666:-- Overlapping the initial growth and development of the brain, and extending throughout an individual's life, a continuous process of synaptic selection occurs within the diverse repertoires of neuronal groups. This process may strengthen or weaken the connections between groups of neurons and it is constrained by value signals that arise from the activity of the ascending systems of the brain, which are continually modified by successful output. Experiential selection generates dynamic systems that can 'map' complex spatio-temporal events from the sensory organs, body systems and other neuronal groups in the brain onto other selected neuronal groups. Edelman argues that this dynamic selective process is directly analogous to the processes of selection that act on populations of individuals in species, and he also points out that this functional plasticity is imperative, since not even the vast coding capability of entire human genome is sufficient to explicitly specify the astronomically complex synaptic structures of the developing brain.
682:: Edelman demonstrates spontaneous group formation among neurons with re-entrant connections). Reentry depends for its operations on the intricate networks of massively parallel reciprocal connections within and between neuronal groups, which arise through the processes of developmental and experiential selection outlined above. Edelman describes reentry as "a form of ongoing higher-order selection ... that appears to be unique to animal brains" and that "there is no other object in the known universe so completely distinguished by reentrant circuitry as the human brain."
1977:
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660:, no two people will have precisely the same synaptic structures in any comparable area of brain tissue. Their high degree of functional plasticity and the extraordinary density of their interconnections enables neuronal groups to self-organise into many complex and adaptable "modules." These are made up of many different types of neurons which are typically more closely and densely connected to each other than they are to neurons in other groups.
503:. At the time when the first complete antibody sequence was determined (1969) it was the largest complete protein sequence that had ever been determined. The availability of amino acid sequences of antibody proteins allowed recognition of the fact that the body can produce many different antibody proteins with similar antibody constant regions and divergent antibody
652:-- the formation of the gross anatomy of the brain is controlled by genetic factors, but in any individual the connectivity between neurons at the synaptic level and their organisation into functional neuronal groups is determined by somatic selection during growth and development. This process generates tremendous variability in the neural circuitry—like the
633:
of zeros. The young brain contains many more neural connections than will ultimately survive to maturity, and
Edelman argued that this redundant capacity is needed because neurons are the only cells in the body that cannot be renewed and because only those networks best adapted to their ultimate purpose will be selected as they organize into neuronal groups.
33:
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connections with each other. A sample of brain tissue the size of a match head contains about a billion connections, and if we consider how these neuronal connections might be variously combined, the number of possible permutations becomes hyper-astronomical – in the order of ten followed by millions
416:
The impact of
Edelman's and Porter's discoveries is explained by the fact that they provided a clear picture of the structure and mode of action of a group of biologically particularly important substances. By this they laid a firm foundation for truly rational research, something that was previously
620:, which liken the brain's functions to the operations of a computer. Edelman argued that mind and consciousness are purely biological phenomena, arising from complex cellular processes within the brain, and that the development of consciousness and intelligence can be explained by Darwinian theory.
515:
Topobiology is
Edelman's theory which asserts that morphogenesis is driven by differential adhesive interactions among heterogeneous cell populations and it explains how a single cell can give rise to a complex multi-cellular organism. As proposed by Edelman in 1988, topobiology is the process that
278:
Edward
Edelman, and Anna (née Freedman) Edelman, who worked in the insurance industry. He studied violin for years, but eventually realized that he did not have the inner drive needed to pursue a career as a concert violinist, and decided to go into medical research instead. He attended public
245:
molecules. In interviews, he has said that the way the components of the immune system evolve over the life of the individual is analogous to the way the components of the brain evolve in a lifetime. There is a continuity in this way between his work on the immune system, for which he won the
446:(IgG) molecules. This diagram also illustrates the relative positions of the variable (V) and constant (C) domains of an IgG molecule. The heavy and light chain variable regions come together to form antigen binding sites at the end of the two symmetrical arms of the antibody.
417:
largely lacking in immunology. Their discoveries represent clearly a break-through that immediately incited a fervent research activity the whole world over, in all fields of immunological science, yielding results of practical value for clinical diagnostics and therapy.
678:—the concept of reentrant signalling between neuronal groups. He defines reentry as the ongoing recursive dynamic interchange of signals that occurs in parallel between brain maps, and which continuously interrelates these maps to each other in time and space (
454:
link together the protein subunits. The protein subunits of antibodies are of two types, the larger heavy chains and the smaller light chains. Two light and two heavy chains are linked together by disulfide bonds to form a functional antibody.
569:"... what you lose on entering a dreamless deep sleep ... deep anesthesia or coma ... what you regain after emerging from these states. experience of a unitary scene composed variably of sensory responses ... memories ... situatedness ..."
612:, citing the key tenets of Darwin's population theory, which postulates that individual variation within species provides the basis for the natural selection that eventually leads to the evolution of new species. He explicitly rejected
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362:(CAMs), which guide the fundamental processes that help an animal achieve its shape and form, and by which nervous systems are built. One of the most significant discoveries made in this research is that the precursor
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cells) each with an enormous number of synaptic connections to other neurons. During development, the subset of connections that survive the initial phases of growth and development will make approximately 100
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in the early 1960s produced fundamental breakthroughs in the understanding of the antibody's chemical structure, opening a door for further study. For this work, Edelman and Porter shared the
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Using experimental data from his own research and the work of others, Edelman developed molecular models of antibody proteins. A key feature of these models included the idea that the
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Cummingham, B.; Gottlieb, P.; Konigsberg, W.; Edelman, G. (1968). "The covalent structure of a human gamma G-immunoglobulin. V. Partial amino acid sequence of the light chain".
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that between 1993 and 2012 studied the biological bases of higher brain function in humans. He served on the scientific board of the World
Knowledge Dialogue project.
2045:
393:. He decided that, since the book said so little about antibodies, he would investigate them further upon returning to the United States, which led him to study
300:
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in 1960. The institute made him the assistant (later associate) dean of graduate studies; he became a professor at the school in 1966. In 1992, he moved to
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sculpts and maintains differentiated tissues and is acquired by the energetically favored segregation of cells through heterologous cellular interactions.
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Edelman's theory seeks to explain consciousness in terms of the morphology of the brain. A brain comprises a massive population of neurons (approx. 100
1826:
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In his books, Edelman proposed a biological theory of consciousness, based on his studies of the immune system. He explicitly roots his theory within
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2011:
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1962:
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Their discoveries represent clearly a break-through that immediately incited a fervent research activity the whole world over ...
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534:, documented in a trilogy of technical books and in several subsequent books written for a general audience, including
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581:, which is built around the idea of plasticity in the neural network in response to the environment. The second book,
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protein subunits. The inter-chain disulfide bonds help bring together the two parts of the antigen binding domain.
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to fragment the antibody protein subunits into smaller pieces that could be analyzed for determination of their
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Edelman, G. M.; Cunningham, B. A.; Gall, W. E.; Gottlieb, P. D.; Rutishauser, U.; Waxdal, M. J. (1969).
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1379:"Variable regions of heavy and light polypeptide chains of the same gammaG-immunoglobulin molecule"
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The
Mindful Brain: Cortical Organization and the Group-selective Theory of Higher Brain Function
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in biological systems and the fundamental role that degeneracy plays in facilitating evolution.
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2008:
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for the neural cell adhesion molecule gave rise in evolution to the entire molecular system of
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and in the formation and function of the nervous system. These studies led to the discovery of
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Gottlieb, P. D.; Cunningham, B. A.; Waxdal, M. J.; Konigsberg, W. H.; Edelman, G. M. (1968).
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2015:
1966:
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645:', has three basic tenets—Developmental Selection, Experiential Selection and Reentry.
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431:
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musician, recording artist, and writer. Some observers have noted that a character in
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860:
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While in Paris serving in the Army, Edelman read a book that sparked his interest in
238:
1801:
1676:
From Brain
Dynamics to Consciousness: A Prelude to the Future of Brain-Based Devices
1225:
4312:
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4168:
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1982:
1779:
1005:"Gerald Edelman (1929–2014) Biologist who won Nobel for solving antibody structure"
346:
After his Nobel prize award, Edelman began research into the regulation of primary
336:
251:
163:
241:. Edelman's Nobel Prize-winning research concerned discovery of the structure of
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3319:
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3204:
3112:
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2120:
2112:
2096:
1950:
1515:
1091:
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327:
as a graduate fellow, working in the laboratory of Henry Kunkel and receiving a
247:
181:
1983:"Evolution in Your Brain: Gerald Edelman says only the fittest neurons survive"
1442:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1383:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1289:
Proceedings of the
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4360:
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3756:
3255:
2514:
2462:
2409:
585:(1988), proposes a theory of how the original neuronal network of a newborn's
472:
332:
159:
3580:
843:, Edelman and Jean-Pierre Changeux, editors, (Transaction Publishers, 2000).
450:
Edelman's early research on the structure of antibody proteins revealed that
311:
After a year at the Johnson Foundation for Medical Physics, Edelman became a
4390:
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3008:
708:
275:
226:
1740:
1721:
1328:
1038:
1971:
1913:, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, pp. 431–446,
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1422:
1403:
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1309:
955:
3251:
1462:
496:
390:
242:
1355:
739:
624:
464:
2018:, Video, IBM Lecture on Cognitive Computing, June 2006, inactive as of
1996:"The Brain Doctor: Dr. Gerald Edelman is a Genius on a Spiritual Path"
1827:"Gerald M. Edelman, Nobel Laureate and 'Neural Darwinist,' Dies at 84"
426:
590:
4519:
Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania alumni
1438:"The covalent structure of an entire gammaG immunoglobulin molecule"
1029:
1004:
691:
Edelman and Gally were the first to point out the pervasiveness of
977:
Structural differences among antibodies of different specificities
586:
425:
98:
89:
1909:, in William J. Clancey; Stephen W. Smoliar; Mark Stefik (eds.),
350:, particularly the control of cell growth and the development of
726:
Edelman married Maxine M. Morrison in 1950. They have two sons,
363:
3848:
3584:
2041:
1220:
986:
by G. M. Edelman, B. Benacerraf, Z. Ovary and M. D. Poulik in
397:
for his 1960 Ph.D. Research by Edelman and his colleagues and
217:
211:
107:
1754:
641:
Edelman's theory of neuronal group selection, also known as '
1607:
The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of Consciousness
815:
The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of Consciousness
373:
For his efforts, Edelman was an elected member of both the
205:
616:
and also dismissed newer hypotheses such as the so-called
412:
lauded Edelman and Porter's work as a major breakthrough:
319:; he then practiced medicine in France while serving with
4499:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
2031:
1090:
Edelman's remarks in 2008 radio interview with physicist
530:
In his later career, Edelman was noted for his theory of
1960:
The Scripps Research Institute - Faculty: Gerald Edelman
1911:
Contemplating minds: a forum for artificial intelligence
863:, coauthors, (Basic Books, 2000, Reprint edition 2001).
597:(1990) contains an extended exposition of his theory of
1878:"Hirnforscher Gerald Edelman gestorben: Darwins Gehirn"
1685:", Video, IBM Lecture on Cognitive Computing, June 2006
2030:
Nobel Luminaries – Jewish Nobel Prize Winners, on the
1532:
Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind
1500:
Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the matter of the mind
828:
Bright Air, Brilliant Fire: On the Matter of the Mind
1701:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA
1579:
Topobiology: An Introduction to Molecular Embryology
1250:(Press release). Karolinksa Institutet. October 1972
802:
Topobiology: An Introduction to Molecular Embryology
208:
3747:
3722:
3691:
3675:
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2903:
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2300:
2079:
214:
202:
173:
155:
137:
114:
81:
62:
39:
23:
1604:
1697:"Degeneracy and complexity in biological systems"
1272:Karolinska Institutet press release, October 1972
890:Second Nature: Brain Science and Human Knowledge
354:, focusing on cell-to-cell interactions in early
4469:American consciousness researchers and theorists
1632:Gerald M. Edelman; Jean-Pierre Changeux (2001).
1248:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1972"
998:
996:
556:Second Nature: Brain Science and Human Knowledge
414:
225:; July 1, 1929 – May 17, 2014) was an American
2032:Beit Hatfutsot-The Museum of the Jewish People
408:In its Nobel Prize press release in 1972, the
4554:Members of the American Philosophical Society
3860:
3596:
2053:
972:
970:
951:
949:
301:University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine
8:
1210:
1208:
1151:Nobelprize.org - Gerald M. Edelman biography
1058:
1056:
1054:
1052:
1050:
1048:
830:(Basic Books, 1992, Reprint edition 1993).
732:David, an adjunct professor of neuroscience
3867:
3853:
3845:
3603:
3589:
3581:
2060:
2046:
2038:
1975:
959:
804:(Basic Books, 1988, Reissue edition 1993)
325:Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research
31:
20:
4529:United States Army Medical Corps officers
4504:Members of the French Academy of Sciences
4494:21st-century American non-fiction writers
4429:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
1730:
1720:
1471:
1461:
1412:
1402:
1318:
1308:
1028:
589:is established during development of the
1110:"Attention Bewilders Queens High School"
789:: The Theory of Neuronal Group Selection
573:The first of Edelman's technical books,
565:Edelman defines human consciousness as:
3876:Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry
1167:American Academy of Arts & Sciences
945:
2009:"From Brain Dynamics to Consciousness"
1907:"Review of G.M. Edelman (book review)"
1285:"A Model for the 7S Antibody Molecule"
877:: The Phenomenal Gift of Consciousness
618:'computational' model of consciousness
459:Molecular models of antibody structure
2073:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
1876:Müller-Jung, Joachim (May 19, 2014).
1855:"Gerald Edelman, Nobel laureate dies"
1636:. Transaction Publishers. p. 45.
1128:"Gerald M. Edelman: Curriculum Vitae"
403:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
375:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
279:schools in New York, graduating from
231:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
142:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
7:
716:USA Science and Engineering Festival
1224:. November 21, 2000. Archived from
772:. Edelman died on May 17, 2014, in
266:Gerald Edelman was born in 1929 in
4449:American cognitive neuroscientists
1802:"Judith Edelman - Compass Records"
1216:"Frontiers Profile: Gerry Edelman"
990:(1961) volume 47, pages 1751-1758.
14:
1857:. U-T San Diego.com. May 20, 2014
707:, a nonprofit research center in
4544:Biologists from New York (state)
1498:(November 19, 1992). "Review of
857:: How Matter Becomes Imagination
491:Edelman and his colleagues used
198:
1283:Edelman, G.; Gally, J. (1964).
1081:(Including Addendum, May 2005.)
1063:Odelberg, Wilhelm, ed. (1973).
910:Biologically inspired computing
577:(1978), develops his theory of
467:binding domains of antibodies (
127:
4539:People from Ozone Park, Queens
4514:Rockefeller University faculty
1108:Ravo, Nick (January 7, 1987).
1065:"Gerald M. Edelman: Biography"
935:List of Jewish Nobel laureates
817:(Basic Books, New York 1990).
791:(Basic Books, New York 1987).
379:American Philosophical Society
341:The Scripps Research Institute
323:. In 1957, Edelman joined the
317:Massachusetts General Hospital
1:
4489:20th-century American writers
2022:Jeffrey Epstein VI Foundation
892:(Yale University Press 2006)
703:Edelman founded and directed
1905:Smoliar, Stephen W. (1994),
714:Edelman was a member of the
268:Ozone Park, Queens, New York
3165:Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard
1516:10.1056/NEJM199211193272119
855:A Universe of Consciousness
705:The Neurosciences Institute
541:A Universe of Consciousness
442:(blue) protein subunits of
4570:
4549:Jewish American physicists
4474:American physical chemists
1953:telling his life story at
1755:"World Knowledge Dialogue"
1695:Edelman and Gally (2001).
1663:Bright Air, Brilliant Fire
1649:Bright Air, Brilliant Fire
1603:Gerald M. Edelman (1989).
1576:Gerald M. Edelman (1988).
1551:Gerald M. Edelman (1978).
964:, accessed 11 October 2020
925:Reentry (neural circuitry)
764:Later in his life, he had
675:Reentry (neural circuitry)
672:
536:Bright Air, Brilliant Fire
523:
335:and became a professor of
95:University of Pennsylvania
3882:
3772:
2362:Charles Scott Sherrington
2338:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
1931:(originally published in
1003:Rutishauser, Urs (2014).
756:may be a nod at Edelman.
430:Diagram illustrating the
187:
148:
30:
4509:Scripps Research faculty
4484:American science writers
4434:American Nobel laureates
3352:Françoise Barré-Sinoussi
2014:January 6, 2012, at the
2001:San Diego Jewish Journal
1965:January 9, 2011, at the
1681:January 6, 2012, at the
1163:"Gerald Maurice Edelman"
988:Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A
879:(Yale Univ. Press 2004)
295:in 1950. He received an
262:Early life and education
250:, and his later work in
1934:Artificial Intelligence
1647:Gerald Edelman (1992).
1502:by Gerald M. Edelman".
930:List of Nobel laureates
736:University of San Diego
650:Developmental selection
526:Secondary consciousness
520:Theory of consciousness
360:cell adhesion molecules
4524:Ursinus College alumni
4454:Jewish neuroscientists
4444:American embryologists
4439:American immunologists
3778:Nobel Prize recipients
3724:Physiology or Medicine
3713:John Robert Schrieffer
2133:Santiago Ramón y Cajal
1722:10.1073/pnas.231499798
1665:(Penguin, 1992), p.224
1651:. Penguin. p. 17.
1069:Les Prix Nobel en 1972
730:in New York City, and
664:Experiential selection
595:The Remembered Present
447:
419:
352:multi-celled organisms
281:John Adams High School
194:Gerald Maurice Edelman
104:Rockefeller University
44:Gerald Maurice Edelman
4079:Charles C. Richardson
3630:Christian B. Anfinsen
2634:Dickinson W. Richards
2318:Julius Wagner-Jauregg
1404:10.1073/pnas.61.1.168
1310:10.1073/pnas.51.5.846
1228:on September 28, 2020
728:Eric, a visual artist
429:
410:Karolinska Institutet
356:embryonic development
321:US Army Medical Corps
287:, where he graduated
4343:Christopher J. Chang
4319:Paul J. Hergenrother
4295:Benjamin Cravatt III
4193:Jacqueline K. Barton
4145:Christopher T. Walsh
3738:Rodney Robert Porter
3642:William Howard Stein
3057:Rita Levi-Montalcini
2418:Albert Szent-Györgyi
1463:10.1073/pnas.63.1.78
1192:search.amphilsoc.org
1188:"APS Member History"
982:May 8, 2006, at the
774:La Jolla, California
434:(red) that link the
399:Rodney Robert Porter
283:, and then attended
235:Rodney Robert Porter
229:who shared the 1972
74:La Jolla, California
4464:American biologists
4301:Dewey G. McCafferty
4229:Stuart L. Schreiber
4163:Harold M. Weintraub
4067:Phillips W. Robbins
3449:William C. Campbell
3360:Elizabeth Blackburn
3197:Robert F. Furchgott
3189:Stanley B. Prusiner
3181:Rolf M. Zinkernagel
3081:George H. Hitchings
3045:Joseph L. Goldstein
3005:Bengt I. Samuelsson
2834:Earl Sutherland Jr.
1713:2001PNAS...9813763E
1707:(24): 13763–13768.
1454:1969PNAS...63...78E
1395:1968PNAS...61..168G
1356:10.1021/bi00845a049
1301:1964PNAS...51..846E
1021:2014Natur.510..474R
915:Embodied philosophy
770:Parkinson's disease
718:'s advisory board.
501:amino acid sequence
487:Antibody sequencing
178:Paul David Gottlieb
57:New York City, U.S.
4325:Scott K. Silverman
4307:Linda Hsieh-Wilson
4289:Andreas Matouschek
4247:Gregory L. Verdine
4211:George L. McLendon
4013:Harold A. Scheraga
3923:Earl A. Evans, Jr.
3509:William Kaelin Jr.
3505:Peter J. Ratcliffe
3248:Leland H. Hartwell
3137:Richard J. Roberts
3017:Barbara McClintock
2961:Godfrey Hounsfield
2862:Nikolaas Tinbergen
2794:Marshall Nirenberg
2762:Charles B. Huggins
2551:Tadeusz Reichstein
2539:António Egas Moniz
2334:Christiaan Eijkman
1974:on Nobelprize.org
1832:The New York Times
1534:by Gerald Edelman"
1071:. Nobel Foundation
958:on Nobelprize.org
920:Embodied cognition
875:Wider than the Sky
738:. Their daughter,
551:Wider than the Sky
448:
395:physical chemistry
348:cellular processes
256:philosophy of mind
168:Philosophy of mind
120:Maxine M. Morrison
16:American biologist
4534:Jewish physicians
4459:Jewish biologists
4406:
4405:
4379:Bradley Pentelute
4349:Matthew D. Disney
4157:Roger D. Kornberg
4139:Charles R. Cantor
4115:James E. Dahlberg
4085:Mario R. Capecchi
4061:Gerald M. Edelman
4049:William P. Jencks
4007:Robert A. Alberty
4001:William F. Neuman
3929:Herbert E. Carter
3842:
3841:
3749:Economic Sciences
3578:
3577:
3543:Ardem Patapoutian
3392:Ralph M. Steinman
3388:Jules A. Hoffmann
3376:Robert G. Edwards
3344:Harald zur Hausen
3268:H. Robert Horvitz
3169:Eric F. Wieschaus
3105:E. Donnall Thomas
3089:J. Michael Bishop
3077:Gertrude B. Elion
2949:Hamilton O. Smith
2874:Christian de Duve
2610:Frederick Robbins
2487:Alexander Fleming
2426:Corneille Heymans
2272:Frederick Banting
2177:Allvar Gullstrand
1988:Discover Magazine
1972:Gerald M. Edelman
1920:978-0-262-53119-1
1782:on April 21, 2010
1674:Gerald Edelman: "
1618:978-0-465-06910-1
1589:978-0-465-08634-4
1562:978-0-262-05020-3
1540:. April 20, 1992.
1510:(21): 1535–1536.
1496:Tauber, Alfred I.
956:Gerald M. Edelman
610:Natural Selection
575:The Mindful Brain
368:adaptive immunity
191:
190:
174:Doctoral students
150:Scientific career
4561:
4253:Alanna Schepartz
4217:Peter G. Schultz
4187:James E. Rothman
4175:David V. Goeddel
4151:Phillip A. Sharp
4133:Robert G. Roeder
4103:Bruce M. Alberts
4073:Gordon G. Hammes
3989:Nathan O. Kaplan
3977:John M. Buchanan
3959:Dilworth Woodley
3935:Joseph S. Fruton
3917:David Rittenberg
3893:Harold S. Alcott
3887:William M. Allen
3869:
3862:
3855:
3846:
3780:
3759:(United Kingdom)
3740:(United Kingdom)
3605:
3598:
3591:
3582:
3571:
3556:
3545:
3530:
3524:Michael Houghton
3511:
3501:Gregg L. Semenza
3495:
3489:James P. Allison
3483:
3481:Michael W. Young
3467:
3465:Yoshinori Ohsumi
3459:
3443:
3427:
3425:Thomas C. Südhof
3411:
3399:
3378:
3370:
3364:Carol W. Greider
3354:
3338:
3322:
3310:
3298:
3286:
3274:
3258:
3231:
3215:
3207:
3191:
3183:
3177:Peter C. Doherty
3171:
3155:
3149:Alfred G. Gilman
3143:
3131:
3119:
3107:
3095:
3093:Harold E. Varmus
3083:
3067:
3059:
3047:
3035:
3019:
3011:
2995:
2979:
2969:Baruj Benacerraf
2963:
2951:
2935:
2919:
2896:
2880:
2864:
2848:
2836:
2828:
2812:
2796:
2786:Robert W. Holley
2780:
2764:
2752:
2736:
2724:
2708:
2692:
2690:Georg von Békésy
2684:
2672:
2660:
2658:Joshua Lederberg
2644:
2636:
2630:Werner Forssmann
2620:
2612:
2596:
2584:
2576:
2557:
2541:
2529:
2521:
2519:Bernardo Houssay
2505:
2497:
2481:
2469:
2457:
2456:
2450:
2449:
2443:
2442:
2436:
2428:
2420:
2412:
2400:
2392:
2376:
2368:
2356:
2348:
2346:Karl Landsteiner
2340:
2328:
2320:
2312:
2310:Johannes Fibiger
2293:
2292:
2286:
2284:Willem Einthoven
2278:
2266:
2254:
2253:
2247:
2239:
2231:
2230:
2224:
2223:
2217:
2216:
2210:
2209:
2203:
2195:
2187:
2179:
2171:
2163:
2155:
2149:Élie Metchnikoff
2143:
2141:Alphonse Laveran
2135:
2123:
2115:
2107:
2099:
2091:
2062:
2055:
2048:
2039:
1979:
1940:(1989) 121–139.)
1930:
1929:
1927:
1893:
1892:
1890:
1888:
1873:
1867:
1866:
1864:
1862:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1842:
1840:
1823:
1817:
1816:
1814:
1812:
1798:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1787:
1778:. Archived from
1772:
1766:
1765:
1763:
1761:
1751:
1745:
1744:
1734:
1724:
1692:
1686:
1672:
1666:
1661:Gerald Edelman,
1659:
1653:
1652:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1629:
1623:
1622:
1610:
1600:
1594:
1593:
1573:
1567:
1566:
1548:
1542:
1541:
1526:
1520:
1519:
1492:
1486:
1485:
1475:
1465:
1433:
1427:
1426:
1416:
1406:
1374:
1368:
1367:
1350:(5): 1983–1994.
1339:
1333:
1332:
1322:
1312:
1280:
1274:
1269:
1263:
1262:
1257:
1255:
1244:
1238:
1237:
1235:
1233:
1212:
1203:
1202:
1200:
1198:
1184:
1178:
1177:
1175:
1173:
1159:
1153:
1148:
1142:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1132:
1124:
1118:
1117:
1105:
1099:
1088:
1082:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1060:
1043:
1042:
1032:
1000:
991:
974:
965:
963:
953:
787:Neural Darwinism
760:Health and death
687:Evolution theory
643:Neural Darwinism
637:Neural Darwinism
579:Neural Darwinism
505:variable regions
493:cyanogen bromide
444:Immunoglobulin G
224:
223:
220:
219:
216:
213:
210:
207:
204:
131:
129:
69:
53:
51:
35:
21:
4569:
4568:
4564:
4563:
4562:
4560:
4559:
4558:
4479:Jewish chemists
4409:
4408:
4407:
4402:
4397:Jordan L. Meier
4385:Neal K. Devaraj
4367:Elizabeth Nolan
4283:Kevan M. Shokat
4277:Jennifer Doudna
4223:William DeGrado
4181:Gerald M. Rubin
4097:David F. Wilson
4037:Frederick Crane
3983:David M. Bonner
3965:Irving M. Klotz
3953:Sidney Colowick
3878:
3873:
3843:
3838:
3776:
3768:
3765:(United States)
3743:
3734:(United States)
3718:
3715:(United States)
3709:(United States)
3703:(United States)
3687:
3671:
3647:
3644:(United States)
3638:(United States)
3632:(United States)
3616:
3609:
3579:
3574:
3559:
3548:
3533:
3528:Charles M. Rice
3520:Harvey J. Alter
3514:
3498:
3486:
3477:Michael Rosbash
3473:Jeffrey C. Hall
3470:
3462:
3446:
3437:May-Britt Moser
3430:
3414:
3409:Shinya Yamanaka
3402:
3381:
3373:
3368:Jack W. Szostak
3357:
3341:
3336:Oliver Smithies
3325:
3313:
3301:
3289:
3284:Peter Mansfield
3277:
3272:John E. Sulston
3261:
3245:
3234:
3218:
3210:
3194:
3186:
3174:
3161:Edward B. Lewis
3158:
3146:
3134:
3122:
3110:
3098:
3086:
3070:
3065:Susumu Tonegawa
3062:
3050:
3038:
3022:
3014:
2998:
2982:
2966:
2954:
2938:
2925:Roger Guillemin
2922:
2917:Daniel Gajdusek
2913:Baruch Blumberg
2910:
2899:
2890:Renato Dulbecco
2886:David Baltimore
2883:
2867:
2854:Karl von Frisch
2851:
2839:
2831:
2815:
2799:
2783:
2774:Haldan Hartline
2767:
2755:
2739:
2727:
2711:
2706:Maurice Wilkins
2695:
2687:
2675:
2670:Arthur Kornberg
2663:
2647:
2639:
2623:
2615:
2599:
2587:
2579:
2571:
2560:
2544:
2532:
2524:
2508:
2500:
2484:
2475:Joseph Erlanger
2472:
2460:
2454:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2440:
2439:
2431:
2423:
2415:
2403:
2395:
2379:
2371:
2359:
2351:
2343:
2331:
2326:Charles Nicolle
2323:
2315:
2307:
2296:
2290:
2289:
2281:
2269:
2257:
2251:
2250:
2242:
2234:
2228:
2227:
2221:
2220:
2214:
2213:
2207:
2206:
2198:
2190:
2182:
2174:
2169:Albrecht Kossel
2166:
2158:
2146:
2138:
2126:
2118:
2110:
2102:
2094:
2086:
2075:
2066:
2016:Wayback Machine
1967:Wayback Machine
1947:
1925:
1923:
1921:
1904:
1901:
1899:Further reading
1896:
1886:
1884:
1875:
1874:
1870:
1860:
1858:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1838:
1836:
1825:
1824:
1820:
1810:
1808:
1806:Compass Records
1800:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1783:
1774:
1773:
1769:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1752:
1748:
1694:
1693:
1689:
1683:Wayback Machine
1673:
1669:
1660:
1656:
1646:
1645:
1641:
1631:
1630:
1626:
1619:
1611:. Basic Books.
1602:
1601:
1597:
1590:
1582:. Basic Books.
1575:
1574:
1570:
1563:
1550:
1549:
1545:
1528:
1527:
1523:
1494:
1493:
1489:
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1125:
1121:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1089:
1085:
1074:
1072:
1062:
1061:
1046:
1030:10.1038/510474a
1002:
1001:
994:
984:Wayback Machine
975:
968:
954:
947:
943:
906:
782:
766:prostate cancer
762:
724:
701:
689:
677:
639:
528:
522:
513:
489:
461:
452:disulfide bonds
432:disulfide bonds
424:
422:Disulfide bonds
387:
377:(1968) and the
309:
289:magna cum laude
285:Ursinus College
264:
201:
197:
166:
162:
133:
130: 1950)
125:
121:
102:
93:
86:Ursinus College
77:
71:
67:
58:
55:
49:
47:
46:
45:
26:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4567:
4565:
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4521:
4516:
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4456:
4451:
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4441:
4436:
4431:
4426:
4421:
4411:
4410:
4404:
4403:
4401:
4400:
4394:
4388:
4382:
4376:
4370:
4364:
4358:
4352:
4346:
4340:
4337:Nathanael Gray
4334:
4328:
4322:
4316:
4310:
4304:
4298:
4292:
4286:
4280:
4274:
4268:
4265:Chaitan Khosla
4262:
4256:
4250:
4244:
4241:Jeremy M. Berg
4238:
4232:
4226:
4220:
4214:
4208:
4205:Michael M. Cox
4202:
4196:
4190:
4184:
4178:
4172:
4166:
4160:
4154:
4148:
4142:
4136:
4130:
4127:Joan A. Steitz
4124:
4118:
4112:
4106:
4100:
4094:
4088:
4082:
4076:
4070:
4064:
4058:
4052:
4046:
4043:Jerard Hurwitz
4040:
4034:
4028:
4022:
4019:Lester J. Reed
4016:
4010:
4004:
3998:
3992:
3986:
3980:
3974:
3968:
3962:
3956:
3950:
3944:
3941:Max A. Lauffer
3938:
3932:
3926:
3920:
3914:
3908:
3902:
3896:
3890:
3883:
3880:
3879:
3874:
3872:
3871:
3864:
3857:
3849:
3840:
3839:
3837:
3836:
3831:
3826:
3821:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3801:
3796:
3791:
3786:
3781:
3773:
3770:
3769:
3767:
3766:
3760:
3753:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3735:
3732:Gerald Edelman
3728:
3726:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3716:
3710:
3704:
3697:
3695:
3689:
3688:
3686:
3685:
3681:
3679:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3669:
3662:
3660:
3649:
3648:
3646:
3645:
3639:
3636:Stanford Moore
3633:
3626:
3624:
3618:
3617:
3610:
3608:
3607:
3600:
3593:
3585:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3565:Katalin Karikó
3557:
3546:
3531:
3512:
3496:
3484:
3468:
3460:
3444:
3428:
3421:Randy Schekman
3412:
3400:
3379:
3371:
3355:
3348:Luc Montagnier
3339:
3328:Mario Capecchi
3323:
3311:
3304:Barry Marshall
3299:
3287:
3280:Paul Lauterbur
3275:
3264:Sydney Brenner
3259:
3242:
3240:
3236:
3235:
3233:
3232:
3225:Paul Greengard
3221:Arvid Carlsson
3216:
3208:
3192:
3184:
3172:
3156:
3153:Martin Rodbell
3144:
3132:
3129:Edwin G. Krebs
3125:Edmond Fischer
3120:
3108:
3096:
3084:
3073:James W. Black
3068:
3060:
3048:
3036:
3033:César Milstein
3029:Georges Köhler
3020:
3012:
3001:Sune Bergström
2996:
2993:Torsten Wiesel
2989:David H. Hubel
2980:
2964:
2952:
2945:Daniel Nathans
2936:
2929:Andrew Schally
2920:
2907:
2905:
2901:
2900:
2898:
2897:
2881:
2865:
2849:
2842:Gerald Edelman
2837:
2829:
2826:Julius Axelrod
2813:
2810:Salvador Luria
2806:Alfred Hershey
2797:
2781:
2765:
2753:
2742:François Jacob
2737:
2725:
2709:
2693:
2685:
2673:
2661:
2645:
2637:
2626:André Cournand
2621:
2613:
2597:
2585:
2582:Selman Waksman
2577:
2568:
2566:
2562:
2561:
2559:
2558:
2547:Edward Kendall
2542:
2530:
2522:
2506:
2503:Hermann Muller
2498:
2482:
2479:Herbert Gasser
2470:
2458:
2451:
2444:
2437:
2434:Gerhard Domagk
2429:
2421:
2413:
2401:
2393:
2390:William Murphy
2382:George Whipple
2377:
2369:
2357:
2349:
2341:
2329:
2321:
2313:
2304:
2302:
2298:
2297:
2295:
2294:
2287:
2279:
2267:
2260:Archibald Hill
2255:
2248:
2240:
2232:
2225:
2218:
2211:
2204:
2196:
2193:Charles Richet
2188:
2180:
2172:
2164:
2156:
2144:
2136:
2124:
2116:
2108:
2100:
2092:
2083:
2081:
2077:
2076:
2067:
2065:
2064:
2057:
2050:
2042:
2036:
2035:
2028:Edelman Gerald
2025:
2024:June 15, 2013.
2019:
2006:
1993:
1980:
1969:
1957:
1955:Web Of Stories
1951:Gerald Edelman
1946:
1945:External links
1943:
1942:
1941:
1919:
1900:
1897:
1895:
1894:
1868:
1846:
1835:. May 23, 2014
1818:
1793:
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1667:
1654:
1639:
1624:
1617:
1595:
1588:
1568:
1561:
1543:
1538:Kirkus Reviews
1521:
1487:
1428:
1389:(1): 168–175.
1369:
1334:
1295:(5): 846–853.
1275:
1264:
1239:
1204:
1179:
1154:
1143:
1119:
1114:New York Times
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859:, Edelman and
851:
838:
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799:
781:
778:
761:
758:
753:The Echo Maker
748:Richard Powers
740:Judith Edelman
723:
720:
700:
697:
688:
685:
684:
683:
673:Main article:
667:
661:
638:
635:
606:Charles Darwin
571:
570:
521:
518:
512:
509:
488:
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475:from both the
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70:(aged 84)
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25:Gerald Edelman
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4331:Alice Y. Ting
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4271:Xiaodong Wang
4269:
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4107:
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4098:
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4091:Lubert Stryer
4089:
4086:
4083:
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4077:
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4017:
4014:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3975:
3972:
3971:William Shive
3969:
3966:
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3960:
3957:
3954:
3951:
3948:
3947:John D. Ferry
3945:
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3930:
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3899:Abraham White
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3763:Kenneth Arrow
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3666:Heinrich Böll
3664:
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3569:Drew Weissman
3566:
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3453:Satoshi Ōmura
3450:
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3426:
3422:
3418:
3417:James Rothman
3413:
3410:
3406:
3401:
3397:
3393:
3389:
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3384:Bruce Beutler
3380:
3377:
3372:
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3333:
3329:
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3312:
3309:
3305:
3300:
3297:
3296:Linda B. Buck
3293:
3288:
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3276:
3273:
3269:
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3257:
3253:
3249:
3244:
3243:
3241:
3237:
3230:
3226:
3222:
3217:
3214:
3213:Günter Blobel
3209:
3206:
3202:
3201:Louis Ignarro
3198:
3193:
3190:
3185:
3182:
3178:
3173:
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3141:Phillip Sharp
3138:
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3118:
3114:
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3101:Joseph Murray
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3053:Stanley Cohen
3049:
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3041:Michael Brown
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2957:Allan Cormack
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2933:Rosalyn Yalow
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2878:George Palade
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2858:Konrad Lorenz
2855:
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2846:Rodney Porter
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2838:
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2822:Ulf von Euler
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2811:
2807:
2803:
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2782:
2779:
2775:
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2770:Ragnar Granit
2766:
2763:
2759:
2754:
2751:
2750:Jacques Monod
2747:
2743:
2738:
2735:
2731:
2726:
2723:
2722:Andrew Huxley
2719:
2715:
2710:
2707:
2703:
2699:
2698:Francis Crick
2694:
2691:
2686:
2683:
2682:Peter Medawar
2679:
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2662:
2659:
2655:
2651:
2650:George Beadle
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2622:
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2618:Hugo Theorell
2614:
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2606:Thomas Weller
2603:
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2594:Fritz Lipmann
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2495:Howard Florey
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2264:Otto Meyerhof
2261:
2256:
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2201:Róbert Bárány
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2185:Alexis Carrel
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2170:
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2129:Camillo Golgi
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1998:- Profile in
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1985:Interview in
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1555:. MIT Press.
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1254:September 27,
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1015:(7506): 474.
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898:0-300-12039-7
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886:
885:0-300-10229-1
882:
878:
876:
872:
870:
869:0-465-01377-5
866:
862:
861:Giulio Tononi
858:
856:
852:
850:
849:0-7658-0717-3
846:
842:
839:
837:
836:0-465-00764-3
833:
829:
826:
824:
823:0-465-06910-X
820:
816:
813:
811:
810:0-465-08653-5
807:
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797:0-19-286089-5
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733:
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655:
651:
648:
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646:
644:
636:
634:
631:
626:
621:
619:
615:
611:
608:'s Theory of
607:
602:
600:
599:consciousness
596:
592:
588:
584:
580:
576:
568:
567:
566:
564:
563:Second Nature
559:
557:
553:
552:
547:
546:Giulio Tononi
543:
542:
537:
533:
532:consciousness
527:
519:
517:
510:
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261:
259:
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253:
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239:immune system
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228:
222:
195:
186:
183:
179:
176:
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109:
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100:
96:
91:
87:
84:
80:
75:
65:
61:
42:
38:
34:
29:
22:
19:
4313:Anna K. Mapp
4259:John Kuriyan
4235:Peter S. Kim
4199:Peter Walter
4169:Richard Axel
4121:Mark Ptashne
4060:
4031:James Watson
3995:Harvey Itano
3911:Eric G. Ball
3808:
3731:
3701:John Bardeen
3554:Svante Pääbo
3539:David Julius
3493:Tasuku Honjo
3441:Edvard Moser
3433:John O'Keefe
3396:posthumously
3395:
3332:Martin Evans
3308:Robin Warren
3292:Richard Axel
3239:2001–present
3117:Bert Sakmann
2985:Roger Sperry
2977:George Snell
2973:Jean Dausset
2941:Werner Arber
2894:Howard Temin
2841:
2818:Bernard Katz
2802:Max Delbrück
2758:Francis Rous
2734:Feodor Lynen
2730:Konrad Bloch
2718:Alan Hodgkin
2702:James Watson
2678:Frank Burnet
2666:Severo Ochoa
2654:Edward Tatum
2642:Daniel Bovet
2555:Philip Hench
2467:Edward Doisy
2398:Hans Spemann
2386:George Minot
2366:Edgar Adrian
2354:Otto Warburg
2276:John Macleod
2245:August Krogh
2237:Jules Bordet
2153:Paul Ehrlich
2105:Niels Finsen
2089:Emil Behring
2005:October 2007
1999:
1986:
1937:
1932:
1924:, retrieved
1910:
1885:. Retrieved
1881:
1871:
1859:. Retrieved
1849:
1837:. Retrieved
1830:
1821:
1809:. Retrieved
1796:
1786:February 23,
1784:. Retrieved
1780:the original
1770:
1758:. Retrieved
1749:
1704:
1700:
1690:
1670:
1662:
1657:
1648:
1642:
1633:
1627:
1606:
1598:
1578:
1571:
1552:
1546:
1537:
1531:
1524:
1507:
1504:N Engl J Med
1503:
1499:
1490:
1448:(1): 78–85.
1445:
1441:
1431:
1386:
1382:
1372:
1347:
1344:Biochemistry
1343:
1337:
1292:
1288:
1278:
1267:
1259:
1252:. Retrieved
1242:
1230:. Retrieved
1226:the original
1219:
1195:. Retrieved
1191:
1182:
1170:. Retrieved
1166:
1157:
1146:
1134:. Retrieved
1122:
1113:
1103:
1095:
1086:
1073:. Retrieved
1068:
1012:
1008:
987:
889:
873:
853:
840:
827:
814:
801:
785:
780:Bibliography
763:
751:
725:
713:
702:
699:Later career
690:
669:
663:
649:
640:
622:
603:
594:
582:
574:
572:
562:
560:
555:
549:
544:(2001, with
539:
535:
529:
514:
490:
462:
449:
438:(green) and
415:
407:
388:
372:
345:
337:neurobiology
310:
288:
265:
252:neuroscience
193:
192:
164:Neuroscience
149:
68:(2014-05-17)
66:May 17, 2014
54:July 1, 1929
18:
4424:2014 deaths
4419:1929 births
4373:Howard Hang
4109:C. Fred Fox
3905:George Wald
3707:Leon Cooper
3613:Nobel Prize
3405:John Gurdon
3320:Craig Mello
3316:Andrew Fire
3229:Eric Kandel
3205:Ferid Murad
3113:Erwin Neher
3025:Niels Jerne
2790:Har Khorana
2778:George Wald
2746:André Lwoff
2714:John Eccles
2602:John Enders
2574:Max Theiler
2535:Walter Hess
2527:Paul Müller
2491:Ernst Chain
2161:Emil Kocher
2121:Robert Koch
2113:Ivan Pavlov
2097:Ronald Ross
1887:January 18,
1760:October 12,
1530:"Review of
1096:Exploration
1092:Michio Kaku
776:, aged 84.
654:fingerprint
583:Topobiology
554:(2004) and
511:Topobiology
473:amino acids
385:Nobel Prize
248:Nobel Prize
182:Olaf Sporns
4413:Categories
4361:Minkui Luo
4055:Bruce Ames
3757:John Hicks
3653:Literature
3256:Paul Nurse
2590:Hans Krebs
2515:Gerty Cori
2463:Henrik Dam
2410:Otto Loewi
2406:Henry Dale
1776:"Advisors"
941:References
693:degeneracy
524:See also:
471:) include
391:antibodies
333:California
160:Immunology
50:1929-07-01
4391:Yimon Aye
4025:Paul Berg
3668:(Germany)
3622:Chemistry
3615:laureates
3457:Tu Youyou
3009:John Vane
2904:1976–2000
2565:1951–1975
2511:Carl Cori
2301:1926–1950
2080:1901–1925
2069:Laureates
1992:July 2007
1634:The Brain
1094:(host of
841:The Brain
744:bluegrass
709:San Diego
680:film clip
497:proteases
405:in 1972.
303:in 1954.
299:from the
276:physician
274:parents,
227:biologist
82:Education
3252:Tim Hunt
2034:Website.
2012:Archived
1963:Archived
1741:11698650
1679:Archived
1329:14173001
1197:July 18,
1172:July 18,
1039:24965643
980:Archived
904:See also
722:Personal
630:trillion
558:(2007).
538:(1992),
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313:resident
243:antibody
4355:Yi Tang
3693:Physics
2071:of the
1926:May 21,
1882:Faz.net
1861:May 21,
1839:May 23,
1811:July 6,
1709:Bibcode
1482:5257969
1450:Bibcode
1423:4177258
1391:Bibcode
1364:5650389
1297:Bibcode
1017:Bibcode
742:, is a
670:Reentry
656:or the
625:billion
614:dualism
465:antigen
315:at the
291:with a
254:and in
237:on the
132:
124:
4399:(2021)
4393:(2020)
4387:(2019)
4381:(2018)
4375:(2017)
4369:(2016)
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4351:(2013)
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3907:(1939)
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3895:(1937)
3889:(1935)
3499:2019:
3487:2018:
3471:2017:
3463:2016:
3447:2015:
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3415:2013:
3403:2012:
3382:2011:
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3326:2007:
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3290:2004:
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3211:1999:
3195:1998:
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3175:1996:
3159:1995:
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3135:1993:
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2999:1982:
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1009:Nature
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591:embryo
307:Career
272:Jewish
156:Fields
144:(1972)
138:Awards
115:Spouse
76:, U.S.
3809:1972
3677:Peace
3611:1972
1732:61115
1131:(PDF)
587:brain
481:heavy
477:light
440:heavy
436:light
329:Ph.D.
270:, to
126:(
122:
3834:1977
3829:1976
3824:1975
3819:1974
3814:1973
3804:1971
3799:1970
3794:1969
3789:1968
3784:1967
3684:None
3657:1972
3561:2023
3550:2022
3535:2021
3516:2020
2455:1942
2448:1941
2441:1940
2291:1925
2252:1921
2229:1918
2222:1917
2215:1916
2208:1915
1928:2010
1915:ISBN
1889:2019
1863:2014
1841:2014
1813:2022
1788:2015
1762:2007
1737:PMID
1613:ISBN
1584:ISBN
1557:ISBN
1478:PMID
1419:PMID
1360:PMID
1325:PMID
1256:2007
1234:2007
1199:2022
1174:2022
1138:2007
1077:2007
1035:PMID
894:ISBN
881:ISBN
865:ISBN
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832:ISBN
819:ISBN
806:ISBN
793:ISBN
768:and
658:iris
495:and
479:and
364:gene
297:M.D.
293:B.S.
63:Died
40:Born
1727:PMC
1717:doi
1512:doi
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1468:PMC
1458:doi
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