:German military brothels in World War II
4938:Otto Hahn: Responsibility and Repression
4871:
4747:Volume 48, Issue 8, Part I, 27–30 (1995)
4741:A Lecture on Bomb Physics: February 1942
4680:Volume 53, Issue 7, 28 (2000). See also
3819:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3645:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
3539:
3510:
3498:
2997:"Tracking the journey of a uranium cube"
2995:Koeth, Timothy; Hiebert, Miriam (2019).
2904:
2592:
2252:
2016:Judt, Matthias; Burghard Ciesla (1996).
1587:. The exploitation teams were under the
1433:, which itself was based heavily on the
1406:is true. As the historian and physicist
1110:(RPM, Reich Postal Ministry), headed by
5353:Germany and weapons of mass destruction
4682:Heisenberg's Message to Bohr: Who Knows
3421:
3377:
3291:
2952:
2916:
2008:
1985:
1959:Germany and weapons of mass destruction
716:not "make use of physics for warfare."
4674:A Historical Perspective on Copenhagen
3989:. Westport, CT & London: Meckler.
3385:
3381:
3352:
3315:
3258:G-125 (dated before 26 November 1942).
3097:
2892:
2880:
2846:(2000). "The German Uranium Project".
2732:
2656:
2616:
2513:, p. 52 and Reference n. 40 on p. 262.
2510:
2474:
2462:
2438:
2426:
2414:
2363:
2282:
2189:. The paper is dated 17 January 1939.
2040:
1874:by a chemical explosion introduced by
964:ca. 6 physicists and physical chemists
942:ca. 3 physicists and physical chemists
906:ca. 7 physicists and physical chemists
815: – Director of the HWA
806:ca. 4 physical chemists and physicists
793:Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich
627:The invitees to this meeting included
27:
4933:, Volume 14, Number 3, 164–181 (2005)
4905:National Socialism and German Physics
4617:What We Know About Nazism and Science
3769:Wellerstein, Alex (1 November 2013).
3343:, Appendix F; see the entry for Bopp.
2700:"Manfred Baron von Ardenne 1907–1997"
1729:Max-Planck-Institut fĂĽr Hirnforschung
7:
4861:(e-Book, Plunkett Lake Press, 2015)
4827:The Germans and the Nuclear Question
4818:Karlsch, Rainer and Heiko Petermann
4796:Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft
3235:F. Berkei, W. Borrmann, W. Czulius,
3168:Heisenberg, Bohr and the atomic bomb
3148:"Darum hatte Hitler keine Atombombe"
2682:"Zur Ehrung von Manfred von Ardenne"
2486:
2223:
2208:
2204:
2140:Volume 58, Number 3, 263–267 (1990).
1906:received greater official attention.
1738:Abteilung fĂĽr Experimentelle Genetik
1642:German physicists who worked on the
1625:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics
1437:-endorsing work of popular history,
1281:Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte
1008:was appointed on 8 December 1942 as
917:Georg-August University of Göttingen
508:by Joos, Hanle, and their colleague
506:Georg-August University of Göttingen
5148:Ministry for Armament and Munitions
5003:(originally aired 8 November 2005).
4623:Volume 59, Number 3, 615–641 (1992)
3331:(De Capo, 1962) pp. 220–22, 230–31.
2768:Lehrbuch der technischen Kernphysik
2178:, Volume 143, Number 3616, 276–276
2157:, Volume 143, Number 3615, 239–240
1836:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office) to the
1800:Comparison to the Manhattan Project
1377:("version"). The basic version the
1210:Unfortunately for the Soviets, the
348:), as they did with the pioneering
5875:Abandoned projects of Nazi Germany
4981:(Birkhauser/Springer Verlag, 1999)
4432:. University of California Press.
4059:(Herder and Herder, New York 1970)
3538:(Random House, 1988), as cited in
3367:, p. 212 and footnote 5 on p. 212.
2134:Lise Meitner's Escape from Germany
2121:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fĂĽr Chemie
1621:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut fĂĽr Physik
1381:argued that the German scientists
1212:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fĂĽr Physik
1165:Exploitation and denial strategies
955:(Second Physics Institute) at the
951: – Director of the
892:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fĂĽr Physik
839:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut fĂĽr Chemie
837: – Director of the
826:Measurement of nuclear constants.
780:Measurement of nuclear constants.
761: – Director of the
690:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut fĂĽr Physik
514:Arbeitsgemeinschaft fĂĽr Kernphysik
14:
5671:Flag officers of the Kriegsmarine
5661:Foreign volunteers and conscripts
5551:General der Nachrichtenaufklärung
4792:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker
4781:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker
4770:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker
3777:from the original on 21 July 2019
3758:. 8 November 1948. p. S4.48.
3709:, Berlin etc. (1989), pp. 536–44.
3136:, pp. 129–131, 171, 191–207.
1087:electromagnetic isotope separator
407:confirmed Hahn's conclusion of a
369:In December 1938, German chemist
4922:Volume 43, Issue 1, 52–60 (1990)
4789:Volume 5, Number 3, 53–58 (2006)
4783:Zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung
4141:: Mit inneratomarer Energie zum
3146:Popp, Manfred (4 January 2017).
2792:: Mit inneratomarer Energie zum
2213:Crawford, Sime & Walker 1997
1964:Japanese nuclear weapons program
1943:
1929:
1710:, as was that of his colleagues
1597:Colonel General A. P. Zavenyagin
1550:Mission evacuated Hechingen and
1256:Operation Epsilon, and Farm Hall
694:Max Planck Institute for Physics
545:Also independently of the first
81:
36:
5855:World War II weapons of Germany
5845:Nuclear program of Nazi Germany
4909:Journal of Contemporary Physics
4702:Ermenc, Joseph J., ed. (1989).
4430:Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics
2704:Lemo – Lebendiges Museum Online
2270:, Volume 6, Part 2, pp. 1010–1.
765:(Institute for Physics) at the
714:make use of warfare for physics
5096:Kirchhoff Institute of Physics
5057:Institute for Medical Research
4956:(February 2002) Aaserud, Finn
4927:German Work on Nuclear Weapons
4898:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
4888:in Richard Donnevert (editor)
4734:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
4257:"Getting even with Heisenberg"
4255:Landsman, Nicolaas P. (2002).
4110:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
3985:Ermenc, Joseph J, ed. (1989).
3796:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
3740:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
3475:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
3341:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
3268:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
3212:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2717:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2669:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2605:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2581:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2564:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2543:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2451:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2403:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2379:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2337:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2325:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2236:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996
2149:Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch
519:Independently of this effort,
157:. These were variously called
1:
5850:Nuclear technology in Germany
5676:Luftwaffe personnel structure
4854:(DĂĽsseldorf: Claassen, 1990).
4845:The Making of the Atomic Bomb
4820:FĂĽr und wider "Hitlers Bombe"
4276:10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00015-1
3670:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
1786:Technische Universität Berlin
1637:Technische Universität Berlin
1457:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office),
1321:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker
859:ca. 6 chemists and physicists
686:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker
4629:"The German Uranium Project"
4627:Bethe, Hans A. (July 2000).
4366:Oleynikov, Pavel V. (2000).
1693:, while not a member of the
1609:Isaak Konstantinovich Kikoin
1218:and its neighboring town of
1023:and development of a German
423:and other early 1939 efforts
365:Discovery of nuclear fission
359:Discovery of nuclear fission
187:discovery of nuclear fission
16:World War II weapons project
5803:Myth of the clean Wehrmacht
5786:War crimes of the Wehrmacht
5170:Ministry of Postal Services
4992:Public Broadcasting Service
4375:The Nonproliferation Review
4313:. Vol. 6–2. Springer.
4287:. Oxford University Press.
4189:(Springer, New York. 2001)
4007:Political Science Quarterly
3926:Beyerchen, Alan D. (1977).
3607:Mangravite, Andrew (2015).
3463:Renneberg & Walker 2002
2526:Hanle & Rechenberg 1982
2317:Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung
2311:Also see: Siegfried FlĂĽgge
2268:Mehra & Rechenberg 2001
2138:American Journal of Physics
1571:Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft
953:II. Physikalisches Institut
731:Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft
457:Reichserziehungsministerium
225:) development, uranium and
181:
167:
52:Haigerloch research reactor
5891:
5870:Nuclear history of Germany
5666:Bribery of senior officers
5520:Office for General Affairs
4847:(Simon and Schuster, 1986)
4283:Macrakis, Kristie (1993).
4170:10.1007/s00048-020-00241-z
3945:Cassidy, David C. (1992).
3457:Heinemann-GrĂĽder, Andreas
2821:10.1007/s00048-020-00241-z
2198:In 1944 Hahn received the
2107:O. Hahn and F. Strassmann
1803:
1697:, worked for Riehl at the
1652:Soviet atomic bomb project
1617:Georgij Nikolaevich Flerov
1613:Lev Andreevich Artsimovich
1585:Soviet atomic bomb project
1574:(Kaiser Wilhelm Society).
1441:(1993), by the journalist
1259:
362:
251:influential people in the
18:
5821:
5756:German military equipment
5656:
5420:
5348:
5112:
5074:Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes
4495:10.1007/s00016-004-0248-5
4387:10.1080/10736700008436807
4222:10.1007/s00016-004-0235-x
4135:Hentschel, Klaus (2020).
4043:Goudsmit, Samuel (1986).
3666:Van der Vat, Dan (1997).
3590:Arnold, Heinrich (2011).
2982:Into the Heart of Germany
2786:Hentschel, Klaus (2020).
2200:Nobel Prize for Chemistry
2079:10.1007/s00016-008-0396-0
2020:. Routledge. p. 55.
1951:Nuclear technology portal
1605:Yulij Borisovich Khariton
1513:, recommended to General
1486:(testing station) of the
1453:With the interest of the
688:. Also at this time, the
315:Politicization of German
191:German invasion of Poland
35:
5865:Nuclear weapons programs
5766:German military aircraft
5215:Scientists and Engineers
4089:10.1002/phbl.19820381207
3773:. Restricted Data Blog.
2766:Watzlawek, Hugo (1948).
1734:N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij
1732:), who worked there for
1591:and they were headed by
1348:covert listening devices
1327:. Also incarcerated was
1270:Farm Hall, Godmanchester
1070:, or Werner Heisenberg.
446:(uranium machine, i.e.,
293:. Esau was appointed as
229:production, and uranium
42:The German experimental
5153:German Physics Movement
5062:Institute for Chemistry
4911:Volume 24, 63–89 (1989)
4886:Wehrmacht und Forschung
4407:Powers, Thomas (1993).
2976:Beck, Alfred M, et al,
2300:Die Naturwissenschaften
2185:23 January 2009 at the
1784:in Charlottenburg (now
1742:Laboratory B in Sungul'
1635:in Charlottenburg (now
1052:Oberkommando des Heeres
736:Max-Planck Gesellschaft
433:University of Göttingen
21:nuclear power phase-out
5825:Uranverein|Uranprojekt
5143:Reich Research Council
5119:
5000:Hitler's Sunken Secret
4942:Physics in Perspective
4475:Physics in Perspective
4202:Physics in Perspective
3596:. ilmedia. p. 27.
3434:Riehl & Seitz 1996
3410:Riehl & Seitz 1996
3304:Riehl & Seitz 1996
3224:Riehl & Seitz 1996
3112:, pp. 50, 363–65.
2634:Inside the Third Reich
2632:Speer, Albert (1995).
2560:War Physics in Germany
2393:, pp. xxii–xxiii.
2352:Riehl & Seitz 1996
2226:, Reference 8 on p. 3.
2059:Physics in Perspective
1417:
1271:
1127:Henschel Flugzeugwerke
666:
609:
527:and an advisor to the
295:
253:
241:
235:
217:
209:
203:
195:
173:
159:
125:Reich Research Council
31:German nuclear program
5624:Inspector of Fighters
5541:Army Personnel Office
5486:Wehrmachtbefehlshaber
5358:Zippe-type centrifuge
5138:Ministry of Education
5118:
5084:Institute for Physics
5067:Institute for Physics
5052:Max Planck Institutes
4866:Rose, Paul Lawrence,
4548:Walker, Mark (2005).
4529:Walker, Mark (1995).
4510:Walker, Mark (1993).
4076:Physikalische Blätter
4034:Gimbel, John (1990).
3913:Letters to the Editor
3697:, Werner Heisenberg,
3448:, pp. 11, 15–17.
2721:Reichspostministerium
1782:Technische Hochschule
1753:Reichspostministerium
1646:and were sent to the
1633:Technische Hochschule
1269:
1222:, on the edge of the
1107:Reichspostministerium
888:University of Leipzig
870:University of Hamburg
601:
525:University of Hamburg
435:proposing the use of
5629:Inspector of Bombers
5308:Military engagements
5165:High Command of Army
5133:Army Ordnance Office
4987:Nazis & the Bomb
4890:Wehrmacht und Partei
4576:(Dietz, 1992, 2001)
4237:Kant, Horst (2002).
3922:(9): 1143–45 (2004).
3513:, pp. 303, 319.
3489:, pp. 5, 11–13.
2738:Ardenne von, Manfred
2327:, pp. 197–206.
1766:Peter Adolf Thiessen
1629:University of Berlin
1519:B-17 Flying Fortress
1461:, and his colleague
1390:historians, notably
1274:A major goal of the
1197:American and British
1141:Moderator production
957:University of Vienna
940:Uranium production.
922:Isotope separation.
855:Transuranic elements
153:, before and during
120:Army Ordnance Office
5546:Army Weapons Agency
5320:Operation Paperclip
5277:Manfred von Ardenne
5126:Government Agencies
4964:Niels Bohr Archive
4874:, pp. 297–325.
4778:57(12) 52–58 (2004)
4736:, pp. 294–301.
4720:Heisenberg, Werner
4645:2000PhT....53g..34B
4601:1995PhT....48h..32B
4514:. Cambridge Press.
4487:2006PhP.....8....3S
4214:2005PhP.....7..293H
4096:Heisenberg, Werner
3970:1997PhT....50i..26C
3899:2004AmJPh..72..300B
3870:2002AmJPh..70..911B
3190:, pp. 332–335.
3124:, pp. 115–129.
3013:2019PhT....72e..36K
2980:, 1985 Chapter 24,
2860:2000PhT....53g..34B
2562:, January 1946, in
2117:Naturwissenschaften
2071:2009PhP....11..318G
1974:Operation Paperclip
1838:Reichsforschungsrat
1534:From 1941 to 1947,
1509:, commander of the
1342:, a manor house in
1179:Operation Paperclip
1102:electron microscopy
1091:Manfred von Ardenne
763:Institut fĂĽr Physik
614:Reichsforschungsrat
575:, north of Berlin.
380:Naturwissenschaften
329:German armed forces
243:Reichsforschungsrat
5813:High Command Trial
5761:Kriegsmarine ships
5120:
5091:Center for Testing
4900:, pp. 207–20.
4881:(GNT-Verlag, 2018)
4825:Krieger, Wolfgang
4672:Cassidy, David C.
4595:(8 Part 1): 32–6.
4329:Naimark, Norman M.
4307:Rechenberg, Helmut
4112:, pp. 361–79.
4068:Rechenberg, Helmut
4047:. Introduction by
3609:"Magical Thinking"
3525:, pp. 122–23.
3501:, pp. 318–19.
3436:, pp. 121–32.
3424:, pp. 203–50.
3388:, pp. 433–51.
3355:, pp. 186–87.
3294:, pp. 205–07.
3226:, pp. 13, 69.
2955:, pp. 208–09.
2883:, pp. 433–51.
2579:, 6 July 1942, in
2566:, pp. 345–52.
2541:, 9 June 1942, in
2381:, p. 365, fn. 18..
2255:, pp. 164–69.
2180:(18 February 1939)
2159:(11 February 1939)
1862:achieved man-made
1768:, director of the
1736:, director of the
1283:as members of the
1272:
1172:Potsdam Conference
1145:The production of
1085:, had proposed an
1081:, a member of the
1074:Isotope separation
798:Isotope separation
610:
510:Reinhold Mannkopff
484:(probably sent by
405:Otto Robert Frisch
373:and his assistant
231:isotope separation
143:nuclear technology
5832:
5831:
5774:
5773:
5645:
5644:
5515:Propaganda Troops
5380:
5379:
5325:Operation Epsilon
5247:Werner Heisenberg
5201:Wilhelm Ohnesorge
5045:Operational Sites
4969:(6 February 2002)
4836:The Alsos Mission
4806:(Wiley-VCH, 2007)
4757:Hoffmann, Dieter
4750:Hentschel, Klaus
4653:10.1063/1.1292473
4403:(Chelyabinsk-70).
4149:Towards Becoming
4049:Reginald V. Jones
4038:. Stanford Press.
3907:10.1119/1.1630333
3878:10.1119/1.1495409
3835:Bernstein, Jeremy
3742:, p. lxviii.
3412:, pp. 71–83.
3327:Leslie M. Groves
3306:, pp. 77–79.
3282:, pp. 50–51.
3239:, Georg Hartwig,
3022:10.1063/PT.3.4202
2967:, pp. 49–52.
2868:10.1063/1.1292473
2800:Towards Becoming
2688:on 25 March 2008.
2556:Samuel Goudsmit's
2465:, pp. 49–53.
2294:Siegfried FlĂĽgge
2285:, pp. 17–18.
2043:, pp. 198–9.
2027:978-3-7186-5822-0
1881:German historian
1806:Manhattan Project
1712:Hans-Joachim Born
1593:Lavrentij Beria's
1511:Manhattan Project
1449:Oranienburg plant
1313:Werner Heisenberg
1289:Operation Epsilon
1262:Operation Epsilon
1187:Operation Epsilon
1112:Wilhelm Ohnesorge
884:Werner Heisenberg
722:between ourselves
682:Werner Heisenberg
387:after bombarding
291:Werner Heisenberg
133:
132:
5882:
5797:Bandenbekämpfung
5654:
5619:Personnel Office
5581:Seekriegsleitung
5575:Personnel Office
5500:
5435:
5427:
5407:
5400:
5393:
5384:
5282:Fritz Houtermans
5159:Auergesellschaft
5031:
5024:
5017:
5008:
4977:Rife, Patricia,
4884:Schumann, Erich
4877:Schaaf, Michael
4857:Rife, Patricia,
4850:Rife, Patricia,
4717:
4691:Eckert, Michael
4669:
4656:
4615:Beyerchen, Alan
4612:
4609:10.1063/1.881469
4560:
4554:
4544:
4525:
4506:
4471:Sime, Ruth Lewin
4466:
4456:
4448:Sime, Ruth Lewin
4443:
4426:Sime, Ruth Lewin
4421:
4412:
4398:
4372:
4362:
4345:Seitz, Frederick
4336:
4324:
4298:
4279:
4261:
4251:
4246:. Preprint 203.
4245:
4233:
4185:Hoffmann, Klaus
4182:
4172:
4131:
4093:
4091:
4052:
4039:
4030:
4000:
3981:
3978:10.1063/1.881933
3952:
3941:
3910:
3881:
3852:
3830:
3799:
3793:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3782:
3766:
3760:
3759:
3757:
3749:
3743:
3737:
3731:
3716:
3710:
3691:
3685:
3681:
3663:
3657:
3656:
3635:
3629:
3628:
3626:
3624:
3604:
3598:
3597:
3587:
3581:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3563:
3549:
3543:
3532:
3526:
3520:
3514:
3508:
3502:
3496:
3490:
3484:
3478:
3472:
3466:
3455:
3449:
3443:
3437:
3431:
3425:
3419:
3413:
3407:
3401:
3395:
3389:
3374:
3368:
3362:
3356:
3350:
3344:
3338:
3332:
3325:
3319:
3313:
3307:
3301:
3295:
3289:
3283:
3277:
3271:
3265:
3259:
3233:
3227:
3221:
3215:
3209:
3203:
3197:
3191:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3177:
3175:
3165:Teller, Edward,
3162:
3156:
3155:
3143:
3137:
3131:
3125:
3119:
3113:
3107:
3101:
3095:
3089:
3088:
3086:
3084:
3070:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3057:
3042:
3024:
2990:
2984:
2974:
2968:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2944:
2938:
2932:
2931:, pp. 1–30.
2926:
2920:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2871:
2840:
2834:
2833:
2823:
2782:
2776:
2771:
2762:
2756:
2755:
2730:
2724:
2714:
2708:
2707:
2696:
2690:
2689:
2678:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2629:
2620:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2596:
2595:, pp. 91–4.
2590:
2584:
2573:
2567:
2552:
2546:
2535:
2529:
2523:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2499:Deutsches Museum
2496:
2490:
2484:
2478:
2477:, pp. 52–3.
2472:
2466:
2460:
2454:
2448:
2442:
2436:
2430:
2424:
2418:
2412:
2406:
2400:
2394:
2388:
2382:
2376:
2367:
2361:
2355:
2349:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2309:
2303:
2292:
2286:
2280:
2271:
2265:
2256:
2250:
2239:
2233:
2227:
2221:
2215:
2196:
2190:
2168:
2162:
2147:
2141:
2132:Ruth Lewin Sime
2130:
2124:
2105:
2099:
2098:
2050:
2044:
2038:
2032:
2031:
2013:
1997:
1990:
1953:
1948:
1947:
1946:
1939:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1716:Alexander Catsch
1700:Auergesellschaft
1664:
1567:
1523:Eighth Air Force
1499:Auergesellschaft
1468:Auergesellschaft
1439:Heisenberg's War
1408:Jeremy Bernstein
1236:
1228:Ludwig Bewilogua
1116:Fritz Houtermans
1079:Paul Peter Ewald
1056:Bevollmächtigter
1013:Bevollmächtigter
1010:Hermann Göring's
979:as head of the "
935:Auergesellschaft
828:ca. 6 physicists
649:Gerhard Hoffmann
633:Siegfried FlĂĽgge
561:Siegfried FlĂĽgge
556:Auergesellschaft
494:Gerhard Hoffmann
482:Wolfgang Gentner
375:Fritz Strassmann
300:
256:
246:
238:
220:
214:
206:
200:
184:
178:
170:
164:
151:nuclear reactors
91:
87:
85:
84:
40:
28:
5890:
5889:
5885:
5884:
5883:
5881:
5880:
5879:
5860:Nuclear weapons
5835:
5834:
5833:
5828:
5817:
5770:
5744:
5712:
5680:
5641:
5599:
5587:Fleet commander
5555:
5524:
5491:
5458:Minister of War
5441:
5433:
5425:
5416:
5411:
5381:
5376:
5371:The Virus House
5344:
5335:Vemork sabotage
5315:Operation Alsos
5303:
5252:Hans Kopfermann
5210:
5174:
5121:
5110:
5040:
5035:
4952:
4947:
4842:Rhodes, Richard
4822:(Waxmann, 2007)
4714:
4701:
4695:physicsweb.org
4662:Social Research
4659:
4626:
4621:Social Research
4586:
4568:
4566:Further reading
4563:
4552:
4547:
4541:
4528:
4522:
4509:
4469:
4454:
4446:
4440:
4424:
4415:
4406:
4370:
4365:
4359:
4341:Riehl, Nikolaus
4339:
4327:
4321:
4320:978-038795086-0
4301:
4295:
4282:
4259:
4254:
4243:
4236:
4199:
4134:
4128:
4115:
4062:
4042:
4033:
4019:10.2307/2151624
4004:
3997:
3984:
3955:
3944:
3938:
3925:
3884:
3855:
3849:
3833:
3827:
3811:
3807:
3802:
3798:, p. lxix.
3794:
3790:
3780:
3778:
3768:
3767:
3763:
3755:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3738:
3734:
3717:
3713:
3692:
3688:
3678:
3677:978-039565243-5
3665:
3664:
3660:
3653:
3637:
3636:
3632:
3622:
3620:
3606:
3605:
3601:
3589:
3588:
3584:
3576:Wilhelm Hanle,
3575:
3571:
3561:
3559:
3551:
3550:
3546:
3533:
3529:
3521:
3517:
3509:
3505:
3497:
3493:
3485:
3481:
3473:
3469:
3456:
3452:
3444:
3440:
3432:
3428:
3420:
3416:
3408:
3404:
3400:, pp. 3–8.
3396:
3392:
3375:
3371:
3363:
3359:
3351:
3347:
3339:
3335:
3326:
3322:
3314:
3310:
3302:
3298:
3290:
3286:
3278:
3274:
3266:
3262:
3234:
3230:
3222:
3218:
3210:
3206:
3202:, pp. 334.
3198:
3194:
3186:
3182:
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2015:
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1991:
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1930:
1928:
1925:
1883:Klaus Hentschel
1834:Heereswaffenamt
1808:
1802:
1671:Walter Herrmann
1658:
1650:to work on the
1580:
1561:
1559:Hermann SchĂĽler
1532:
1521:bombers of the
1515:George Marshall
1488:Heereswaffenamt
1455:Heereswaffenamt
1451:
1317:Horst Korsching
1301:Walther Gerlach
1276:Operation Alsos
1264:
1258:
1230:
1208:
1199:
1191:Russian "Alsos"
1183:Operation Alsos
1167:
1143:
1121:Aside from the
1076:
1044:Walther Gerlach
1017:Walther Gerlach
913:Hans Kopfermann
596:
530:Heereswaffenamt
448:nuclear reactor
425:
413:nuclear fission
367:
361:
337:nuclear fission
310:nuclear-physics
306:plenipotentiary
297:Reichsmarschall
267:Walther Gerlach
236:Heereswaffenamt
223:nuclear reactor
211:Heereswaffenamt
182:Uranium Project
147:nuclear weapons
136:
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5637:Weapons Agency
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5595:Weapons Agency
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5340:Fall of Berlin
5337:
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5309:
5305:
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5301:
5294:
5289:
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5279:
5274:
5272:Erich Schumann
5269:
5264:
5259:
5257:Nikolaus Riehl
5254:
5249:
5244:
5239:
5234:
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5224:
5218:
5216:
5212:
5211:
5209:
5208:
5206:Rudolf Mentzel
5203:
5198:
5193:
5191:Hermann Göring
5188:
5182:
5180:
5179:Administration
5176:
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4950:External links
4948:
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4882:
4875:
4864:
4855:
4848:
4839:
4833:Pash, Boris T.
4830:
4823:
4816:
4810:Karlsch Rainer
4807:
4800:
4790:
4787:Physik Journal
4779:
4768:
4755:
4754:(Oxford, 2007)
4748:
4737:
4718:
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4467:
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4439:978-0520208605
4438:
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4404:
4363:
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4337:
4325:
4319:
4303:Mehra, Jagdish
4299:
4293:
4280:
4270:(2): 297–325.
4252:
4234:
4208:(3): 293–329.
4197:
4183:
4143:Herrn der Welt
4132:
4126:
4113:
4094:
4082:(12): 365–67.
4064:Hanle, Wilhelm
4060:
4053:
4040:
4031:
4013:(3): 433–451.
4002:
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3982:
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3942:
3936:
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3882:
3853:
3847:
3841:. Copernicus.
3831:
3826:978-0226204574
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3686:
3676:
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3652:978-0226204574
3651:
3630:
3599:
3582:
3569:
3544:
3542:, pp. 318 n83.
3527:
3523:Bernstein 2001
3515:
3503:
3491:
3487:Oleynikov 2000
3479:
3467:
3450:
3446:Oleynikov 2000
3438:
3426:
3414:
3402:
3398:Oleynikov 2000
3390:
3369:
3365:Bernstein 2001
3357:
3345:
3333:
3320:
3318:, p. 156.
3308:
3296:
3284:
3280:Bernstein 2001
3272:
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3216:
3204:
3200:Bernstein 2001
3192:
3188:Bernstein 2001
3180:
3157:
3138:
3134:Bernstein 2001
3126:
3122:Bernstein 2001
3114:
3110:Bernstein 2001
3102:
3090:
3078:Nuclear Museum
3065:
3063:
3062:
3043:
2985:
2969:
2965:Bernstein 2001
2957:
2945:
2941:Oleynikov 2000
2933:
2929:Oleynikov 2000
2921:
2909:
2897:
2885:
2873:
2844:Bethe, Hans A.
2835:
2814:(2): 121–147.
2794:Herrn der Welt
2777:
2757:
2751:978-3770010882
2750:
2725:
2723:in Appendix C.
2709:
2691:
2673:
2661:
2659:, p. 208.
2649:
2642:
2621:
2609:
2597:
2585:
2568:
2547:
2545:, p. 303.
2530:
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2479:
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2455:
2443:
2431:
2419:
2407:
2395:
2391:Bernstein 2001
2383:
2368:
2366:, pp. 18.
2356:
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2329:
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2287:
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2163:
2142:
2125:
2100:
2065:(3): 318–335.
2045:
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2002:
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1994:Fall of Berlin
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1937:Germany portal
1924:
1921:
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1892:
1891:
1860:Chicago Pile-1
1826:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1816:
1804:Main article:
1801:
1798:
1683:Nikolaus Riehl
1656:Werner Czulius
1579:
1576:
1556:spectroscopist
1548:American Alsos
1531:
1528:
1484:Versuchsstelle
1459:Nikolaus Riehl
1450:
1447:
1260:Main article:
1257:
1254:
1207:
1204:
1198:
1195:
1166:
1163:
1142:
1139:
1075:
1072:
1048:Erich Schumann
993:Hermann Göring
969:
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945:
944:
931:Nikolaus Riehl
928:
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863:
862:
861:
832:
831:
830:
817:Versuchsstelle
810:
809:
808:
786:
785:
784:
653:Josef Mattauch
595:
589:
551:Nikolaus Riehl
424:
417:
363:Main article:
360:
357:
302:Hermann Göring
271:Erich Schumann
134:
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2:
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5401:
5396:
5394:
5389:
5388:
5385:
5373:
5372:
5368:
5366:
5365:
5364:Hitler's Bomb
5361:
5359:
5356:
5354:
5351:
5350:
5347:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5330:Russian Alsos
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5312:
5310:
5306:
5300:
5299:
5295:
5293:
5290:
5288:
5285:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5262:Georg Stetter
5260:
5258:
5255:
5253:
5250:
5248:
5245:
5243:
5240:
5238:
5235:
5233:
5232:Klaus Clusius
5230:
5228:
5227:Walther Bothe
5225:
5223:
5220:
5219:
5217:
5213:
5207:
5204:
5202:
5199:
5197:
5194:
5192:
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5187:
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5183:
5181:
5177:
5171:
5168:
5166:
5163:
5161:
5160:
5156:
5154:
5151:
5149:
5146:
5144:
5141:
5139:
5136:
5134:
5131:
5130:
5128:
5124:
5117:
5107:
5104:
5102:
5099:
5097:
5094:
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5027:
5025:
5020:
5018:
5013:
5012:
5009:
5002:
5001:
4996:
4993:
4989:
4988:
4984:Walker, Mark
4983:
4980:
4976:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4967:
4962:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4953:
4949:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4932:
4928:
4925:Walker, Mark
4924:
4921:
4920:Physics Today
4917:
4914:Walker, Mark
4913:
4910:
4906:
4903:Walker, Mark
4902:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4883:
4880:
4876:
4873:
4872:Landsman 2002
4869:
4865:
4863:
4860:
4856:
4853:
4849:
4846:
4843:
4840:
4838:(Award, 1969)
4837:
4834:
4831:
4828:
4824:
4821:
4817:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4801:
4799:
4795:
4791:
4788:
4784:
4780:
4777:
4776:Physics Today
4773:
4769:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4753:
4749:
4746:
4745:Physics Today
4742:
4738:
4735:
4731:
4727:
4723:
4719:
4715:
4713:0-88736-267-2
4709:
4705:
4700:
4698:
4694:
4690:
4687:
4686:Physics Today
4683:
4679:
4678:Physics Today
4675:
4671:
4667:
4663:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4642:
4638:
4634:
4633:Physics Today
4630:
4625:
4622:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4589:Physics Today
4585:
4583:
4582:3-320-01788-8
4579:
4575:
4571:
4570:
4565:
4558:
4551:
4546:
4542:
4536:
4532:
4527:
4523:
4517:
4513:
4508:
4504:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4468:
4464:
4460:
4453:
4449:
4445:
4441:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4419:
4414:
4410:
4405:
4402:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4369:
4364:
4360:
4354:
4350:
4346:
4342:
4338:
4334:
4330:
4326:
4322:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4290:
4286:
4281:
4277:
4273:
4269:
4265:
4258:
4253:
4249:
4242:
4241:
4235:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4219:
4215:
4211:
4207:
4203:
4198:
4196:
4195:0-387-95057-5
4192:
4188:
4184:
4180:
4176:
4171:
4166:
4163:(2): 121–47.
4162:
4158:
4154:
4152:
4148:
4144:
4140:
4133:
4129:
4127:0-8176-5312-0
4123:
4119:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4103:
4099:
4095:
4090:
4085:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4058:
4054:
4050:
4046:
4041:
4037:
4032:
4028:
4024:
4020:
4016:
4012:
4008:
4003:
3998:
3996:0-88736-267-2
3992:
3988:
3983:
3979:
3975:
3971:
3967:
3963:
3959:
3958:Physics Today
3954:
3950:
3949:
3943:
3939:
3933:
3929:
3924:
3921:
3918:
3914:
3908:
3904:
3900:
3896:
3893:(3): 300–04.
3892:
3888:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3864:(9): 911–16.
3863:
3859:
3854:
3850:
3848:0-387-95089-3
3844:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3809:
3804:
3797:
3792:
3789:
3776:
3772:
3765:
3762:
3754:
3748:
3745:
3741:
3736:
3733:
3729:
3728:3-940541-33-8
3725:
3721:
3715:
3712:
3708:
3707:H. Rechenberg
3704:
3701:. Facsimile:
3700:
3696:
3690:
3687:
3684:
3679:
3673:
3669:
3662:
3659:
3654:
3648:
3644:
3640:
3634:
3631:
3618:
3614:
3613:Distillations
3610:
3603:
3600:
3595:
3594:
3586:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3570:
3558:
3554:
3548:
3545:
3541:
3540:Landsman 2002
3537:
3531:
3528:
3524:
3519:
3516:
3512:
3511:Landsman 2002
3507:
3504:
3500:
3499:Landsman 2002
3495:
3492:
3488:
3483:
3480:
3476:
3471:
3468:
3465:, p. 44.
3464:
3460:
3454:
3451:
3447:
3442:
3439:
3435:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3418:
3415:
3411:
3406:
3403:
3399:
3394:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3379:
3373:
3370:
3366:
3361:
3358:
3354:
3349:
3346:
3342:
3337:
3334:
3330:
3324:
3321:
3317:
3312:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3297:
3293:
3288:
3285:
3281:
3276:
3273:
3269:
3264:
3261:
3257:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3232:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3217:
3213:
3208:
3205:
3201:
3196:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3181:
3170:
3169:
3161:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3142:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3118:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3103:
3099:
3094:
3091:
3079:
3075:
3069:
3066:
3052:
3048:
3044:
3040:
3036:
3032:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3014:
3010:
3006:
3002:
3001:Physics Today
2998:
2993:
2992:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2979:
2973:
2970:
2966:
2961:
2958:
2954:
2949:
2946:
2942:
2937:
2934:
2930:
2925:
2922:
2918:
2913:
2910:
2906:
2905:Goudsmit 1986
2901:
2898:
2894:
2889:
2886:
2882:
2877:
2874:
2869:
2865:
2861:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2848:Physics Today
2845:
2839:
2836:
2831:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2795:
2791:
2781:
2778:
2775:
2769:
2761:
2758:
2753:
2747:
2743:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2710:
2705:
2701:
2695:
2692:
2687:
2683:
2677:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2662:
2658:
2653:
2650:
2645:
2643:9781842127353
2639:
2635:
2628:
2626:
2622:
2619:, p. 86.
2618:
2613:
2610:
2606:
2601:
2598:
2594:
2593:Macrakis 1993
2589:
2586:
2582:
2578:
2575:Document 99:
2572:
2569:
2565:
2561:
2557:
2551:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2537:Document 98:
2534:
2531:
2527:
2522:
2520:
2516:
2512:
2507:
2504:
2500:
2495:
2492:
2489:, p. 19.
2488:
2483:
2480:
2476:
2471:
2468:
2464:
2459:
2456:
2452:
2447:
2444:
2441:, p. 27.
2440:
2435:
2432:
2429:, p. 23.
2428:
2423:
2420:
2417:, p. 34.
2416:
2411:
2408:
2404:
2399:
2396:
2392:
2387:
2384:
2380:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2365:
2360:
2357:
2354:, p. 13.
2353:
2348:
2346:
2342:
2338:
2333:
2330:
2326:
2322:
2318:
2314:
2308:
2305:
2301:
2297:
2291:
2288:
2284:
2279:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2264:
2262:
2258:
2254:
2253:Macrakis 1993
2249:
2247:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2229:
2225:
2220:
2217:
2214:
2210:
2206:
2201:
2195:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2170:O. R. Frisch
2167:
2164:
2160:
2156:
2152:
2146:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2129:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2104:
2101:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2049:
2046:
2042:
2037:
2034:
2029:
2023:
2019:
2012:
2009:
2003:
1995:
1989:
1986:
1979:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1969:Alsos Mission
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1957:
1956:
1952:
1941:
1938:
1927:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1913:
1904:
1903:
1898:
1897:
1896:
1888:
1887:
1886:
1884:
1879:
1877:
1873:
1872:was destroyed
1869:
1868:Uran-Maschine
1865:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1845:
1841:
1839:
1835:
1829:
1823:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1813:
1812:
1807:
1799:
1797:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1779:
1775:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1754:
1749:
1745:
1743:
1739:
1735:
1731:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1704:
1702:
1701:
1696:
1692:
1691:GĂĽnter Wirths
1688:
1684:
1680:
1676:
1672:
1668:
1662:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1645:
1640:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1626:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1577:
1575:
1573:
1572:
1565:
1560:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1529:
1527:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1512:
1508:
1507:Leslie Groves
1504:
1500:
1495:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1481:
1476:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1464:
1463:GĂĽnter Wirths
1460:
1456:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1443:Thomas Powers
1440:
1436:
1432:
1431:
1427:'s 1998 play
1426:
1425:Michael Frayn
1422:
1416:
1411:
1409:
1405:
1401:
1397:
1393:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1376:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1364:Edward Teller
1360:
1357:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1344:Godmanchester
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1286:
1282:
1277:
1268:
1263:
1255:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1213:
1206:Operation BIG
1205:
1203:
1196:
1194:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1175:
1173:
1164:
1162:
1160:
1159:Walther Bothe
1155:
1153:
1148:
1140:
1138:
1136:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1119:
1117:
1113:
1109:
1108:
1103:
1099:
1094:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1071:
1069:
1066:, Otto Hahn,
1065:
1064:Klaus Clusius
1061:
1060:Walther Bothe
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1032:
1030:
1026:
1020:
1018:
1014:
1011:
1007:
1002:
1001:Bernhard Rust
998:
994:
990:
986:
982:
978:
973:
965:
961:
960:
958:
954:
950:
949:Georg Stetter
947:
943:
939:
938:
936:
932:
929:
925:
921:
920:
918:
914:
911:
907:
903:
900:
899:
897:
896:Berlin-Dahlem
893:
889:
885:
882:
878:
874:
873:
871:
867:
864:
860:
856:
853:
852:
850:
849:Berlin-Dahlem
846:
845:
840:
836:
833:
829:
825:
824:
822:
818:
814:
811:
807:
803:
799:
796:
795:
794:
790:
789:Klaus Clusius
787:
783:
779:
778:
776:
772:
768:
764:
760:
759:Walther Bothe
757:
756:
755:
753:
749:
745:
741:
740:kriegswichtig
737:
733:
732:
725:
723:
719:
715:
710:
706:
701:
699:
698:Berlin-Dahlem
695:
691:
687:
683:
679:
675:
674:Klaus Clusius
671:
665:
660:
658:
657:Georg Stetter
654:
650:
646:
642:
638:
634:
630:
629:Walther Bothe
625:
623:
619:
615:
608:
604:
600:
594:
590:
588:
586:
582:
576:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
557:
552:
548:
543:
541:
536:
535:Wilhelm Groth
532:
531:
526:
522:
517:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
490:Wilhelm Hanle
487:
486:Walther Bothe
483:
479:
475:
471:
470:Walther Bothe
467:
463:
459:
458:
453:
449:
445:
441:
438:
434:
430:
429:Wilhelm Hanle
422:
418:
416:
414:
410:
406:
402:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
381:
376:
372:
366:
358:
356:
354:
351:
347:
343:
342:Allied powers
338:
332:
330:
326:
322:
318:
313:
311:
307:
303:
299:
298:
292:
288:
284:
280:
279:Klaus Clusius
276:
275:Walther Bothe
272:
268:
264:
260:
255:
248:
245:
244:
237:
232:
228:
224:
219:
213:
212:
205:
199:
198:
192:
188:
183:
177:
176:
169:
163:
162:
156:
152:
148:
144:
140:
135:Military unit
126:
123:
121:
118:
117:
115:
111:
104:
101:
100:
98:
94:
90:
78:
74:
70:
66:
62:
58:
53:
49:
45:
39:
34:
29:
26:
22:
5823:
5795:
5738:
5732:Kriegsmarine
5731:
5724:
5705:
5698:Kriegsmarine
5697:
5634:
5616:
5611:Organization
5593:Kriegsmarine
5592:
5579:
5573:Kriegsmarine
5572:
5567:Organization
5560:Kriegsmarine
5496:Organization
5484:
5453:Adolf Hitler
5436:
5434:
5430:Kriegsmarine
5428:
5426:
5369:
5362:
5296:
5292:Robert Döpel
5287:Gernot Zippe
5267:Abraham Esau
5242:Paul Harteck
5222:Kurt Diebner
5196:Albert Speer
5186:Adolf Hitler
5157:
5038:Uranium Club
4999:
4986:
4978:
4965:
4957:
4941:
4937:
4936:Mark Walker
4930:
4926:
4919:
4915:
4908:
4904:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4878:
4867:
4858:
4851:
4844:
4835:
4826:
4819:
4812:
4803:
4793:
4786:
4782:
4775:
4771:
4762:
4758:
4751:
4744:
4740:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4703:
4692:
4685:
4681:
4677:
4673:
4668:(3): 643–61.
4665:
4661:
4636:
4632:
4620:
4616:
4592:
4588:
4573:
4556:
4540:0-30644941-2
4530:
4521:0-52143804-7
4511:
4478:
4474:
4458:
4429:
4417:
4408:
4378:
4374:
4358:0-84123310-1
4348:
4332:
4310:
4294:0-19507010-0
4284:
4267:
4263:
4239:
4205:
4201:
4186:
4160:
4156:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4139:Der neue Weg
4138:
4117:
4105:
4101:
4097:
4079:
4075:
4056:
4044:
4035:
4010:
4006:
3986:
3964:(9): 26–32.
3961:
3957:
3947:
3937:0-30001830-4
3927:
3919:
3917:Am. J. Phys.
3916:
3912:
3890:
3886:
3861:
3857:
3838:
3816:
3813:Ball, Philip
3791:
3779:. Retrieved
3764:
3747:
3735:
3719:
3714:
3698:
3689:
3667:
3661:
3642:
3639:Ball, Philip
3633:
3621:. Retrieved
3616:
3612:
3602:
3592:
3585:
3577:
3572:
3560:. Retrieved
3556:
3547:
3535:
3530:
3518:
3506:
3494:
3482:
3470:
3458:
3453:
3441:
3429:
3422:Naimark 1995
3417:
3405:
3393:
3378:Naimark 1995
3372:
3360:
3348:
3336:
3328:
3323:
3311:
3299:
3292:Naimark 1995
3287:
3275:
3263:
3255:
3241:K. H. Höcker
3237:Kurt Diebner
3231:
3219:
3207:
3195:
3183:
3172:, retrieved
3167:
3160:
3151:
3141:
3129:
3117:
3105:
3093:
3081:. Retrieved
3077:
3068:
3054:. Retrieved
3050:
3007:(5): 36–43.
3004:
3000:
2988:
2981:
2977:
2972:
2960:
2953:Naimark 1995
2948:
2943:, p. 3.
2936:
2924:
2917:Naimark 1995
2912:
2900:
2888:
2876:
2851:
2847:
2838:
2811:
2807:
2801:
2797:
2793:
2790:Der neue Weg
2789:
2780:
2767:
2760:
2741:
2728:
2720:
2712:
2703:
2694:
2686:the original
2676:
2664:
2652:
2633:
2612:
2600:
2588:
2583:, pp. 304–8.
2576:
2571:
2559:
2550:
2538:
2533:
2506:
2494:
2482:
2470:
2458:
2446:
2434:
2422:
2410:
2398:
2386:
2359:
2332:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2307:
2295:
2290:
2231:
2219:
2194:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2154:
2150:
2145:
2137:
2133:
2128:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2103:
2062:
2058:
2048:
2036:
2017:
2011:
1988:
1916:
1911:
1909:
1893:
1880:
1867:
1857:
1853:Robert Döpel
1849:Enrico Fermi
1846:
1842:
1837:
1833:
1830:
1827:
1809:
1793:
1769:
1758:Gustav Hertz
1751:
1746:
1737:
1727:
1726:, today the
1719:
1705:
1698:
1694:
1667:Robert Döpel
1648:Soviet Union
1643:
1641:
1620:
1589:Soviet Alsos
1581:
1569:
1539:
1533:
1498:
1496:
1492:Kurt Diebner
1487:
1483:
1480:Uranmaschine
1479:
1477:
1466:
1454:
1452:
1438:
1434:
1428:
1420:
1418:
1413:
1403:
1399:
1395:
1392:Robert Jungk
1386:
1382:
1378:
1374:
1372:
1361:
1352:
1337:
1329:Max von Laue
1309:Paul Harteck
1297:Kurt Diebner
1284:
1280:
1273:
1241:
1239:
1224:Black Forest
1211:
1209:
1200:
1176:
1168:
1156:
1144:
1134:
1130:
1122:
1120:
1105:
1097:
1095:
1082:
1077:
1068:Paul Harteck
1055:
1051:
1040:Abraham Esau
1036:Kurt Diebner
1033:
1021:
1012:
1006:Abraham Esau
997:Albert Speer
989:Adolf Hitler
984:
977:Albert Speer
974:
970:
963:
952:
941:
924:2 physicists
923:
905:
902:Uranmaschine
901:
891:
876:
866:Paul Harteck
858:
842:
838:
827:
816:
813:Kurt Diebner
805:
804:production.
782:6 physicists
781:
766:
762:
752:Uranmaschine
751:
739:
729:
726:
721:
718:Erhard Milch
713:
702:
689:
678:Robert Döpel
669:
667:
662:
645:Paul Harteck
626:
618:Kurt Diebner
613:
611:
602:
592:
584:
580:
577:
554:
546:
544:
539:
528:
521:Paul Harteck
518:
513:
474:Robert Döpel
465:
462:Abraham Esau
455:
444:Uranmaschine
443:
426:
420:
408:
401:Lise Meitner
396:
378:
368:
333:
314:
287:Paul Harteck
263:Abraham Esau
259:Kurt Diebner
249:
218:Uranmaschine
174:
168:Uranium Club
160:
155:World War II
145:, including
139:Nazi Germany
137:
44:nuclear pile
25:
4815:(Dva, 2005)
4639:(7): 34–6.
4533:. Perseus.
4481:(1): 3–51.
4381:(2): 1–30.
4055:Hahn, Otto
3887:Am. J. Phys
3858:Am. J. Phys
3781:16 November
3695:Klara Döpel
3693:Robert and
3386:Gimbel 1986
3382:Gimbel 1990
3353:Walker 1993
3316:Walker 1993
3253:Ernst Rexer
3245:W. Herrmann
3098:Walker 1993
2893:Gimbel 1990
2881:Gimbel 1986
2854:(7): 34–6.
2770:. Deuticke.
2733:Walker 1993
2657:Walker 1993
2617:Walker 1993
2511:Walker 1993
2475:Walker 1993
2463:Walker 1993
2439:Ermenc 1989
2427:Ermenc 1989
2415:Ermenc 1989
2364:Walker 1993
2283:Walker 1993
2041:Walker 1995
1864:criticality
1794:Schutzbrief
1748:Von Ardenne
1708:Krasnogorsk
1687:Karl Zimmer
1679:Ernst Rexer
1659: [
1631:), and the
1562: [
1473:Oranienburg
1293:Erich Bagge
1231: [
1147:heavy water
1029:metric tons
802:heavy water
748:heavy water
637:Hans Geiger
622:Erich Bagge
573:Oranienburg
502:Peter Debye
478:Hans Geiger
227:heavy water
175:Uranprojekt
105:Uranprojekt
96:Nickname(s)
5839:Categories
5692:Army ranks
5536:Army units
5446:Leadership
4335:. Belknap.
3951:. Freeman.
3619:(4): 44–45
3562:5 November
2744:. Droste.
2004:References
1917:Uranverein
1912:Uranverein
1790:Nazi Party
1778:Max Volmer
1695:Uranverein
1675:Heinz Pose
1654:included:
1644:Uranverein
1552:Haigerloch
1540:Uranverein
1536:Fritz Bopp
1503:Strasbourg
1430:Copenhagen
1368:Hans Bethe
1325:Karl Wirtz
1285:Uranverein
1246:Tailfingen
1242:Uranverein
1220:Haigerloch
1123:Uranverein
1083:Uranverein
775:Heidelberg
670:Uranverein
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540:Uranverein
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466:Uranverein
452:Georg Joos
421:Uranverein
319:under the
254:Uranverein
161:Uranverein
102:Uranverein
63:April 1939
48:Haigerloch
5749:Equipment
5739:Luftwaffe
5706:Luftwaffe
5650:Personnel
5635:Luftwaffe
5617:Luftwaffe
5604:Luftwaffe
5438:Luftwaffe
5414:Wehrmacht
5237:Otto Hahn
4997:episode,
4503:119479637
4401:Snezhinsk
4395:144392252
4230:122355802
4051:. Toamsh.
3911:See also
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3083:22 August
3039:155333182
3031:0031-9228
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2209:Sime 1997
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2087:1422-6944
1980:Footnotes
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257:included
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5717:Uniforms
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3805:Sources
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3056:6 March
3009:Bibcode
2856:Bibcode
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565:uranium
440:fission
437:uranium
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