German nuclear program during World War II

1911:

activities. However, the enemy effort was definitely lacking in overall direction, unity of purpose and coordination between participating agencies. Early in the German endeavor the uranium problem had been separately approached by a number of more or less competing groups. There was one group under Army Ordnance, another under the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Physics, and still another under the Postal Department. A certain amount of bickering over the supply of material and a non-cooperative attitude in the exchange of information existed between those groups. The research efforts of the Postal Department amounted to little and did not continue for very long. The first two of the above groups were unified in 1942 under the Reich's Research Council. On the whole, beneficial results, from the German standpoint, were obtained through that unification. But conflicting jurisdiction between the German Government and Service branches still existed. Up until the later stages of the war difficulties were apparent in regard to the deferment of scientific personnel from military service. Many German scientists worked along their own lines and were not required to work at particular projects. Development of atomic weapon was not believed to be possible .

1148:) failed, but Watzlawek continued to explore potential applications of nuclear energy and wrote a detailed textbook on technical nuclear physics. It includes one of the most detailed presentations of contemporary German knowledge about the various processes of isotope separation, and recommends their combined usage to get to sufficient amounts of enriched uranium. Walther Gerlach refused to print this textbook, but it is preserved as a typed manuscript and it appeared after the War in 1948 virtually unchanged (with just a few additions on the US atomic bomb released in 1945). In October 1944, Hugo Watzlawek wrote an article on the potential usage of nuclear energy and its many potential applications. In his view, to follow up this route of research and development was the "new pathway" to becoming the "Master of the World". 1381:, concluded after reading the transcripts that Heisenberg had never done the calculation before. Heisenberg himself, in the transcript, said that, "quite honestly I have never worked it out as I never believed one could get pure 235." A week after the bombing, Heisenberg had given a more formal lecture to his colleagues on the physics of the atomic bomb, which corrected many of his early mistakes and indicated a much smaller critical mass. Historians have cited Heisenberg's error as evidence of the degree to which his role in the project had been confined almost entirely to reactors, as the original equation is much more similar to how a reactor would work than to an atomic bomb. 1565:, near the end of World War II, French armed forces occupied Hechingen. Bopp did not get along with them and described the initial French policy objectives towards the KWIP as exploitation, forced evacuation to France, and seizure of documents and equipment. The French occupation policy was not qualitatively different from that of the American and Soviet occupation forces, it was just carried out on a smaller scale. In order to put pressure on Bopp to evacuate the KWIP to France, the French Naval Commission imprisoned him for five days and threatened him with further imprisonment if he did not cooperate in the evacuation. During his imprisonment, the 49: 5127: 94: 610: 1370:

Later that evening, the scientists were allowed to listen to a longer BBC announcement, which invited further debate. Throughout all of this, Heisenberg made arguments that it would take very large amounts of enriched uranium ("about a ton") to make such a weapon. In justifying his reasoning, he gave a brief explanation of how one would calculate the critical mass for an atomic bomb which contained serious errors.

1942: 1889:, which finished the work on this topic at Leipzig. Thereafter, despite increased expenditures, the Berlin groups and their extern branches did not succeed in getting a reactor critical until the end of World War II. However, this was realized by the Fermi group in December 1942, so that the German advantage was definitively lost, even with respect to research on energy production. 1956: 1278: 1181:

technologies, their personnel, and related materials to rival allies was a driving force of their efforts. This typically meant getting to these resources first, which to some extent put the Soviets at a disadvantage in some geographic locations easily reached by the Western Allies, even if the area was destined to be in the Soviet zone of occupation by the

1140:: the study group under the direction of Prof. Dr. Ing. Herbert Wagner (1900–1982) searched for alternative sources of energy for airplanes and became interested in nuclear energy in 1940. In August 1941, they finished a detailed internal survey of the history and potential of technical nuclear physics and its applications ( 1900:

Compared with the British and American war research efforts united in the Manhattan Project, to this day the prime example of "big science," the Uranverein was only a loosely knit, decentralized network of researchers with quite different research agendas. Rather than teamwork as on the American end,

1425:

What the Farm Hall reports make transparently clear is that, while they knew a few general principles — the use of fast fission from separated U and the possibility of plutonium — they had not seriously investigated any of the details. All of the really hard problems were left untackled and

1369:

had announced the use of the atomic bomb after the attack on Hiroshima. Reactions from the Germans varied; Hahn expressed guilt for his role in the discovery of nuclear fission, while many others, including Heisenberg, expressed incredulity at the report ("I don’t believe a word of the whole thing").

1842:

For the Manhattan Project, the second condition was met on 9 October 1941 or shortly thereafter. Germany for a long time was thought to have fallen short of what was required to make an atomic bomb. Mutual distrust existed between the German government and some scientists. By the end of 1941, it was

1536:

dropped 1,506 tons of high-explosive and 178 tons of incendiary bombs on the plant. Riehl visited the site with the Soviets and said that the facility was mostly destroyed. Riehl also recalled long after the war that the Soviets knew precisely why the Americans had bombed the facility—the attack had

1033:

Speer states that the project to develop the atom bomb was scuttled in the autumn of 1942. Though the scientific solution was there, it would have taken all of Germany's production resources to produce a bomb, and then no sooner than 1947. Development did continue with a "uranium motor" for the navy

1014:

the Minister of Science, Education and National Culture was ineffective and was not achieving its purpose. The hope was that Göring would manage the RFR with the same discipline and efficiency as he had the aviation sector. A meeting was held on 6 July 1942 to discuss the function of the RFR and set

589:

These three efforts, as noted, were independent and lasted until the fall of 1939, when the outbreak of World War II disrupted the work at Göttingen, and also prompted the HWA (Army Ordnance) to take over the work from the Reich Research Council. After the fact, this early work was designated as the

674:

to make all preparations to be able to answer beyond doubt the question of whether generating nuclear energy was feasible. It would certainly be very nice if it were possible to acquire a new source of energy, it would also very probably have military importance; a negative answer would be just as

627:(RFR, Reich Research Council) of the Reich Education Ministry (REM), and ordered the RFR to halt all experiments and work on nuclear energy. Esau protested that the discovery of nuclear fission was too recent to warrant such an action, but was ignored. These actions were initiated by the physicist 261:

The program was split up among nine major institutes where the directors dominated research and set their own objectives. Subsequently, the number of scientists working on applied nuclear fission began to diminish as many researchers applied their talents to more pressing wartime demands. The most

1916:

As a consequence of the foregoing, atomic energy development in Germany did not pass beyond the laboratory stage; utilization for power production rather than for an explosive was the principal consideration; and, though German science was interested in this new field, other scientific objectives

722:

felt it was better that the whole thing should be dropped and the Führer also reacted that way." He said they presented the matter in this way for their personal safety as the probability (of success) was nearly zero, but if many thousands (of) people developed nothing, that could have "extremely

982:

The point in 1942 when the army relinquished control of the project was its zenith in terms of the number of personnel devoted to the effort, and this was no more than about seventy scientists, with about forty devoting more than half their time to nuclear fission research. After this the number

1925:

are stark. The Manhattan Project consumed some US$ 2 billion (1945, ~US$ 27 billion in 2023 dollars) in government funds, and employed at its peak some 120,000 people, mostly in the sectors of construction and operations. In total the Manhattan Project involved the labor of some 500,000 people,

1289:

effort in Germany was the location, capture, and interrogation of German atomic scientists. This involved some significant effort as many of them had become scattered during the chaotic last weeks of the war in Europe. Ultimately, nine of the prominent German scientists who published reports in

1180:

Near the end of World War II, the principal Allied war powers each made plans for exploitation of German science. In light of the implications of nuclear weapons, German nuclear fission and related technologies were singled out for special attention. In addition to exploitation, denial of these

1910:

The general plan of conducting the subject research in some respects followed a pattern employed in the United States. Research assignments were farmed out to many small groups, generally of some university or technical school, or to industrial firms specializing in one or more of the related

350:

chain reaction for a significant amount of time and to achieve the complete separation of at least tiny amounts of the uranium isotopes". The scholarly consensus is that it failed to achieve these goals, and that despite fears at the time, the Germans had never been close to producing nuclear

1400:

both offers up an explanation for their "failure" and also elevates their moral authority above the Allied scientists, despite the fact that they worked for the Nazis. In the postwar, several scientists, notably von Weizsäcker and Heisenberg, gave this version of the story to journalists and

1854:

As to condition four, the high priority allocated to the Manhattan Project allowed for the recruitment and concentration of capable scientists on the project. In Germany, on the other hand, a great many young scientists and technicians who would have been of great use to such a project were

1237:, which eventually became the French occupation zone. This move allowed the Americans to take into custody a large number of German scientists associated with nuclear research. The only section of the institute which remained in Berlin was the low-temperature physics section, headed by 582:, Riehl recognized the possibility of uranium production as a business opportunity for the company, and July 1939 contacted the Army Ordnance Office on the matter. Army Ordnance eventually provided an order for the production of uranium oxide, which took place in the Auer plant in 1905:

The Manhattan Project's Alsos investigation ultimately concluded in a classified report, on the basis of documents and materials confiscated from research sites in Germany, Austria, and France, as well as interrogation of over 40 personnel connected with the program, that:

1862:, a scientific Manhattan Project leader, had a "unique double aptitude for theoretical and experimental work" in the 20th century, the successes at Leipzig until 1942 resulted from the cooperation between the theoretical physicist Werner Heisenberg and the experimentalist 1192:, a broad dragnet that encompassed a wide range of advanced fields, including jet and rocket propulsion, nuclear physics, and other developments with military applications such as infrared technology. Operations directed specifically towards German nuclear fission were 1160:

was already under way in Norway when the Germans invaded on 9 April 1940. The Norwegian production facilities for heavy water were quickly secured (though some heavy water had already been removed) and improved by the Germans. The Allies and Norwegians had

1364:

Prior to the announcement of Hiroshima, the German scientists, though worried about the future, expressed confidence in their value to the Allies on the basis of their advanced knowledge of nuclear matters. The British then told the scientists that the

2213:

for the discovery and the radiochemical proof of nuclear fission. Some American historians have documented their view of the history of the discovery of nuclear fission and believe Meitner should have been awarded the Nobel Prize with Hahn. See

1516:, confirmed that the Oranienburg plant was involved in the production of uranium and thorium metals. Since the plant was to be in the future Soviet zone of occupation and the Red Army's troops would get there before the Western Allies, General 1579:, who had a better relationship with the French, persuaded the French to appoint him as Deputy Director of the KWIP. This incident caused tension between the physicists and spectroscopists at the KWIP and within its umbrella organization the 765:(uranium machine, i.e., nuclear reactor). It was in effect broken up between institutes where the different directors dominated the research and set their own research agendas. The dominant personnel, facilities, and areas of research were: 1821:

The United States, British, and Canadian governments worked together to create the Manhattan Project that developed the uranium and plutonium atomic bombs. Its success has been attributed to meeting all four of the following conditions:

1843:

already apparent among German science and military elites that the German nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the German war effort in the near term, and control of the project was relinquished by the

3563: 1061:. Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. He was director of the Physics Department II at the Frederick William University (later, University of Berlin), which was commissioned and funded by the 1866:. Most important was their experimental proof of an effective neutron increase in April 1942. At the end of July of the same year, the group around Fermi also succeeded in the neutron increase within a reactor-like arrangement. 1803:, had Communist contacts. On 27 April 1945, Thiessen arrived at von Ardenne's institute in an armored vehicle with a major of the Soviet Army, who was also a leading Soviet chemist, and they issued Ardenne a protective letter ( 2172:. The paper is dated 16 January 1939. Meitner is identified as being at the Physical Institute, Academy of Sciences, Stockholm. Frisch is identified as being at the Institute of Theoretical Physics, University of Copenhagen. 1593:

At the close of World War II, the Soviet Union had special search teams operating in Austria and Germany, especially in Berlin, to identify and obtain equipment, material, intellectual property, and personnel useful to the

1015:

its agenda. The meeting was a turning point in Nazi attitudes towards science, as well as recognition that the policies which drove Jewish scientists out of Germany were a mistake, as the Reich needed their expertise.

1129:, in 1940. Von Ardenne had also conducted research on isotope separation. Taking Ewald's suggestion he began building a prototype for the RPM. The work was hampered by war shortages and ultimately ended by the war. 1357:. The legal authority for this, the legal status of the prisoners, and the ultimate intentions of the British were unclear to all involved, to the great discomfort of the scientists. The manor house was wired with 5089: 345:

Developments took place in several phases, but in the words of historian Mark Walker, it ultimately became "frozen at the laboratory level" with the "modest goal" to "build a nuclear reactor which could sustain a

738:

When it was apparent that the nuclear weapon project would not make a decisive contribution to ending the war in the near term, control of the KWIP was returned in January 1942 to its umbrella organization, the

1115:. He financed the laboratory with income he received from his inventions and from contracts with other concerns. For example, his research on nuclear physics and high-frequency technology was financed by the 1212:

Berlin had been a location of many German scientific research facilities. To limit casualties and loss of equipment, many of these facilities were dispersed to other locations in the later years of the war.

548:

wrote a letter on 24 April 1939 to Army Ordnance which also mentioned the military application of nuclear chain reactions. Harteck would not receive a reply until August 1939, however, as part of the second

1361:, and conversations between the German scientists were monitored and translated into English. It is unclear whether the scientists were aware, or whether they suspected, that they were being monitored. 714:

Heisenberg said in 1939 that the physicists at the (second) meeting said that "in principle atomic bombs could be made.... it would take years.... not before five." He said, "I didn't report it to the

1384:

At Farm Hall, the German scientists discussed why Germany did not create an atomic bomb, and the United States and United Kingdom did. The transcripts reveal them developing what has been called the

342:

demands for more manpower (many scientists and technical personnel were conscripted, despite possessing technical and engineering skills), substantially reduced the number of able German physicists.

1346:, the chief scientific advisor to Operation Alsos, thought von Laue might be beneficial to the postwar rebuilding of Germany and would benefit from the high level contacts he would have in England. 1144:, signed by Herbert Wagner and Hugo Watzlawek (1912–1995) in Berlin. Their application to the Aviation Ministry (RLM) to found and fund an Institute for Nuclear Technology and Nuclear Chemistry ( 284:. Schumann was one of the most powerful and influential physicists in Germany. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear-fission research than did 5818: 1426:

unsolved. ... They had decided that making a bomb in wartime Germany was unfeasible on technical and economic grounds. It was simply too big and too costly. Morality had nothing to do with it.

3763: 5039: 1065:(OKH, Army High Command) to conduct physics research projects. He was also head of the research department of the HWA, assistant secretary of the Science Department of the OKW, and 5702: 983:

diminished dramatically, and many of those not working with the main institutes stopped working on nuclear fission and devoted their efforts to more pressing war related work.

5715: 1142:Übersicht und Darstellung der historischen Entwicklung der modernen technischen Kernphysik und deren Anwendungsmöglichkeit sowie Zusammenfassung eigener Arbeitsziele und Pläne 1508:

Work of the American Operation Alsos teams, in November 1944, uncovered leads which took them to a company in Paris that handled rare earths and had been taken over by the

5415: 623:

In August 1939, just before the German invasion of Poland precipitated the formal start of World War II, the Army Ordnance Office (HWA) moved to take over the work of the

5776: 5766: 406:. Their article was published on 6 January 1939. On 19 December 1938, eighteen days before the publication, Otto Hahn communicated these results and his conclusion of a 3158: 718:

until two weeks later and very casually because I did not want the Führer to get so interested that he would order great efforts immediately to make the atomic bomb.

5530: 1260: 1486:. Adding to the capabilities in the final stages of metallic uranium production were the strengths of the Degussa corporation's capabilities in metals production. 5546: 4983: 1200:, the latter being done in collaboration with the British. In lieu of the codename for the Soviet operation, it is referred to by the historian Oleynikov as the 1930:

was budgeted a mere 8 million reichsmarks, equivalent to about US$ 2 million (1945,~US$ 27 million in 2023 dollars) – a thousandth of the American expenditure.

1799:), who all had made a pact that whoever first made contact with the Soviets would speak for the rest. Before the end of World War II, Thiessen, a member of the 1373:

The transcripts were declassified in 1992, and this particular section of discussion was subjected to expert scrutiny. Two scientists on the Manhattan Project,

1251:

American Alsos teams carrying out Operation BIG raced through Baden-Württemberg near the war's end in 1945, uncovering, collecting, and selectively destroying

3785: 4320:(2001). "The Conceptual Completion and Extensions of Quantum Mechanics 1932–1941. Epilogue: Aspects of the Further Development of Quantum Theory 1942–1999". 2249:, p. 363-4 and Appendix F; see the entries for Esau, Harteck and Joos. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B. 998:; after late 1943 the Reich Ministry for Armament and War Production), decided on its continuation merely for the aim of energy production. On 9 June 1942, 527:(Nuclear Physics Association). This initial work at Göttingen lasted until the fall of 1939, when Joos and Hanle were drafted into other military research. 5885: 5671: 5032: 1734: 1069:(plenipotentiary) for high explosives. Diebner, throughout the life of the nuclear weapon project, had more control over nuclear fission research than did 5582: 2416:, pp. 363–4 and Appendix F; see the entries for Diebner and Döpel. See also the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entry for the HWA in Appendix B. 1107:

In 1928, von Ardenne had come into his inheritance with full control as to how it could be spent, and he established his private research laboratory the

991: 5748: 2193: 5741: 5707: 5101: 5067: 781: 5865: 5855: 5801: 5308: 1739: 1259:. These were all shipped to the US for study and utilization in the US atomic program. Although many of these materials remain unaccounted for, the 5626: 5363: 1969: 5860: 5408: 5025: 1839:

Even with all four of these conditions in place the Manhattan Project succeeded only after the war in Europe had been brought to a conclusion.

803: 338:

heritage who did not leave were quickly purged, further thinning the ranks of researchers. The politicization of the universities, along with

2036: 1396:

not to build a bomb for Hitler, either by dragging their feet, being insufficiently enthusiastic, or, in some versions, active sabotage. The

5734: 2464:, See the entry for the KWIP in Appendix A and the entries for the HWA and the RFR in Appendix B. Also see p. 372 and footnote 50 on p. 372. 5676: 5094: 1635: 1528:

that the plant be destroyed by aerial bombardment, in order to deny its uranium production equipment to the Soviets. On 15 March 1945, 612

711:, was placed under HWA authority, with Diebner as the administrative director, and the military control of the nuclear research commenced. 5561: 1855:

conscripted into the German armed forces, while others had fled the country before the war due to antisemitism and political persecution.

3057: 244:. Eventually, the German military determined that nuclear fission would not contribute significantly to the war, and in January 1942 the 5880: 4329: 3686: 3281:, pp. 369 and 373, Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl and Kurt Diebner), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft). 1030:. In the final analysis, placing the RFR under Göring's administrative control had little effect on the German nuclear weapon project. 5072: 4448: 3835: 3661: 2760: 854: 4808: 5875: 5681: 5551: 5401: 4722: 4592: 4205: 4136: 4005: 3857: 3738: 3084: 2652: 2332:

Siegfried Flügge: Exploiting Atomic Energy. From the Laboratory Experiment to the Uranium Machine – Research Results in Dahlem

749:). HWA control of the project was subsequently passed to the RFR in July 1942. The nuclear weapon project thereafter maintained its 1168:

Graphite (carbon) as an alternative was not considered, because the neutron absorption coefficient value for carbon calculated by

5577: 5077: 4549: 4530: 4367: 4303: 3946: 1974: 1882: 1796: 1784: 1647: 1331: 704: 696: 4463:"From Exceptional Prominence to Prominent Exception: Lise Meitner at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry (Ergebnisse 24)" 1002:

issued a decree for the reorganization of the RFR as a separate legal entity under the RMBM; the decree appointed Reich Marshal

4699:

Volume 54, Issue 4, 14ff (2001), individual letters by Klaus Gottstein, Harry J. Lipkin, Donald C. Sachs, and David C. Cassidy.

5835: 5597: 5345: 5106: 5048: 1162: 5126: 48: 30:

This article is about German nuclear research during World War II. For nuclear power decommissioning in modern Germany, see

4966: 5686: 5621: 5158: 1639: 2509: 659: 504: 375: 334:

régime of 1933–1945 had driven many physicists, engineers, and mathematicians out of Germany as early as 1933. Those of

226:

began on September 1, 1939, the day of the invasion of Poland. The program eventually expanded into three main efforts:

197: 5433: 3470:

Keinerlei Untergang: German Armaments Engineers during the Second World War and in the Service of the Victorious Powers

5813: 5796: 5525: 5148: 5002: 4984:(June 2008) Annotated bibliography on the German atomic bomb project from the Alsos Digital Library for Nuclear Issues 3710:

Der experimentelle Nachweis der effektiven Neutronenvermehrung in einem Kugel-Schichten-System aus D2O und Uran-Metall

3255: 1681: 741: 467: 62: 2753:

Erinnerungen, fortgeschrieben. Ein Forscherleben im Jahrhudert des Wandels der Wissenschaften und politischen Systeme

2120:Über den Nachweis und das Verhalten der bei der Bestrahlung des Urans mittels Neutronen entstehenden Erdalkalimetalle 5771: 5488: 5473: 5468: 4211:

Hoffmann, Dieter (2005). "Between Autonomy and Accommodation: The German Physical Society during the Third Reich".

1752: 1744: 1718: 1662: 1595: 1045:

Over time, the HWA and then the RFR controlled the German nuclear weapon project. The most influential people were

927: 516: 443: 355:

competed with each other to obtain surviving components of the German nuclear industry (personnel, facilities, and

4955:

Volume 8, Number 2, 116–163 (2006). Mark Walker is Professor of History at Union College in Schenectady, New York.

4410:

The author has been a group leader at the Institute of Technical Physics of the Russian Federal Nuclear Center in

3781: 1501:(Army Ordnance Office) in Gottow. The G-1 experiment performed at the HWA testing station, under the direction of 475:, a physicist at the Reich Research Council of the REM, organized a meeting for what become informally known as a 5005: 2692: 2210: 1961: 1615: 2124:

On the detection and characteristics of the alkaline earth metals formed by irradiation of uranium with neutrons

1630:

had arrived earlier, although Kikoin did not recall a vanguard group. Targets on the top of their list were the

1255:

elements, including capturing a prototype reactor at Haigerloch and records, heavy water, and uranium ingots at

5870: 5644: 2324:

Die Ausnutzung der Atomenergie. Vom Laboratoriumsversuch zur Uranmaschine – Forschungsergebnisse in Dahlem

1901:

on the German side we find cut-throat competition, personal rivalries, and fighting over the limited resources.

1581: 753:(war importance) designation, and funding continued from the military, but it was then split into the areas of 3731:

Reaktorunfälle und die Handlungen der Feuerwehr: Leipzig, Tschernobyl und Fukushima – eine erste Analyse.

4561:"Eine Waffenschmiede? Kernwaffen- und Reaktorforschung am Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik (Ergebnisse 26)" 5483: 5478: 5175: 3225:, p. 369 Appendix F (see the entry for Nikolaus Riehl), and Appendix D (see the entry for Auergesellschaft). 2989:

United States Army in World War II: The Technical Services – The Corps of Engineers: The War Against Germany

2566: 2512:"Geheimdokumente zu den Forschungszentren": Gottow, Hamburg, Berlin, Leipzig und Wien, Heidelberg, Straßburg 2310: 2190: 1767:(Reich Postal Ministry), was also sent to the Soviet Union to work on their atomic bomb project, along with 1358: 390: 31: 5153: 5084: 352: 135: 4251:

Werner Heisenberg and the German Uranium Project / Otto Hahn and the Declarations of Mainau and Göttingen

3619: 1349:

The ten scientists were secretly relocated and kept confined and incommunicado with the broader world in

5634: 5496: 5368: 5180: 5116: 5111: 4741:

Document 95. Werner Heisenberg. The Theoretical Basis for the Generation of Energy from Uranium Fission

4059: 1792: 1763: 1643: 1117: 898: 880: 535: 1614:

officer's uniforms, from the bomb project's only laboratory, Laboratory No. 2, in Moscow, and included

471:(REM, Reich Ministry of Education), of potential military and economic applications of nuclear energy. 4974: 3713: 1238: 5639: 5602: 4651: 4607: 4493: 4220: 3976: 3905: 3876: 3251: 3019: 2866: 2077: 1874: 1776: 1569: 1557:

in Southern Germany due to air raids on Berlin, and became the Institute's Deputy Director. When the

1529: 1026:(plenipotentiary) for nuclear physics research under the RFR; in December 1943, Esau was replaced by 967: 865: 1666: 323:

research in December 1942, and was succeeded by Walther Gerlach after he resigned in December 1943.

5807: 5330: 5287: 4639: 4117:

Document 115. Werner Heisenberg: Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy

2748: 1984: 1758: 1751:(Department of Experimental Genetics). All four eventually worked for Riehl in the Soviet Union at 1413:). Most professional historians of science who have worked on this subject do not believe that the 1189: 1125:. Von Ardenne attracted top-notch personnel to work in his facility, such as the nuclear physicist 1112: 1101: 643: 571: 253: 200:

in Berlin in December 1938, but ended only a few months later, shortly ahead of the September 1939

2350:, p. 369, Appendix F, see the entry for Riehl, and Appendix D, see the entry for Auergesellschaft. 5823: 5062: 4560: 4509: 4473: 4462: 4401: 4258: 4236: 4033: 3967:

Crawford, Elisabeth; Sime, Ruth Lewin; Walker, Mark (1997). "A Nobel Tale of Postwar Injustice".

3045: 2101: 1921:

In terms of financial and human resources, the comparisons between the Manhattan Project and the

1607: 1182: 1097: 808: 746: 520: 415: 241: 201: 153: 3602: 2783:; the original typescript is available in the online-Archive of the Deutsches Museum München at 2169: 1505:, had lattices of 6,800 uranium oxide cubes (about 25 tons), in the nuclear moderator paraffin. 1172:

was too high, probably due to the boron in the graphite pieces having high neutron absorption.

5335: 5257: 5211: 5201: 4718: 4588: 4545: 4526: 4444: 4363: 4325: 4317: 4299: 4201: 4185: 4132: 4115:

Volume 160, Number 4059, 211–15 (16 August 1947). See also the annotated English translation:

4078: 4001: 3942: 3853: 3831: 3734: 3717: 3693: 3682: 3657: 3037: 2836: 2756: 2648: 2093: 2032: 1816: 1722: 1717:

Zimmer's path to work on the Soviet atomic bomb project was through a prisoner of war camp in

1521: 1440: 1323: 1299: 1272: 1197: 1137: 1122: 1020: 1003: 894: 692: 609: 312: 301: 4156:

werden – Zu einem bislang unbekannten Typoskript vom Oktober 1944 (Inneratomic Energy as the

3729:

This was the first accident that disrupted a nuclear energy assembly; cf. Reinhard Steffler,

3387:

For information on the American and Russian exploitation of Germany after World War II, see:

2807:

werden – Zu einem bislang unbekannten Typoskript vom Oktober 1944 (Inneratomic Energy as the

1111:, in Berlin-Lichterfelde, to conduct his own research on radio and television technology and 414:, who had fled Germany in July to the Netherlands and then to Sweden. Meitner and her nephew 17: 5591: 5374: 5350: 5292: 5169: 4903:

second expanded edition, (Barth, 1939) 133–151. See also the annotated English translation:

4659: 4615: 4501: 4393: 4282: 4228: 4175: 4094: 4025: 3984: 3913: 3884: 3845: 3716:. Published 1946 in: Heisenberg, W., Collected Works Vol. A II (Eds. W. Blum, H.-P Dürr and 3177: 3027: 2874: 2826: 2085: 2004: 1726: 1710: 1701: 1574: 1533: 1478: 1473: 1418: 1126: 1089: 945: 566: 492: 385: 161: 1136:

and von Ardenne's team in Berlin-Lichterfelde, there was also a small research team in the

574:, on the technical use of nuclear energy from uranium. As Auer had a substantial amount of 5325: 5262: 5163: 5143: 4770:

Zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung: Die deutsche physikalische Gesellschaft im dritten Reich

4585:

Die Spezialisten: Deutsche Naturwissenschaftler und Techniker in der Sowjetunion nach 1945

4481: 4458: 4436: 4355: 2197: 1893: 1623: 1603: 1558: 1525: 1405:, who reprinted and amplified it uncritically in the 1950s. At that time, accuracy of the 1343: 1327: 1311: 1286: 1193: 1054: 1027: 923: 906: 859: 708: 675:

important, since we could be sure that the enemy would also not be able to make use of it.

540: 458: 450: 423: 347: 320: 316: 307: 277: 233: 157: 5302: 2710: 1863: 1677: 1243: 688: 484: 4655: 4611: 4497: 4267: 4224: 3980: 3909: 3880: 3023: 2870: 2081: 1298:

were picked up by the Alsos team and incarcerated in England as part of what was called

5282: 5267: 5216: 4942:

Historia Scientiarum; International Journal for the History of Science Society of Japan

4852: 4820: 4351: 4339: 3705: 2784: 1947: 1870: 1693: 1627: 1566: 1546: 1469: 1434:

has been perpetuated in many popular accounts of the German atomic program, notably in

1225:(KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics) had mostly been moved in 1943 and 1944 to 1058: 941: 663: 561: 281: 4598:

Bernstein, Jeremy; Cassidy, David (1995). "Bomb Apologetics: Farm Hall, August 1945".

4568:

Research Program "History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in the National Socialist Era"

4470:

Research Program "History of the Kaiser Wilhelm Society in the National Socialist Era"

4286: 3764:"Manhattan District History, Book 1, Volume 14, Foreign Intelligence Supplement No. 1" 2130:

Volume 27, Number 1, 11–15 (1939). The authors were identified as associated with the

1512:. This, combined with information gathered in the same month through an Alsos team in 426:" – a term coined by Frisch. Frisch confirmed this experimentally on 13 January 1939. 5849: 5340: 5272: 5242: 5237: 4513: 4405: 4313: 4240: 4074: 3049: 2105: 2065: 1979: 1671: 1599: 1517: 1453: 1435: 1374: 1354: 1201: 1169: 1100:, which was thought applicable to U production and enrichment. This was picked up by 1074: 1070: 1011: 959: 799: 769: 684: 667: 639: 545: 500: 496: 480: 439: 289: 285: 4776: 4249: 570:(usually known as just "Auer"), a German industrial firm, read a June 1939 paper by 5463: 5440: 5381: 5297: 5277: 5252: 5232: 5206: 5196: 4717:. (1967 interviews with Werner Heisenberg and Paul Harteck). Westport CT: Meckler. 3247: 1859: 1768: 1658: 1619: 1502: 1402: 1339: 1319: 1307: 1234: 1078: 1050: 1046: 1016: 1007: 999: 987: 876: 823: 728: 719: 655: 628: 531: 472: 411: 297: 273: 269: 165: 149: 99: 54: 4996: 4707: 4047:

Science, Technology, and Reparations: Exploitation and Plunder in Postwar Germany

1185:. At times, all parties were heavy-handed in their pursuit and denial to others. 394:("Natural Sciences") reporting that they had detected and identified the element 4750:

Heisenberg, Werner, introduction by David Cassidy, translation by William Sweet

3823: 3649: 3263: 2385: 2383: 2330:

No. 387, Supplement (15 August 1939). English translation: Document No. 74

1697: 1689: 1483: 1303: 1157: 812: 758: 647: 632: 583: 512: 488: 237: 4180: 4147: 2831: 2798: 1783:(KWIPC, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry and Electrochemistry, today the 1006:

as its president. The reorganization was done under the initiative of Minister

926: – Director of the Second Experimental Physics Institute at the 4843: 4505: 4397: 4344:

The Russians in Germany: A History of the Soviet Zone of Occupation, 1945–1949

4232: 4016:

Gimbel, John (1986). "U.S. Policy and German Scientists: The Early Cold War".

3939:

Scientists Under Hitler: Politics and the Physics Community in the Third Reich

3259: 2854: 2089: 1937: 1826:

A strong initial drive, by a small group of scientists, to launch the project.

1800: 1788: 1685: 1562: 1513: 1378: 1335: 1256: 1230: 1039: 868:, fission products, isotope separation, and measurement of nuclear constants. 785: 508: 462: 360: 65:) being disassembled by American and British soldiers and others in April 1945 58: 5117:

Universität Leipzig, Institute for Physics; Institute for Theoretical Physics

4671:

Cassidy, David C. (1992). "Heisenberg, German Science, and the Third Reich".

4099: 4082: 3041: 2097: 5556: 5448: 5424: 5247: 4840:

German Historical Institute Washington, D.C., Occasional Paper No. 14 (1995)

4411: 2183:

Physical Evidence for the Division of Heavy Nuclei under Neutron Bombardment

1554: 1476:, set up an industrial-scale production of high-purity uranium oxide at the 1350: 1315: 1226: 1035: 845: 651: 635:. In September 1939, Diebner organized a meeting in Berlin on 16 September. 381: 339: 293: 221: 207: 130: 4378: 4189: 2840: 1714:

on reactor-grade uranium production and was also sent to the Soviet Union.

1553:. In 1944, he went with most of the KWIP staff when they were evacuated to 1277: 897: – Director of the Department of Theoretical Physics at the 715: 515:

was invited, but he did not attend. After this, informal work began at the

4733:

Die theoretischen Grundlagen für die Energiegewinnung aus der Uranspaltung

3654:

Serving the Reich : the struggle for the soul of physics under Hitler

802: – Director of the Institute for Physical Chemistry at the 831: 617: 403: 356: 327: 4739:, Volume 9, 201–212 (1943). See also the annotated English translation: 4162:

Master of the World – On a Hitherto Unknown Typescript from October 1944

2813:

Master of the World – On a Hitherto Unknown Typescript from October 1944

2682:, Appendix F; see the entry for Schumann. Also see footnote 1 on p. 207. 2064:

Grasso, Giacomo; Oppici, Carlo; Rocchi, Federico; Sumini, Marco (2009).

1263:

displayed a cube of uranium attained from this mission from March 2020.

5009: 4824:

Hitlers Bombe. Die geheime Geschichte der deutschen Kernwaffenversuche.

4037: 1772: 879: – Director of the Physical Chemistry Department of the 754: 679:

This group, like the one before it, referred to itself informally as a

575: 447: 399: 4879:

Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture

4663: 4168:

NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin

3957: 3917: 3888: 3032: 3007: 2878: 2819:

NTM Zeitschrift für Geschichte der Wissenschaften, Technik und Medizin

2696: 2307:

Kann der Energieinhalt der Atomkerne technisch nutzbar gemacht werden?

2003:

Due to the surrender of Germany. The program effort ceased due to the

852:(KWIC, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry, after World War II the 780:(KWImF, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Medical Research, after 1948 the 351:

weapons. With the war in Europe ending in the spring of 1945, various

5520: 4619: 3988: 2162:

Disintegration of Uranium by Neutrons: a New Type of Nuclear Reaction

1886: 731:

asked how long America would take and was told 1944 though the group

723:

disagreeable consequences for us." So we turned the slogan around to

579: 395: 335: 331: 4029: 3828:

Serving the Reich: the struggle for the soul of physics under Hitler

3547:

Danger and survival: Choices about the bomb in the first fifty years

1926:

nearly 1% of the entire US civilian labor force. By comparison, the

1489:

The Oranienburg plant provided the uranium sheets and cubes for the

1038:. However, by the summer of 1943, Speer released the remaining 1200 703:(KWIP, Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics, after World War II the 438:

On 22 April 1939, after hearing a colloquium paper by his colleague

4881:(California, 1998). For a critical review of this book, please see 4873: 4523:

German National Socialism and the Quest for Nuclear Power 1939–1949

4362:. American Chemical Society and the Chemical Heritage Foundations. 2569:

account and interpretation of the role of the RFR in Document 111:

834:, Thuringia; he was also an advisor to the HWA on nuclear physics. 830:(testing station) in Gottow and of the RFR experimental station in 4763:

The Mental Aftermath: The Mentality of German Physicists 1945–1949

4109:

Research in Germany on the Technical Applications of Atomic Energy

3564:"Radioactive find points to 'success' of Nazi atomic bomb program" 2066:"A Neutronics Study of the 1945 Haigerloch B-VIII Nuclear Reactor" 1781:

Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für physikalische Chemie und Elektrochemie

1276: 855:

Max Planck Institut für Chemie – Otto Hahn Institut

608: 4484:(2006). "The Politics of Memory: Otto Hahn and the Third Reich". 4360:

Stalin's Captive: Nikolaus Riehl and the Soviet Race for the Bomb

1342:, although he had nothing to do with the nuclear weapon project. 986:

On 4 June 1942, a conference regarding the project, initiated by

594:, with the HWA's reorganized project being designated the second 204:, for which many notable German physicists were drafted into the 196:). The first effort started in April 1939, just months after the 2730:, Appendix F; see entry for Ardenne. Also see the entry for the 1611: 363: 5397: 5021: 5017: 4583:

Albrecht, Ulrich, Andreas Heinemann-Grüder, and Arend Wellmann

4129:

Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources

2746:, pp. 83–84, 170, 183, and Reference n. 85 on p. 247. See also 1835:

A concentration of brilliant scientists devoted to the project.

410:

of the uranium nucleus in a letter to his colleague and friend

3867:

Bernstein, Jeremy (2002). "Heisenberg and the critical mass".

3591:. I. Physikalisches Institut, Justus-Liebig-Universität, 1989. 2532: 2530: 1829:

Unconditional government support from a certain point in time.

1366: 1042:

of uranium stock for the production of solid-core ammunition.

4977:

Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting

4969:

Release of documents relating to 1941 Bohr-Heisenberg meeting

4774:

Max-Planck-Institut für Wissenschafts Geschichte Preprint 192

1421:

put it in an annotated edition of the Farm Hall transcripts:

5393: 5125: 4890:

Heisenberg, Hitler und die Bombe. Gespraeche mit Zeitzeugen.

1610:. These teams were composed of scientific staff members, in 915:, isotope separation, and measurement of nuclear constants. 4296:

Surviving the Swastika: Scientific Research in Nazi Germany

2358: 2356: 1771:, Nobel laureate and director of Research Laboratory II at 1409:

was challenged forcefully by von Laue (who coined the term

973:

Transuranic elements and measurement of nuclear constants.

3267:

Bericht über einen Würfelversuch mit Uranoxyd und Paraffin

2289: 2287: 578:

on hand as a waste product from the process of extracting

212:. A second effort under the administrative purview of the 3850:

Hitler's Uranium Club: The Secret Recordings at Farm Hall

2588:

Record of Conference Regarding the Reich Research Council

683:. A second meeting was held soon thereafter and included 1832:

Essentially unlimited manpower and industrial resources.

544:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office), and his teaching assistant 4905:

Document 75. Erich Schumann: Armed Forces and Research

4805:

Peter Debye: "A Typical Scientist in an Untypical Time"

4420:

Heisenberg's War: The Secret History of the German Bomb

1549:

was a staff scientist at the KWIP, and worked with the

534:, director of the physical chemistry department at the 250:

turned the program over to the Reich Research Council (

4012:(1967 interviews with Heisenberg, Harteck and others). 3959:

Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg

3926:

by Klaus Gottstein and a reply by Jeremy Bernstein in

3340:

Now it Can be Told: The Story of the Manhattan Project

2647:. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson. pp. 314–20. 2274: 2272: 1791:, director of the Physical Chemistry Institute at the 1248:, who was in charge of the experimental uranium pile. 5112:

Universität Hamburg, Department of Physical Chemistry

4542:

Nazi Science: Myth, Truth, and the German Atomic Bomb

1188:

The best known US denial and exploitation effort was

901:

until summer 1942; thereafter acting director of the

745:(KWG, Kaiser Wilhelm Society, after World War II the 191: 177: 5090:

Institute for Physics Chemistry and Electrochemistry

4783:

The German Physical Society Under National Socialism

3714:

Forschungszentren/Leipzig/Neutronenvermehrung (1942)

2785:

https://digital.deutsches-museum.de/item/FA-002-752/

523:. Formally the group of physicists was known as the 5789: 5759: 5727: 5695: 5660: 5614: 5570: 5539: 5513: 5506: 5456: 5318: 5225: 5189: 5136: 5055: 4275:

Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics

2618:, Appendix F; see the entries for Esau and Gerlach. 735:thought it would take longer, three or four years. 465:, along with Hanle, notified Wilhelm Dames, at the 123: 106: 86: 78: 70: 41: 4908: 4744: 4570:. Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. 4127:Hentschel, Klaus; Hentschel, Ann M., eds. (1996). 4120: 3896:Bernstein, Jeremy (2004). "Heisenberg in Poland". 3806: 3782:"How many people worked on the Manhattan Project?" 3750: 3485: 3351: 3278: 3222: 2727: 2679: 2615: 2591: 2574: 2553: 2461: 2413: 2389: 2347: 2335: 2246: 2223: 1869:In June 1942, some six months before the American 778:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für medizinische Forschung 479:(Uranium Club). The group included the physicists 4083:"1982: Jubiläumsjahr der Kernspaltungs¬forschung" 2550:The Führer's Decree on the Reich Research Council 4379:"German Scientists in the Soviet Atomic Project" 3679:The Good Nazi: The Life and Lies of Albert Speer 1638:), the Frederick William University (today, the 1261:National Museum of Nuclear Science & History 761:production, uranium isotope separation, and the 388:sent a manuscript to the German science journal 152:undertook several research programs relating to 4927:Heisenberg, Goudsmit and the German Atomic Bomb 4474:Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 4259:Max Planck Institute for the History of Science 3473: 2536: 2278: 2259: 2257: 2255: 1785:Fritz Haber Institute of the Max-Planck Society 1761:, who had worked on isotope separation for the 1537:been directed at them rather than the Germans. 1423: 1010:of the RMBM; it was necessary as the RFR under 886:Heavy water production and isotope production. 672: 4131:. Translated by Hentschel, Ann M. Birkhäuser. 3058:"Lost Nuclear Material Resurfaces In Maryland" 2313:Volume 27, Issues 23/24, 402–10 (9 June 1939). 1896:summarizes the organizational differences as: 1146:Reichsinstituts für Kerntechnik und Kernchemie 782:Max-Planck-Institut für medizinische Forschung 5819:German persecution of Soviet prisoners of war 5409: 5033: 4863:Lise Meitner: Ein Leben fuer die Wissenschaft 4737:Zeitschrift für die gesamte Naturwissenschaft 2695:. sachsen.de. 20 January 2006. Archived from 2029:Technology transfer out of Germany after 1945 1165:and destroyed stocks of heavy water by 1943. 996:Reichsministerium für Bewaffnung und Munition 944: – Scientific Director of the 888:5 physical chemists, physicists, and chemists 631:, an advisor to the HWA, in association with 564:, the head of the scientific headquarters at 8: 4990:Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age 4870:Lise Meitner and the Dawn of the Nuclear Age 4431:(first paperback ed.). Cambridge Press. 4322:The Historical Development of Quantum Theory 3604:Robert Döpel and his Model of Global Warming 2638: 2636: 1851:(RFR, Reich Research Council) in July 1942. 1104:, who ran a private research establishment. 670:. Its purpose, as Bagge later recalled, was 305: 263: 251: 245: 227: 219: 213: 205: 183: 169: 4813:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker (editors) 3733:Elbe-Dnjepr-Verlag Leipzig-Mockrehna 2011. 3111:, pp. 268–74 and Reference n. 40 on p. 262. 3085:"Dark Cube: Heisenberg's Race for the Bomb" 2134:, Berlin-Dahlem. Received 22 December 1938. 1877:for the first time anywhere, Döpel's L-IV " 1735:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Brain Research 1109:Forschungslaboratorium für Elektronenphysik 905:(Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics), in 5664: 5510: 5416: 5402: 5394: 5040: 5026: 5018: 4715:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 4704:Werner Heisenberg: controversial scientist 4429:Science, Technology and National Socialism 4198:Otto Hahn – Achievement and Responsibility 3998:Atomic Bomb Scientists: Memoirs, 1939–1945 3444: 3420: 3314: 3234: 2362: 1493:experiments conducted at the KWIP and the 1163:sabotaged Norwegian heavy water production 992:Reich Ministry for Armament and Ammunition 422:and correctly interpreted the results as " 4815:Physiker zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung 4427:Renneberg, Monika; Walker, Mark (2002) . 4179: 4098: 3533: 3497: 3488:, Appendix F; see the entry for Thiessen. 3456: 3408: 3375: 3290: 3210: 3198: 3144: 3132: 3120: 3031: 2975: 2951: 2939: 2830: 2401: 1731:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Hirnforschung 258:) while continuing to fund the activity. 5802:German military brothels in World War II 4949:Otto Hahn: Responsibility and Repression 4882: 4758:Volume 48, Issue 8, Part I, 27–30 (1995) 4752:A Lecture on Bomb Physics: February 1942 4691:Volume 53, Issue 7, 28 (2000). See also 3830:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3656:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 3550: 3521: 3509: 3008:"Tracking the journey of a uranium cube" 3006:Koeth, Timothy; Hiebert, Miriam (2019). 2915: 2603: 2263: 2027:Judt, Matthias; Burghard Ciesla (1996). 1598:. The exploitation teams were under the 1444:, which itself was based heavily on the 1417:is true. As the historian and physicist 1121:(RPM, Reich Postal Ministry), headed by 5364:Germany and weapons of mass destruction 4693:Heisenberg's Message to Bohr: Who Knows 3432: 3388: 3302: 2963: 2927: 2019: 1996: 1970:Germany and weapons of mass destruction 727:not "make use of physics for warfare." 4685:A Historical Perspective on Copenhagen 4000:. Westport, CT & London: Meckler. 3396: 3392: 3363: 3326: 3269:G-125 (dated before 26 November 1942). 3108: 2903: 2891: 2857:(2000). "The German Uranium Project". 2743: 2667: 2627: 2524:, p. 52 and Reference n. 40 on p. 262. 2521: 2485: 2473: 2449: 2437: 2425: 2374: 2293: 2200:. The paper is dated 17 January 1939. 2051: 1885:by a chemical explosion introduced by 975:ca. 6 physicists and physical chemists 953:ca. 3 physicists and physical chemists 917:ca. 7 physicists and physical chemists 826: – Director of the HWA 817:ca. 4 physical chemists and physicists 804:Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich 638:The invitees to this meeting included 38: 4944:, Volume 14, Number 3, 164–181 (2005) 4916:National Socialism and German Physics 4628:What We Know About Nazism and Science 3780:Wellerstein, Alex (1 November 2013). 3354:, Appendix F; see the entry for Bopp. 2711:"Manfred Baron von Ardenne 1907–1997" 1740:Max-Planck-Institut für Hirnforschung 7: 4872:(e-Book, Plunkett Lake Press, 2015) 4838:The Germans and the Nuclear Question 4829:Karlsch, Rainer and Heiko Petermann 4807:Deutsche Physikalische Gesellschaft 3246:F. Berkei, W. Borrmann, W. Czulius, 3179:Heisenberg, Bohr and the atomic bomb 3159:"Darum hatte Hitler keine Atombombe" 2693:"Zur Ehrung von Manfred von Ardenne" 2497: 2234: 2219: 2215: 2151:Volume 58, Number 3, 263–267 (1990). 1917:received greater official attention. 1749:Abteilung für Experimentelle Genetik 1653:German physicists who worked on the 1636:Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physics 1448:-endorsing work of popular history, 1292:Kernphysikalische Forschungsberichte 1019:was appointed on 8 December 1942 as 928:Georg-August University of Göttingen 519:by Joos, Hanle, and their colleague 517:Georg-August University of Göttingen 5159:Ministry for Armament and Munitions 5014:(originally aired 8 November 2005). 4634:Volume 59, Number 3, 615–641 (1992) 3342:(De Capo, 1962) pp. 220–22, 230–31. 2779:Lehrbuch der technischen Kernphysik 2189:, Volume 143, Number 3616, 276–276 2168:, Volume 143, Number 3615, 239–240 1847:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office) to the 1811:Comparison to the Manhattan Project 1388:("version"). The basic version the 1221:Unfortunately for the Soviets, the 359:), as they did with the pioneering 5886:Abandoned projects of Nazi Germany 4992:(Birkhauser/Springer Verlag, 1999) 4443:. University of California Press. 4070:(Herder and Herder, New York 1970) 3549:(Random House, 1988), as cited in 3378:, p. 212 and footnote 5 on p. 212. 2145:Lise Meitner's Escape from Germany 2132:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie 1632:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik 1392:argued that the German scientists 1223:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik 1176:Exploitation and denial strategies 966:(Second Physics Institute) at the 962: – Director of the 903:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Physik 850:Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Chemie 848: – Director of the 837:Measurement of nuclear constants. 791:Measurement of nuclear constants. 772: – Director of the 701:Kaiser-Wilhelm Institut für Physik 525:Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Kernphysik 25: 5682:Flag officers of the Kriegsmarine 5672:Foreign volunteers and conscripts 5562:General der Nachrichtenaufklärung 4803:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker 4792:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker 4781:Hoffmann, Dieter and Mark Walker 3788:from the original on 21 July 2019 3769:. 8 November 1948. p. S4.48. 3720:, Berlin etc. (1989), pp. 536–44. 3147:, pp. 129–131, 171, 191–207. 1098:electromagnetic isotope separator 418:confirmed Hahn's conclusion of a 380:In December 1938, German chemist 4933:Volume 43, Issue 1, 52–60 (1990) 4800:Volume 5, Number 3, 53–58 (2006) 4794:Zwischen Autonomie und Anpassung 4152:: Mit inneratomarer Energie zum 3157:Popp, Manfred (4 January 2017). 2803:: Mit inneratomarer Energie zum 2224:Crawford, Sime & Walker 1997 1975:Japanese nuclear weapons program 1954: 1940: 1721:, as was that of his colleagues 1608:Colonel General A. P. Zavenyagin 1561:Mission evacuated Hechingen and 1267:Operation Epsilon, and Farm Hall 705:Max Planck Institute for Physics 556:Also independently of the first 92: 47: 5866:World War II weapons of Germany 5856:Nuclear program of Nazi Germany 4920:Journal of Contemporary Physics 4713:Ermenc, Joseph J., ed. (1989). 4441:Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics 2715:Lemo – Lebendiges Museum Online 2281:, Volume 6, Part 2, pp. 1010–1. 776:(Institute for Physics) at the 725:make use of warfare for physics 5107:Kirchhoff Institute of Physics 5068:Institute for Medical Research 4967:(February 2002) Aaserud, Finn 4938:German Work on Nuclear Weapons 4909:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 4899:in Richard Donnevert (editor) 4745:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 4268:"Getting even with Heisenberg" 4266:Landsman, Nicolaas P. (2002). 4121:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3996:Ermenc, Joseph J, ed. (1989). 3807:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3751:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3486:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3352:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3279:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 3223:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2728:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2680:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2616:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2592:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2575:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2554:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2462:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2414:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2390:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2348:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2336:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2247:Hentschel & Hentschel 1996 2160:Lise Meitner and O. R. Frisch 530:Independently of this effort, 168:. These were variously called 1: 5861:Nuclear technology in Germany 5687:Luftwaffe personnel structure 4865:(Düsseldorf: Claassen, 1990). 4856:The Making of the Atomic Bomb 4831:Für und wider "Hitlers Bombe" 4287:10.1016/S1355-2198(02)00015-1 3681:. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. 1797:Technische Universität Berlin 1648:Technische Universität Berlin 1468:(HWA, Army Ordnance Office), 1332:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 870:ca. 6 chemists and physicists 697:Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker 18:German nuclear weapon project 4640:"The German Uranium Project" 4638:Bethe, Hans A. (July 2000). 4377:Oleynikov, Pavel V. (2000). 1704:, while not a member of the 1620:Isaak Konstantinovich Kikoin 1229:and its neighboring town of 1034:and development of a German 434:and other early 1939 efforts 376:Discovery of nuclear fission 370:Discovery of nuclear fission 198:discovery of nuclear fission 27:World War II weapons project 5814:Myth of the clean Wehrmacht 5797:War crimes of the Wehrmacht 5181:Ministry of Postal Services 5003:Public Broadcasting Service 4386:The Nonproliferation Review 4324:. Vol. 6–2. Springer. 4298:. Oxford University Press. 4200:(Springer, New York. 2001) 4018:Political Science Quarterly 3937:Beyerchen, Alan D. (1977). 3618:Mangravite, Andrew (2015). 3474:Renneberg & Walker 2002 2537:Hanle & Rechenberg 1982 2328:Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung 2322:Also see: Siegfried Flügge 2279:Mehra & Rechenberg 2001 2149:American Journal of Physics 1582:Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft 964:II. Physikalisches Institut 742:Kaiser-Wilhelm Gesellschaft 468:Reichserziehungsministerium 236:) development, uranium and 192: 178: 63:Haigerloch research reactor 5902: 5881:Nuclear history of Germany 5677:Bribery of senior officers 5531:Office for General Affairs 4858:(Simon and Schuster, 1986) 4294:Macrakis, Kristie (1993). 4181:10.1007/s00048-020-00241-z 3956:Cassidy, David C. (1992). 3468:Heinemann-Grüder, Andreas 2832:10.1007/s00048-020-00241-z 2209:In 1944 Hahn received the 2118:O. Hahn and F. Strassmann 1814: 1708:, worked for Riehl at the 1663:Soviet atomic bomb project 1628:Georgij Nikolaevich Flerov 1624:Lev Andreevich Artsimovich 1596:Soviet atomic bomb project 1585:(Kaiser Wilhelm Society). 1452:(1993), by the journalist 1270: 373: 262:influential people in the 29: 5832: 5767:German military equipment 5667: 5431: 5359: 5123: 5085:Kaiser Wilhelm Institutes 4506:10.1007/s00016-004-0248-5 4398:10.1080/10736700008436807 4233:10.1007/s00016-004-0235-x 4146:Hentschel, Klaus (2020). 4054:Goudsmit, Samuel (1986). 3677:Van der Vat, Dan (1997). 3601:Arnold, Heinrich (2011). 2993:Into the Heart of Germany 2797:Hentschel, Klaus (2020). 2211:Nobel Prize for Chemistry 2090:10.1007/s00016-008-0396-0 2031:. Routledge. p. 55. 1962:Nuclear technology portal 1616:Yulij Borisovich Khariton 1524:, recommended to General 1497:(testing station) of the 1464:With the interest of the 699:. Also at this time, the 326:Politicization of German 202:German invasion of Poland 46: 5876:Nuclear weapons programs 5777:German military aircraft 5226:Scientists and Engineers 4100:10.1002/phbl.19820381207 3784:. Restricted Data Blog. 2777:Watzlawek, Hugo (1948). 1745:N. V. Timofeev-Resovskij 1743:), who worked there for 1602:and they were headed by 1359:covert listening devices 1338:. Also incarcerated was 1281:Farm Hall, Godmanchester 1081:, or Werner Heisenberg. 457:(uranium machine, i.e., 304:. Esau was appointed as 240:production, and uranium 53:The German experimental 5164:German Physics Movement 5073:Institute for Chemistry 4922:Volume 24, 63–89 (1989) 4897:Wehrmacht und Forschung 4418:Powers, Thomas (1993). 2987:Beck, Alfred M, et al, 2311:Die Naturwissenschaften 2196:23 January 2009 at the 1795:in Charlottenburg (now 1753:Laboratory B in Sungul' 1646:in Charlottenburg (now 1063:Oberkommando des Heeres 747:Max-Planck Gesellschaft 444:University of Göttingen 32:nuclear power phase-out 5836:Uranverein|Uranprojekt 5154:Reich Research Council 5130: 5011:Hitler's Sunken Secret 4953:Physics in Perspective 4486:Physics in Perspective 4213:Physics in Perspective 3607:. ilmedia. p. 27. 3445:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3421:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3315:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3235:Riehl & Seitz 1996 3123:, pp. 50, 363–65. 2645:Inside the Third Reich 2643:Speer, Albert (1995). 2571:War Physics in Germany 2404:, pp. xxii–xxiii. 2363:Riehl & Seitz 1996 2237:, Reference 8 on p. 3. 2070:Physics in Perspective 1428: 1282: 1138:Henschel Flugzeugwerke 677: 620: 538:and an advisor to the 306: 264: 252: 246: 228: 220: 214: 206: 184: 170: 136:Reich Research Council 42:German nuclear program 5635:Inspector of Fighters 5552:Army Personnel Office 5497:Wehrmachtbefehlshaber 5369:Zippe-type centrifuge 5149:Ministry of Education 5129: 5095:Institute for Physics 5078:Institute for Physics 5063:Max Planck Institutes 4877:Rose, Paul Lawrence, 4559:Walker, Mark (2005). 4540:Walker, Mark (1995). 4521:Walker, Mark (1993). 4087:Physikalische Blätter 4045:Gimbel, John (1990). 3924:Letters to the Editor 3708:, Werner Heisenberg, 3459:, pp. 11, 15–17. 2732:Reichspostministerium 1793:Technische Hochschule 1764:Reichspostministerium 1657:and were sent to the 1644:Technische Hochschule 1280: 1233:, on the edge of the 1118:Reichspostministerium 899:University of Leipzig 881:University of Hamburg 612: 536:University of Hamburg 446:proposing the use of 5640:Inspector of Bombers 5319:Military engagements 5176:High Command of Army 5144:Army Ordnance Office 4998:Nazis & the Bomb 4901:Wehrmacht und Partei 4587:(Dietz, 1992, 2001) 4248:Kant, Horst (2002). 3933:(9): 1143–45 (2004). 3524:, pp. 303, 319. 3500:, pp. 5, 11–13. 2749:Ardenne von, Manfred 2338:, pp. 197–206. 1777:Peter Adolf Thiessen 1640:University of Berlin 1530:B-17 Flying Fortress 1472:, and his colleague 1401:historians, notably 1285:A major goal of the 1208:American and British 1152:Moderator production 968:University of Vienna 951:Uranium production. 933:Isotope separation. 866:Transuranic elements 164:, before and during 131:Army Ordnance Office 5557:Army Weapons Agency 5331:Operation Paperclip 5288:Manfred von Ardenne 5137:Government Agencies 4975:Niels Bohr Archive 4885:, pp. 297–325. 4789:57(12) 52–58 (2004) 4747:, pp. 294–301. 4731:Heisenberg, Werner 4656:2000PhT....53g..34B 4612:1995PhT....48h..32B 4525:. Cambridge Press. 4498:2006PhP.....8....3S 4225:2005PhP.....7..293H 4107:Heisenberg, Werner 3981:1997PhT....50i..26C 3910:2004AmJPh..72..300B 3881:2002AmJPh..70..911B 3201:, pp. 332–335. 3135:, pp. 115–129. 3024:2019PhT....72e..36K 2991:, 1985 Chapter 24, 2871:2000PhT....53g..34B 2573:, January 1946, in 2128:Naturwissenschaften 2082:2009PhP....11..318G 1985:Operation Paperclip 1849:Reichsforschungsrat 1545:From 1941 to 1947, 1520:, commander of the 1353:, a manor house in 1190:Operation Paperclip 1113:electron microscopy 1102:Manfred von Ardenne 774:Institut für Physik 625:Reichsforschungsrat 586:, north of Berlin. 391:Naturwissenschaften 340:German armed forces 254:Reichsforschungsrat 5824:High Command Trial 5772:Kriegsmarine ships 5131: 5102:Center for Testing 4911:, pp. 207–20. 4892:(GNT-Verlag, 2018) 4836:Krieger, Wolfgang 4683:Cassidy, David C. 4606:(8 Part 1): 32–6. 4340:Naimark, Norman M. 4318:Rechenberg, Helmut 4123:, pp. 361–79. 4079:Rechenberg, Helmut 4058:. Introduction by 3620:"Magical Thinking" 3536:, pp. 122–23. 3512:, pp. 318–19. 3447:, pp. 121–32. 3435:, pp. 203–50. 3399:, pp. 433–51. 3366:, pp. 186–87. 3305:, pp. 205–07. 3237:, pp. 13, 69. 2966:, pp. 208–09. 2894:, pp. 433–51. 2590:, 6 July 1942, in 2577:, pp. 345–52. 2552:, 9 June 1942, in 2392:, p. 365, fn. 18.. 2266:, pp. 164–69. 2191:(18 February 1939) 2170:(11 February 1939) 1873:achieved man-made 1779:, director of the 1747:, director of the 1294:as members of the 1283: 1183:Potsdam Conference 1156:The production of 1096:, had proposed an 1092:, a member of the 1085:Isotope separation 809:Isotope separation 621: 521:Reinhold Mannkopff 495:(probably sent by 416:Otto Robert Frisch 384:and his assistant 242:isotope separation 154:nuclear technology 5843: 5842: 5785: 5784: 5656: 5655: 5526:Propaganda Troops 5391: 5390: 5336:Operation Epsilon 5258:Werner Heisenberg 5212:Wilhelm Ohnesorge 5056:Operational Sites 4980:(6 February 2002) 4847:The Alsos Mission 4817:(Wiley-VCH, 2007) 4768:Hoffmann, Dieter 4761:Hentschel, Klaus 4664:10.1063/1.1292473 4414:(Chelyabinsk-70). 4160:Towards Becoming 4060:Reginald V. Jones 4049:. Stanford Press. 3918:10.1119/1.1630333 3889:10.1119/1.1495409 3846:Bernstein, Jeremy 3753:, p. lxviii. 3423:, pp. 71–83. 3338:Leslie M. Groves 3317:, pp. 77–79. 3293:, pp. 50–51. 3250:, Georg Hartwig, 3033:10.1063/PT.3.4202 2978:, pp. 49–52. 2879:10.1063/1.1292473 2811:Towards Becoming 2699:on 25 March 2008. 2567:Samuel Goudsmit's 2476:, pp. 49–53. 2305:Siegfried Flügge 2296:, pp. 17–18. 2054:, pp. 198–9. 2038:978-3-7186-5822-0 1892:German historian 1817:Manhattan Project 1723:Hans-Joachim Born 1604:Lavrentij Beria's 1522:Manhattan Project 1460:Oranienburg plant 1324:Werner Heisenberg 1300:Operation Epsilon 1273:Operation Epsilon 1198:Operation Epsilon 1123:Wilhelm Ohnesorge 895:Werner Heisenberg 733:between ourselves 693:Werner Heisenberg 398:after bombarding 302:Werner Heisenberg 144: 143: 16:(Redirected from 5893: 5808:Bandenbekämpfung 5665: 5630:Personnel Office 5592:Seekriegsleitung 5586:Personnel Office 5511: 5446: 5438: 5418: 5411: 5404: 5395: 5293:Fritz Houtermans 5170:Auergesellschaft 5042: 5035: 5028: 5019: 4988:Rife, Patricia, 4895:Schumann, Erich 4888:Schaaf, Michael 4868:Rife, Patricia, 4861:Rife, Patricia, 4728: 4702:Eckert, Michael 4680: 4667: 4626:Beyerchen, Alan 4623: 4620:10.1063/1.881469 4571: 4565: 4555: 4536: 4517: 4482:Sime, Ruth Lewin 4477: 4467: 4459:Sime, Ruth Lewin 4454: 4437:Sime, Ruth Lewin 4432: 4423: 4409: 4383: 4373: 4356:Seitz, Frederick 4347: 4335: 4309: 4290: 4272: 4262: 4257:. Preprint 203. 4256: 4244: 4196:Hoffmann, Klaus 4193: 4183: 4142: 4104: 4102: 4063: 4050: 4041: 4011: 3992: 3989:10.1063/1.881933 3963: 3952: 3921: 3892: 3863: 3841: 3810: 3804: 3798: 3797: 3795: 3793: 3777: 3771: 3770: 3768: 3760: 3754: 3748: 3742: 3727: 3721: 3702: 3696: 3692: 3674: 3668: 3667: 3646: 3640: 3639: 3637: 3635: 3615: 3609: 3608: 3598: 3592: 3585: 3579: 3578: 3576: 3574: 3560: 3554: 3543: 3537: 3531: 3525: 3519: 3513: 3507: 3501: 3495: 3489: 3483: 3477: 3466: 3460: 3454: 3448: 3442: 3436: 3430: 3424: 3418: 3412: 3406: 3400: 3385: 3379: 3373: 3367: 3361: 3355: 3349: 3343: 3336: 3330: 3324: 3318: 3312: 3306: 3300: 3294: 3288: 3282: 3276: 3270: 3244: 3238: 3232: 3226: 3220: 3214: 3208: 3202: 3196: 3190: 3189: 3188: 3186: 3176:Teller, Edward, 3173: 3167: 3166: 3154: 3148: 3142: 3136: 3130: 3124: 3118: 3112: 3106: 3100: 3099: 3097: 3095: 3081: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3068: 3053: 3035: 3001: 2995: 2985: 2979: 2973: 2967: 2961: 2955: 2949: 2943: 2942:, pp. 1–30. 2937: 2931: 2925: 2919: 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Houtermans 1090:Paul Peter Ewald 1067:Bevollmächtigter 1024:Bevollmächtigter 1021:Hermann Göring's 990:as head of the " 946:Auergesellschaft 839:ca. 6 physicists 660:Gerhard Hoffmann 644:Siegfried Flügge 572:Siegfried Flügge 567:Auergesellschaft 505:Gerhard Hoffmann 493:Wolfgang Gentner 386:Fritz Strassmann 311: 267: 257: 249: 231: 225: 217: 211: 195: 189: 181: 175: 162:nuclear reactors 102: 98: 96: 95: 51: 39: 21: 5901: 5900: 5896: 5895: 5894: 5892: 5891: 5890: 5871:Nuclear weapons 5846: 5845: 5844: 5839: 5828: 5781: 5755: 5723: 5691: 5652: 5610: 5598:Fleet commander 5566: 5535: 5502: 5469:Minister of War 5452: 5444: 5436: 5427: 5422: 5392: 5387: 5382:The Virus House 5355: 5346:Vemork sabotage 5326:Operation Alsos 5314: 5263:Hans Kopfermann 5221: 5185: 5132: 5121: 5051: 5046: 4963: 4958: 4853:Rhodes, Richard 4833:(Waxmann, 2007) 4725: 4712: 4706:physicsweb.org 4673:Social Research 4670: 4637: 4632:Social Research 4597: 4579: 4577:Further reading 4574: 4563: 4558: 4552: 4539: 4533: 4520: 4480: 4465: 4457: 4451: 4435: 4426: 4417: 4381: 4376: 4370: 4352:Riehl, Nikolaus 4350: 4338: 4332: 4331:978-038795086-0 4312: 4306: 4293: 4270: 4265: 4254: 4247: 4210: 4145: 4139: 4126: 4073: 4053: 4044: 4030:10.2307/2151624 4015: 4008: 3995: 3966: 3955: 3949: 3936: 3895: 3866: 3860: 3844: 3838: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3809:, p. lxix. 3805: 3801: 3791: 3789: 3779: 3778: 3774: 3766: 3762: 3761: 3757: 3749: 3745: 3728: 3724: 3703: 3699: 3689: 3688:978-039565243-5 3676: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3648: 3647: 3643: 3633: 3631: 3617: 3616: 3612: 3600: 3599: 3595: 3587:Wilhelm Hanle, 3586: 3582: 3572: 3570: 3562: 3561: 3557: 3544: 3540: 3532: 3528: 3520: 3516: 3508: 3504: 3496: 3492: 3484: 3480: 3467: 3463: 3455: 3451: 3443: 3439: 3431: 3427: 3419: 3415: 3411:, pp. 3–8. 3407: 3403: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3370: 3362: 3358: 3350: 3346: 3337: 3333: 3325: 3321: 3313: 3309: 3301: 3297: 3289: 3285: 3277: 3273: 3245: 3241: 3233: 3229: 3221: 3217: 3213:, pp. 334. 3209: 3205: 3197: 3193: 3184: 3182: 3175: 3174: 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Hentschel 1845:Heereswaffenamt 1819: 1813: 1682:Walter Herrmann 1669: 1661:to work on the 1591: 1572: 1570:Hermann Schüler 1543: 1532:bombers of the 1526:George Marshall 1499:Heereswaffenamt 1466:Heereswaffenamt 1462: 1328:Horst Korsching 1312:Walther Gerlach 1287:Operation Alsos 1275: 1269: 1241: 1219: 1210: 1202:Russian "Alsos" 1194:Operation Alsos 1178: 1154: 1132:Aside from the 1087: 1055:Walther Gerlach 1028:Walther Gerlach 924:Hans Kopfermann 607: 541:Heereswaffenamt 459:nuclear reactor 436: 424:nuclear fission 378: 372: 348:nuclear fission 321:nuclear-physics 317:plenipotentiary 308:Reichsmarschall 278:Walther Gerlach 247:Heereswaffenamt 234:nuclear reactor 222:Heereswaffenamt 193:Uranium Project 158:nuclear weapons 147: 140: 119: 93: 91: 90: 66: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 5899: 5897: 5889: 5888: 5883: 5878: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5848: 5847: 5841: 5840: 5833: 5830: 5829: 5827: 5826: 5821: 5816: 5811: 5804: 5799: 5793: 5791: 5787: 5786: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5779: 5774: 5769: 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5190:Administration 5187: 5186: 5184: 5183: 5178: 5173: 5166: 5161: 5156: 5151: 5146: 5140: 5138: 5134: 5133: 5124: 5122: 5120: 5119: 5114: 5109: 5104: 5099: 5098: 5097: 5092: 5082: 5081: 5080: 5075: 5070: 5059: 5057: 5053: 5052: 5047: 5045: 5044: 5037: 5030: 5022: 5016: 5015: 4993: 4986: 4981: 4972: 4962: 4961:External links 4959: 4957: 4956: 4945: 4934: 4923: 4912: 4893: 4886: 4875: 4866: 4859: 4850: 4844:Pash, Boris T. 4841: 4834: 4827: 4821:Karlsch Rainer 4818: 4811: 4801: 4798:Physik Journal 4790: 4779: 4766: 4765:(Oxford, 2007) 4759: 4748: 4729: 4723: 4710: 4700: 4681: 4668: 4635: 4624: 4595: 4580: 4578: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4556: 4550: 4537: 4531: 4518: 4478: 4455: 4450:978-0520208605 4449: 4433: 4424: 4415: 4374: 4368: 4348: 4336: 4330: 4314:Mehra, Jagdish 4310: 4304: 4291: 4281:(2): 297–325. 4263: 4245: 4219:(3): 293–329. 4208: 4194: 4154:Herrn der Welt 4143: 4137: 4124: 4105: 4093:(12): 365–67. 4075:Hanle, Wilhelm 4071: 4064: 4051: 4042: 4024:(3): 433–451. 4013: 4006: 3993: 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2579: 2558: 2556:, p. 303. 2541: 2526: 2514: 2502: 2490: 2478: 2466: 2454: 2442: 2430: 2418: 2406: 2402:Bernstein 2001 2394: 2379: 2377:, pp. 18. 2367: 2352: 2340: 2315: 2298: 2283: 2268: 2251: 2239: 2227: 2202: 2174: 2153: 2136: 2111: 2076:(3): 318–335. 2056: 2044: 2037: 2018: 2016: 2013: 2010: 2009: 2005:Fall of Berlin 1995: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1988: 1987: 1982: 1977: 1972: 1966: 1965: 1951: 1948:Germany portal 1935: 1932: 1919: 1918: 1913: 1912: 1903: 1902: 1871:Chicago Pile-1 1837: 1836: 1833: 1830: 1827: 1815:Main article: 1812: 1809: 1694:Nikolaus Riehl 1667:Werner Czulius 1590: 1587: 1567:spectroscopist 1559:American Alsos 1542: 1539: 1495:Versuchsstelle 1470:Nikolaus Riehl 1461: 1458: 1271:Main article: 1268: 1265: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1206: 1177: 1174: 1153: 1150: 1086: 1083: 1059:Erich Schumann 1004:Hermann Göring 980: 979: 978: 977: 957: 956: 955: 942:Nikolaus Riehl 939: 938: 937: 921: 920: 919: 892: 891: 890: 874: 873: 872: 843: 842: 841: 828:Versuchsstelle 821: 820: 819: 797: 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5550: 5548: 5545: 5544: 5542: 5538: 5532: 5529: 5527: 5524: 5522: 5519: 5518: 5516: 5512: 5509: 5505: 5499: 5498: 5494: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5476: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5461: 5459: 5455: 5451: 5450: 5443: 5442: 5435: 5430: 5426: 5419: 5414: 5412: 5407: 5405: 5400: 5399: 5396: 5384: 5383: 5379: 5377: 5376: 5375:Hitler's Bomb 5372: 5370: 5367: 5365: 5362: 5361: 5358: 5352: 5349: 5347: 5344: 5342: 5341:Russian Alsos 5339: 5337: 5334: 5332: 5329: 5327: 5324: 5323: 5321: 5317: 5311: 5310: 5306: 5304: 5301: 5299: 5296: 5294: 5291: 5289: 5286: 5284: 5281: 5279: 5276: 5274: 5273:Georg Stetter 5271: 5269: 5266: 5264: 5261: 5259: 5256: 5254: 5251: 5249: 5246: 5244: 5243:Klaus Clusius 5241: 5239: 5238:Walther Bothe 5236: 5234: 5231: 5230: 5228: 5224: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5195: 5194: 5192: 5188: 5182: 5179: 5177: 5174: 5172: 5171: 5167: 5165: 5162: 5160: 5157: 5155: 5152: 5150: 5147: 5145: 5142: 5141: 5139: 5135: 5128: 5118: 5115: 5113: 5110: 5108: 5105: 5103: 5100: 5096: 5093: 5091: 5088: 5087: 5086: 5083: 5079: 5076: 5074: 5071: 5069: 5066: 5065: 5064: 5061: 5060: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5043: 5038: 5036: 5031: 5029: 5024: 5023: 5020: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5004: 5000: 4999: 4995:Walker, Mark 4994: 4991: 4987: 4985: 4982: 4979: 4978: 4973: 4971: 4970: 4965: 4964: 4960: 4954: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4939: 4936:Walker, Mark 4935: 4932: 4931:Physics Today 4928: 4925:Walker, Mark 4924: 4921: 4917: 4914:Walker, Mark 4913: 4910: 4906: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4891: 4887: 4884: 4883:Landsman 2002 4880: 4876: 4874: 4871: 4867: 4864: 4860: 4857: 4854: 4851: 4849:(Award, 1969) 4848: 4845: 4842: 4839: 4835: 4832: 4828: 4825: 4822: 4819: 4816: 4812: 4810: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4788: 4787:Physics Today 4784: 4780: 4778: 4775: 4771: 4767: 4764: 4760: 4757: 4756:Physics Today 4753: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4724:0-88736-267-2 4720: 4716: 4711: 4709: 4705: 4701: 4698: 4697:Physics Today 4694: 4690: 4689:Physics Today 4686: 4682: 4678: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4644:Physics Today 4641: 4636: 4633: 4629: 4625: 4621: 4617: 4613: 4609: 4605: 4601: 4600:Physics Today 4596: 4594: 4593:3-320-01788-8 4590: 4586: 4582: 4581: 4576: 4569: 4562: 4557: 4553: 4547: 4543: 4538: 4534: 4528: 4524: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4503: 4499: 4495: 4491: 4487: 4483: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4446: 4442: 4438: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4413: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4391: 4387: 4380: 4375: 4371: 4365: 4361: 4357: 4353: 4349: 4345: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4327: 4323: 4319: 4315: 4311: 4307: 4301: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4253: 4252: 4246: 4242: 4238: 4234: 4230: 4226: 4222: 4218: 4214: 4209: 4207: 4206:0-387-95057-5 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4182: 4177: 4174:(2): 121–47. 4173: 4169: 4165: 4163: 4159: 4155: 4151: 4144: 4140: 4138:0-8176-5312-0 4134: 4130: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4106: 4101: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4080: 4076: 4072: 4069: 4065: 4061: 4057: 4052: 4048: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4014: 4009: 4007:0-88736-267-2 4003: 3999: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3969:Physics Today 3965: 3961: 3960: 3954: 3950: 3944: 3940: 3935: 3932: 3929: 3925: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3904:(3): 300–04. 3903: 3899: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3875:(9): 911–16. 3874: 3870: 3865: 3861: 3859:0-387-95089-3 3855: 3851: 3847: 3843: 3839: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3820: 3815: 3808: 3803: 3800: 3787: 3783: 3776: 3773: 3765: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3739:3-940541-33-8 3736: 3732: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3718:H. Rechenberg 3715: 3712:. Facsimile: 3711: 3707: 3701: 3698: 3695: 3690: 3684: 3680: 3673: 3670: 3665: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3645: 3642: 3629: 3625: 3624:Distillations 3621: 3614: 3611: 3606: 3605: 3597: 3594: 3590: 3584: 3581: 3569: 3565: 3559: 3556: 3552: 3551:Landsman 2002 3548: 3542: 3539: 3535: 3530: 3527: 3523: 3522:Landsman 2002 3518: 3515: 3511: 3510:Landsman 2002 3506: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3491: 3487: 3482: 3479: 3476:, p. 44. 3475: 3471: 3465: 3462: 3458: 3453: 3450: 3446: 3441: 3438: 3434: 3429: 3426: 3422: 3417: 3414: 3410: 3405: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3384: 3381: 3377: 3372: 3369: 3365: 3360: 3357: 3353: 3348: 3345: 3341: 3335: 3332: 3328: 3323: 3320: 3316: 3311: 3308: 3304: 3299: 3296: 3292: 3287: 3284: 3280: 3275: 3272: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3249: 3243: 3240: 3236: 3231: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3216: 3212: 3207: 3204: 3200: 3195: 3192: 3181: 3180: 3172: 3169: 3164: 3160: 3153: 3150: 3146: 3141: 3138: 3134: 3129: 3126: 3122: 3117: 3114: 3110: 3105: 3102: 3090: 3086: 3080: 3077: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3051: 3047: 3043: 3039: 3034: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3012:Physics Today 3009: 3004: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2994: 2990: 2984: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2969: 2965: 2960: 2957: 2953: 2948: 2945: 2941: 2936: 2933: 2929: 2924: 2921: 2917: 2916:Goudsmit 1986 2912: 2909: 2905: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2888: 2885: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2859:Physics Today 2856: 2850: 2847: 2842: 2838: 2833: 2828: 2824: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2810: 2806: 2802: 2792: 2789: 2786: 2780: 2772: 2769: 2764: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2745: 2740: 2737: 2733: 2729: 2724: 2721: 2716: 2712: 2706: 2703: 2698: 2694: 2688: 2685: 2681: 2676: 2673: 2669: 2664: 2661: 2656: 2654:9781842127353 2650: 2646: 2639: 2637: 2633: 2630:, p. 86. 2629: 2624: 2621: 2617: 2612: 2609: 2605: 2604:Macrakis 1993 2600: 2597: 2593: 2589: 2586:Document 99: 2583: 2580: 2576: 2572: 2568: 2562: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2548:Document 98: 2545: 2542: 2538: 2533: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2518: 2515: 2511: 2506: 2503: 2500:, p. 19. 2499: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2482: 2479: 2475: 2470: 2467: 2463: 2458: 2455: 2452:, p. 27. 2451: 2446: 2443: 2440:, p. 23. 2439: 2434: 2431: 2428:, p. 34. 2427: 2422: 2419: 2415: 2410: 2407: 2403: 2398: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2371: 2368: 2365:, p. 13. 2364: 2359: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2344: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2319: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2302: 2299: 2295: 2290: 2288: 2284: 2280: 2275: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2264:Macrakis 1993 2260: 2258: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2243: 2240: 2236: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2221: 2217: 2212: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2192: 2188: 2184: 2181:O. R. Frisch 2178: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2157: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2140: 2137: 2133: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2115: 2112: 2107: 2103: 2099: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2067: 2060: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2045: 2040: 2034: 2030: 2023: 2020: 2014: 2006: 2000: 1997: 1990: 1986: 1983: 1981: 1980:Alsos Mission 1978: 1976: 1973: 1971: 1968: 1967: 1963: 1952: 1949: 1938: 1933: 1931: 1929: 1924: 1915: 1914: 1909: 1908: 1907: 1899: 1898: 1897: 1895: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1883:was destroyed 1880: 1879:Uran-Maschine 1876: 1872: 1867: 1865: 1861: 1856: 1852: 1850: 1846: 1840: 1834: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1824: 1823: 1818: 1810: 1808: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1766: 1765: 1760: 1756: 1754: 1750: 1746: 1742: 1741: 1736: 1732: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1715: 1713: 1712: 1707: 1703: 1702:Günter Wirths 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1673: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1651: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1617: 1613: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1588: 1586: 1584: 1583: 1576: 1571: 1568: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1540: 1538: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1518:Leslie Groves 1515: 1511: 1506: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1492: 1487: 1485: 1481: 1480: 1475: 1474:Günter Wirths 1471: 1467: 1459: 1457: 1455: 1454:Thomas Powers 1451: 1447: 1443: 1442: 1438:'s 1998 play 1437: 1436:Michael Frayn 1433: 1427: 1422: 1420: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1399: 1395: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1376: 1375:Edward Teller 1371: 1368: 1362: 1360: 1356: 1355:Godmanchester 1352: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1309: 1305: 1301: 1297: 1293: 1288: 1279: 1274: 1266: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1249: 1245: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1228: 1224: 1217:Operation BIG 1216: 1214: 1207: 1205: 1203: 1199: 1195: 1191: 1186: 1184: 1175: 1173: 1171: 1170:Walther Bothe 1166: 1164: 1159: 1151: 1149: 1147: 1143: 1139: 1135: 1130: 1128: 1124: 1120: 1119: 1114: 1110: 1105: 1103: 1099: 1095: 1091: 1084: 1082: 1080: 1077:, Otto Hahn, 1076: 1075:Klaus Clusius 1072: 1071:Walther Bothe 1068: 1064: 1060: 1056: 1052: 1048: 1043: 1041: 1037: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1022: 1018: 1013: 1012:Bernhard Rust 1009: 1005: 1001: 997: 993: 989: 984: 976: 972: 971: 969: 965: 961: 960:Georg Stetter 958: 954: 950: 949: 947: 943: 940: 936: 932: 931: 929: 925: 922: 918: 914: 911: 910: 908: 907:Berlin-Dahlem 904: 900: 896: 893: 889: 885: 884: 882: 878: 875: 871: 867: 864: 863: 861: 860:Berlin-Dahlem 857: 856: 851: 847: 844: 840: 836: 835: 833: 829: 825: 822: 818: 814: 810: 807: 806: 805: 801: 800:Klaus Clusius 798: 794: 790: 789: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 770:Walther Bothe 768: 767: 766: 764: 760: 756: 752: 751:kriegswichtig 748: 744: 743: 736: 734: 730: 726: 721: 717: 712: 710: 709:Berlin-Dahlem 706: 702: 698: 694: 690: 686: 685:Klaus Clusius 682: 676: 671: 669: 668:Georg Stetter 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 640:Walther Bothe 636: 634: 630: 626: 619: 615: 611: 605: 601: 599: 597: 593: 587: 585: 581: 577: 573: 569: 568: 563: 559: 554: 552: 547: 546:Wilhelm Groth 543: 542: 537: 533: 528: 526: 522: 518: 514: 510: 506: 502: 501:Wilhelm Hanle 498: 497:Walther Bothe 494: 490: 486: 482: 481:Walther Bothe 478: 474: 470: 469: 464: 460: 456: 452: 449: 445: 441: 440:Wilhelm Hanle 433: 429: 427: 425: 421: 417: 413: 409: 405: 401: 397: 393: 392: 387: 383: 377: 369: 367: 365: 362: 358: 354: 353:Allied powers 349: 343: 341: 337: 333: 329: 324: 322: 318: 314: 310: 309: 303: 299: 295: 291: 290:Klaus Clusius 287: 286:Walther Bothe 283: 279: 275: 271: 266: 259: 256: 255: 248: 243: 239: 235: 230: 224: 223: 216: 210: 209: 203: 199: 194: 188: 187: 180: 174: 173: 167: 163: 159: 155: 151: 146:Military unit 137: 134: 132: 129: 128: 126: 122: 115: 112: 111: 109: 105: 101: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 64: 60: 56: 50: 45: 40: 37: 33: 19: 5834: 5806: 5749: 5743:Kriegsmarine 5742: 5735: 5716: 5709:Kriegsmarine 5708: 5645: 5627: 5622:Organization 5604:Kriegsmarine 5603: 5590: 5584:Kriegsmarine 5583: 5578:Organization 5571:Kriegsmarine 5507:Organization 5495: 5464:Adolf Hitler 5447: 5445: 5441:Kriegsmarine 5439: 5437: 5380: 5373: 5307: 5303:Robert Döpel 5298:Gernot Zippe 5278:Abraham Esau 5253:Paul Harteck 5233:Kurt Diebner 5207:Albert Speer 5197:Adolf Hitler 5168: 5049:Uranium Club 5010: 4997: 4989: 4976: 4968: 4952: 4948: 4947:Mark Walker 4941: 4937: 4930: 4926: 4919: 4915: 4904: 4900: 4896: 4889: 4878: 4869: 4862: 4855: 4846: 4837: 4830: 4823: 4814: 4804: 4797: 4793: 4786: 4782: 4773: 4769: 4762: 4755: 4751: 4740: 4736: 4732: 4714: 4703: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4679:(3): 643–61. 4676: 4672: 4647: 4643: 4631: 4627: 4603: 4599: 4584: 4567: 4551:0-30644941-2 4541: 4532:0-52143804-7 4522: 4489: 4485: 4469: 4440: 4428: 4419: 4389: 4385: 4369:0-84123310-1 4359: 4343: 4321: 4305:0-19507010-0 4295: 4278: 4274: 4250: 4216: 4212: 4197: 4171: 4167: 4161: 4157: 4153: 4150:Der neue Weg 4149: 4128: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4090: 4086: 4067: 4055: 4046: 4021: 4017: 3997: 3975:(9): 26–32. 3972: 3968: 3958: 3948:0-30001830-4 3938: 3930: 3928:Am. J. Phys. 3927: 3923: 3901: 3897: 3872: 3868: 3849: 3827: 3824:Ball, Philip 3802: 3790:. Retrieved 3775: 3758: 3746: 3730: 3725: 3709: 3700: 3678: 3672: 3653: 3650:Ball, Philip 3644: 3632:. Retrieved 3627: 3623: 3613: 3603: 3596: 3588: 3583: 3571:. Retrieved 3567: 3558: 3546: 3541: 3529: 3517: 3505: 3493: 3481: 3469: 3464: 3452: 3440: 3433:Naimark 1995 3428: 3416: 3404: 3389:Naimark 1995 3383: 3371: 3359: 3347: 3339: 3334: 3322: 3310: 3303:Naimark 1995 3298: 3286: 3274: 3266: 3252:K. H. Höcker 3248:Kurt Diebner 3242: 3230: 3218: 3206: 3194: 3183:, retrieved 3178: 3171: 3162: 3152: 3140: 3128: 3116: 3104: 3092:. Retrieved 3088: 3079: 3065:. Retrieved 3061: 3018:(5): 36–43. 3015: 3011: 2999: 2992: 2988: 2983: 2971: 2964:Naimark 1995 2959: 2954:, p. 3. 2947: 2935: 2928:Naimark 1995 2923: 2911: 2899: 2887: 2862: 2858: 2849: 2822: 2818: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2801:Der neue Weg 2800: 2791: 2778: 2771: 2752: 2739: 2731: 2723: 2714: 2705: 2697:the original 2687: 2675: 2663: 2644: 2623: 2611: 2599: 2594:, pp. 304–8. 2587: 2582: 2570: 2561: 2549: 2544: 2517: 2505: 2493: 2481: 2469: 2457: 2445: 2433: 2421: 2409: 2397: 2370: 2343: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2318: 2306: 2301: 2242: 2230: 2205: 2186: 2182: 2177: 2165: 2161: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2139: 2131: 2127: 2123: 2119: 2114: 2073: 2069: 2059: 2047: 2028: 2022: 1999: 1927: 1922: 1920: 1904: 1891: 1878: 1868: 1864:Robert Döpel 1860:Enrico Fermi 1857: 1853: 1848: 1844: 1841: 1838: 1820: 1804: 1780: 1769:Gustav Hertz 1762: 1757: 1748: 1738: 1737:, today the 1730: 1716: 1709: 1705: 1678:Robert Döpel 1659:Soviet Union 1654: 1652: 1631: 1600:Soviet Alsos 1592: 1580: 1550: 1544: 1509: 1507: 1503:Kurt Diebner 1498: 1494: 1491:Uranmaschine 1490: 1488: 1477: 1465: 1463: 1449: 1445: 1439: 1431: 1429: 1424: 1414: 1410: 1406: 1403:Robert Jungk 1397: 1393: 1389: 1385: 1383: 1372: 1363: 1348: 1340:Max von Laue 1320:Paul Harteck 1308:Kurt Diebner 1295: 1291: 1284: 1252: 1250: 1235:Black Forest 1222: 1220: 1211: 1187: 1179: 1167: 1155: 1145: 1141: 1133: 1131: 1116: 1108: 1106: 1093: 1088: 1079:Paul Harteck 1066: 1062: 1051:Abraham Esau 1047:Kurt Diebner 1044: 1032: 1023: 1017:Abraham Esau 1008:Albert Speer 1000:Adolf Hitler 995: 988:Albert Speer 985: 981: 974: 963: 952: 935:2 physicists 934: 916: 913:Uranmaschine 912: 902: 887: 877:Paul Harteck 869: 853: 849: 838: 827: 824:Kurt Diebner 816: 815:production. 793:6 physicists 792: 777: 773: 763:Uranmaschine 762: 750: 740: 737: 732: 729:Erhard Milch 724: 713: 700: 689:Robert Döpel 680: 678: 673: 656:Paul Harteck 637: 629:Kurt Diebner 624: 622: 613: 603: 595: 591: 588: 565: 557: 555: 550: 539: 532:Paul Harteck 529: 524: 485:Robert Döpel 476: 473:Abraham Esau 466: 455:Uranmaschine 454: 437: 431: 419: 412:Lise Meitner 407: 389: 379: 344: 325: 298:Paul Harteck 274:Abraham Esau 270:Kurt Diebner 260: 229:Uranmaschine 185: 179:Uranium Club 171: 166:World War II 156:, including 150:Nazi Germany 148: 55:nuclear pile 36: 4826:(Dva, 2005) 4650:(7): 34–6. 4544:. Perseus. 4492:(1): 3–51. 4392:(2): 1–30. 4066:Hahn, Otto 3898:Am. J. Phys 3869:Am. J. Phys 3792:16 November 3706:Klara Döpel 3704:Robert and 3397:Gimbel 1986 3393:Gimbel 1990 3364:Walker 1993 3327:Walker 1993 3264:Ernst Rexer 3256:W. Herrmann 3109:Walker 1993 2904:Gimbel 1990 2892:Gimbel 1986 2865:(7): 34–6. 2781:. Deuticke. 2744:Walker 1993 2668:Walker 1993 2628:Walker 1993 2522:Walker 1993 2486:Walker 1993 2474:Walker 1993 2450:Ermenc 1989 2438:Ermenc 1989 2426:Ermenc 1989 2375:Walker 1993 2294:Walker 1993 2052:Walker 1995 1875:criticality 1805:Schutzbrief 1759:Von Ardenne 1719:Krasnogorsk 1698:Karl Zimmer 1690:Ernst Rexer 1670: [ 1642:), and the 1573: [ 1484:Oranienburg 1304:Erich Bagge 1242: [ 1158:heavy water 1040:metric tons 813:heavy water 759:heavy water 648:Hans Geiger 633:Erich Bagge 584:Oranienburg 513:Peter Debye 489:Hans Geiger 238:heavy water 186:Uranprojekt 116:Uranprojekt 107:Nickname(s) 5850:Categories 5703:Army ranks 5547:Army units 5457:Leadership 4346:. Belknap. 3962:. Freeman. 3630:(4): 44–45 3573:5 November 2755:. Droste. 2015:References 1928:Uranverein 1923:Uranverein 1801:Nazi Party 1789:Max Volmer 1706:Uranverein 1686:Heinz Pose 1665:included: 1655:Uranverein 1563:Haigerloch 1551:Uranverein 1547:Fritz Bopp 1514:Strasbourg 1441:Copenhagen 1379:Hans Bethe 1336:Karl Wirtz 1296:Uranverein 1257:Tailfingen 1253:Uranverein 1231:Haigerloch 1134:Uranverein 1094:Uranverein 786:Heidelberg 681:Uranverein 614:Atomkeller 604:Uranverein 596:Uranverein 592:Uranverein 558:Uranverein 551:Uranverein 509:Georg Joos 477:Uranverein 463:Georg Joos 432:Uranverein 330:under the 265:Uranverein 172:Uranverein 113:Uranverein 74:April 1939 59:Haigerloch 5760:Equipment 5750:Luftwaffe 5717:Luftwaffe 5661:Personnel 5646:Luftwaffe 5628:Luftwaffe 5615:Luftwaffe 5449:Luftwaffe 5425:Wehrmacht 5248:Otto Hahn 5008:episode, 4514:119479637 4412:Snezhinsk 4406:144392252 4241:122355802 4062:. Toamsh. 3922:See also 3568:NewsComAu 3545:M. 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Knowledge (XXG)

German nuclear program during World War II

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