316:(Sept. 1, 1939) and the formation of Jewish ghettos caused hunger and poverty, crowding and unsanitary conditions, which in turn actually created typhus epidemics in occupied Poland. German physicians and public health officials in the Nazi regime did not acknowledge this; instead, German medical professionals published essays blaming Jewish people's supposed "low cultural level" and "uncleanliness" for the typhoid epidemics. Posters depicting Jews as lice, which transmit from person to person the bacteria that causes epidemic typhus, were publicized, and the respected status of German doctors helped spread the belief that the Jews were responsible for spreading typhus. The German public health officials in occupied Poland were concerned only with the health of German personnel, so they repeatedly urged occupation authorities to isolate Jews further from the rest of the population.
422:
235:
405:, 700 people lived in an area previously occupied by five families, between 12 and 30 to each room. The Jews were not allowed out of the ghetto, so they had to rely on smuggling and the starvation rations supplied by the Nazis: in Warsaw this was 1,060 kJ (253 kcal) per Jew, compared to 2,800 kJ (669 kcal) per Pole and 10,930 kJ (2,613 kcal) per German. With the crowded living conditions, starvation diets, and insufficient sanitation (coupled with lack of medical supplies), epidemics of infectious disease became a major feature of ghetto life. In the
546:
45:
469:. They were surrounded by brick walls, fences or barbed wire stretched between posts. Jews were not allowed to live in any other areas under the threat of capital punishment. In the closed ghettos the living conditions were the worst. The quarters were extremely crowded and unsanitary. Starvation, chronic shortages of food, lack of heat in winter and inadequate municipal services led to frequent outbreaks of epidemics such as
362:
in
October. Most Jewish ghettos were established in 1940 and 1941. Subsequently, many ghettos were sealed from the outside, walled off with brickwork, or enclosed with barbed wire. In the case of sealed ghettos, any Jew caught leaving could be shot. The Warsaw Ghetto, located in the heart of the
330:, a "final solution" which was a euphemism for the murder of Jews. Toward the Endziel and Endloesung there were intermediate goals to be carried out in the short term, and one of these was to concentrate Jews from the countryside into larger cities, thus making certain areas
528:
certificate. Such documents were sometimes called "Christian" or "Aryan papers". Poland's
Catholic clergy massively forged baptism certificates, which were given to Jews by the dominant Polish resistance movement, the
1413:
319:
German forces regarded the establishment of ghettos as temporary measures, in order to allow higher level Nazis in Berlin to decide how to execute their goal of eradicating Jews from Europe. Nazi officials had an
2681:
2708:
2343:
500:. They were tightly sealed off. The Jewish population was imprisoned in them only to be deported or taken out of town and shot by the German killing squads, often with the aid of local
2733:
2378:
815:
2861:
785:
2509:
1385:
501:
1125:
1491:
2094:
857:
306:("master race"), and viewed these people and also political opponents of the Nazi party as parasitic vermin or diseases that endangered the overall health of the
2713:
401:, the Jews, comprising 30% of the city overall population, were forced to live in 2.4% of the city's area, a density of 7.2 people per room. In the ghetto of
1496:
1408:
264:, the Nazis began to designate areas of larger Polish cities and towns as exclusively Jewish, and within weeks, embarked on a massive programme of uprooting
2412:
2236:
448:
force was created to ensure that no prisoners tried to escape. In general terms, there were three types of ghettos maintained by the Nazi administration.
421:
2373:
1300:
1596:
455:
did not have walls or fences, and existed mostly in initial stages of World War II in German-occupied Poland and the occupied Soviet Union, but also in
2447:
1896:
618:
229:
2795:
2316:
2044:
1439:
1390:
1208:
919:
897:
671:
378:
212:
historians. In a number of cases, they were the place of Jewish underground resistance against the German occupation, known collectively as the
1620:
594:
1177:
1072:
1039:
823:
2000:
1418:
1258:
755:
2805:
2638:
2283:
1746:
1486:
234:
911:
793:
667:
312:, the German racial community. German doctors and public health officials helped advance these racist fearmongering ideas. The German
1834:
1158:
1134:
269:
429:
2871:
1615:
1360:
1630:
1566:
459:
province of
Ukraine occupied and administered by Romanian authorities. There were severe restrictions on entering and leaving them.
2401:
1858:
1635:
1576:
1551:
1340:
1268:
484:
existed in the final stages of the
Holocaust, for between two and six weeks only, in German-occupied Soviet Union (especially in
402:
272:. Entire Jewish communities were deported into these closed off zones by train from their places of origin systematically, using
1479:
1474:
433:
861:
291:
The Nazis had a special hatred of Polish and other eastern Jews. Nazi ideology depicted Jews, Slavs and Roma as inferior race
2866:
2296:
2109:
1571:
976:
739:
2271:
363:
city, was the largest ghetto in Nazi occupied Europe, with over 400,000 Jews crammed into an area of 3.4 square kilometres (
339:
2768:
2608:
1771:
1678:
1625:
1606:
1586:
1556:
1449:
2876:
2633:
2266:
2196:
1824:
1693:
1668:
1546:
558:
2815:
2800:
2701:
2547:
2471:
1683:
1640:
1601:
1501:
1335:
1201:
1032:
Poland's
Holocaust: Ethnic Strife, Collaboration with Occupying Forces, and Genocide in the Second Republic, 1918–1947
1793:
1101:
2673:
2552:
2522:
2441:
2358:
2191:
1829:
1727:
1688:
1645:
1581:
1454:
1330:
2311:
2126:
1673:
1650:
1561:
1423:
1275:
1263:
1250:
601:. None were successful, and the Jewish populations of the ghettos were almost entirely killed. On June 21, 1943,
185:
2790:
2745:
2291:
1610:
1591:
1538:
1522:
1469:
1464:
1375:
1365:
1355:
1307:
1290:
1280:
1245:
1240:
1235:
545:
456:
225:
2216:
2071:
1148:
520:, the city was divided into Jewish, Polish, and German Quarters. Those living outside the ghetto had to have
2783:
2773:
2499:
2053:
1850:
1781:
1459:
1444:
1370:
1350:
1345:
1325:
1295:
1285:
441:
343:
273:
116:
2005:
397:
varied in their size, scope and living conditions. The conditions in the ghettos were generally brutal. In
44:
2494:
2261:
1740:
1318:
1312:
1194:
573:. Nazi authorities throughout Europe deported Jews to ghettos in Eastern Europe or most often directly to
524:
proving they were not Jewish (none of their grandparents was a member of the Jewish community), such as a
261:
161:
36:
537:, or AK). Any Pole found by the Germans to be giving any help to a Jew was subject to the death penalty.
2728:
2353:
2306:
1970:
1721:
521:
844:
729:
1129:. in association with United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
763:
377:
square miles). The Łódź Ghetto was the second largest, holding about 160,000 people. According to the
2691:
2628:
2557:
2211:
1995:
1886:
1864:
1759:
1754:
1735:
1144:
1120:
1087:
937:
648:
466:
445:
278:
86:
1914:
406:
351:
17:
2778:
2686:
2532:
2119:
1904:
712:
952:
651:. The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. Overview. Retrieved 28 September 2015.
172:, into small sections of towns and cities furthering their exploitation. In German documents, and
2158:
2153:
1660:
1013:
623:
606:
574:
570:
566:
516:
The parts of a city outside the walls of the Jewish
Quarter were called "Aryan". For example, in
313:
284:
145:
381:
archives, there were at least 1,000 such ghettos in German-occupied and annexed Poland and the
256:; these measures did not include ghettoizing German Jews: such plans were rejected in the post-
2763:
2623:
2454:
2368:
2335:
2249:
2066:
2032:
1173:
1154:
1130:
1068:
1064:
1035:
999:
972:
735:
554:
308:
2740:
2718:
2537:
2527:
2256:
2244:
2226:
2163:
1909:
1871:
908:
893:
675:
602:
504:
244:
2810:
2650:
2643:
2460:
2363:
2221:
2201:
2114:
1950:
915:
725:
598:
582:
497:
213:
68:
2723:
2618:
2517:
2488:
2180:
2144:
2104:
2099:
1924:
1809:
1716:
394:
325:
82:
78:
605:
issued an order to liquidate all ghettos and transfer remaining Jewish inhabitants to
440:
To prevent unauthorised contact between the Jewish and non-Jewish populations, German
350:
ghetto established in
December 1939. The first large metropolitan ghetto known as the
2855:
2613:
2542:
2433:
2301:
2131:
2088:
1934:
1919:
1217:
1057:
586:
425:
410:
359:
293:
257:
239:
209:
169:
112:
2825:
1975:
1960:
1955:
1929:
1882:
1814:
1776:
1526:
578:
382:
153:
149:
50:
609:. A few ghettos were re-designated as concentration camps and existed until 1944.
347:
966:
2831:
2348:
1965:
1819:
1150:
The
Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy 1939–1942
790:
United States
Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC - Holocaust Encyclopedia
302:
265:
1102:"Order by Himmler for the Liquidation of the Ghettos of Ostland, June 21, 1943"
2820:
2655:
2428:
2206:
1104:
1090:
876:
550:
477:
and to a high mortality rate. Most Nazi ghettos were of this particular type.
104:
Total of more than 1,000 ghettos created mostly in
Central and Eastern Europe
2660:
2466:
590:
530:
485:
470:
332:
2321:
938:
Types of Ghettos. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, D.C.
858:"First Jewish ghetto established in Piotrkow Trybunalski: October 8, 1939"
2186:
1986:
792:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. Archived from
762:. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. Archived from
628:
324:, an unarticulated final goal that would take time to reach, and also an
298:
252:
The first anti-Jewish measures were enacted in Germany with the onset of
731:
Germany and Eastern Europe: Cultural Identities and Cultural Differences
525:
493:
489:
173:
2696:
517:
474:
398:
253:
157:
845:
https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/history-and-overview-of-ghettos
2061:
544:
420:
233:
1186:
165:
2578:
2399:
2030:
1520:
1190:
409:
some 43,800 people died of 'natural' causes, and 76,000 in the
1170:
Hitler's Ghettos: Voices from a Beleaguered Society 1939–1944
1001:
A world in turmoil: an integrated chronology of the Holocaust
444:
were assigned to patrol the perimeter. Within each ghetto, a
1016:, "The Rescue of Jews by Non-Jews in Nazi-Occupied Poland",
820:
The Holocaust - The Nazi Genocide against the Jewish People
176:
at ghetto entrances, the Nazis usually referred to them as
1020:, vol. 7, nos. 1 & 2 (summer–autumn 1998), pp. 19–44.
879:
The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority
260:
period. However, soon after the 1939 German invasion of
786:"Final Solutions: Murderous Racial Hygiene, 1939–1945"
297:("subhumans") who threatened the purity of Germany's
2756:
2672:
2601:
2508:
2480:
2421:
2334:
2282:
2235:
2172:
2142:
2080:
2052:
2043:
1984:
1943:
1895:
1881:
1843:
1802:
1702:
1659:
1537:
1432:
1401:
1228:
760:
Experiencing History - Holocaust Sources in Context
122:
108:
100:
92:
74:
58:
34:
1056:
822:. Sydney Jewish Museum, Australia. Archived from
29:Areas of Jewish imprisonment during the Holocaust
2354:Civilians targeted during anti-partisan warfare
1055:Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000).
585:. Almost 300,000 people were deported from the
188:. There were several distinct types including
2714:Nazis and Nazi Collaborators (Punishment) Law
1202:
933:
931:
929:
927:
889:
887:
593:over the course of 52 days. In some ghettos,
8:
1126:Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933–1945
2413:List of major perpetrators of the Holocaust
965:Isaiah Trunk; Robert Moses Shapiro (2006).
220:Background and establishment of the ghettos
135:Destruction or extermination ghettos (1942)
2862:Jewish ghettos established by Nazi Germany
2598:
2575:
2418:
2396:
2049:
2040:
2027:
1892:
1534:
1517:
1225:
1209:
1195:
1187:
43:
1153:. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
971:. Indiana University Press. p. 223.
948:
708:
696:
619:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland
569:, the systematic deportation of Jews to
268:from their homes and businesses through
230:Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland
998:Hershel Edelheit, Abraham J. Edelheit,
920:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
898:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
728:(1999). "Germans and Poles 1871–1945".
672:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
640:
379:United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
358:) followed them in April 1940, and the
346:(38 days after the invasion), with the
129:Open ghettos, in specified areas (1939)
661:
659:
657:
31:
1063:. Columbia University Press. p.
756:"Public Health under the Third Reich"
342:was established on 8 October 1939 at
7:
2001:Reich Association of Jews in Germany
482:destruction or extermination ghettos
132:Closed or sealed ghettos (1940–1941)
18:Ghettos in occupied Europe 1939–1944
2806:Armenian genocide and the Holocaust
1059:The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust
1018:The Journal of Holocaust Education
164:in order to segregate and confine
25:
184:, both of which translate as the
2369:Polish leaders and intellectuals
1859:Concentration Camps Inspectorate
340:The first ghetto of World War II
666:Holocaust Encyclopedia (2014).
238:Jews being forced into the new
2297:Attack on the twentieth convoy
2110:1941 pogroms in eastern Poland
162:German-occupied Eastern Europe
1:
686:– via Internet Archive.
2634:Jewish war conspiracy theory
1825:Extermination through labour
559:Reserve Police Battalion 101
2816:Righteous Among the Nations
1502:Righteous Among the Nations
1030:Tadeusz Piotrowski (2007).
432:(seen from "Aryan side" of
2893:
2553:Ukrainian Auxiliary Police
2523:Lithuanian Security Police
2442:Reich Security Main Office
1409:Evidence and documentation
553:during liquidation of the
282:, and then throughout the
223:
2769:Books and other resources
2597:
2574:
2408:
2395:
2039:
2026:
1533:
1516:
1301:Bulgarian-occupied Greece
1224:
565:In 1942, the Nazis began
42:
2872:Jewish Ukrainian history
2359:People with disabilities
2292:Aid and Rescue Committee
1145:Browning, Christopher R.
557:Ghetto conducted by the
465:were situated mostly in
463:Closed or sealed ghettos
226:List of Nazi-era ghettos
2500:Order Police battalions
1172:. Bloomsbury Academic.
1168:Corni, Gustavo (2003).
442:Order Police battalions
274:Order Police battalions
117:Order Police battalions
2349:Soviet urban residents
1440:International response
1414:Contemporary knowledge
968:Łódź Ghetto: A History
734:. Rodopi. p. 32.
562:
467:German-occupied Poland
437:
249:
37:German-occupied Europe
2867:Jewish Polish history
2796:Memorials and museums
2734:Reparations Agreement
2729:Holocaust restitution
2307:Le Chambon-sur-Lignon
1830:Human experimentation
1669:Auschwitz II-Birkenau
1121:Megargee, Geoffrey P.
597:organizations staged
548:
522:identification papers
424:
237:
224:Further information:
1996:Jewish Ghetto Police
1865:Politische Abteilung
1760:Risiera di San Sabba
1621:Natzweiler-Struthof
699:, pp. 166, 172.
668:"Ghettos. Key Facts"
446:Jewish Ghetto Police
430:Świętokrzyska Street
344:Piotrków Trybunalski
182:Wohngebiet der Juden
178:Jüdischer Wohnbezirk
87:South-Eastern Europe
65:Jüdischer Wohnbezirk
2877:Holocaust locations
2774:Days of remembrance
2687:Holocaust survivors
2682:Depopulated shtetls
2533:Rollkommando Hamann
2379:Jehovah's Witnesses
2197:Kamianets-Podilskyi
1259:Bohemia and Moravia
607:concentration camps
575:extermination camps
571:extermination camps
336:("clean of Jews").
285:Generalgouvernement
270:forcible expulsions
206:destruction ghettos
144:Beginning with the
49:Main square of the
2757:History and memory
2661:Forced euthanasia
2609:Nazi racial policy
2312:Danish underground
2159:Operation Reinhard
2154:Wannsee Conference
1014:Gunnar S. Paulsson
914:2014-10-27 at the
864:on January 6, 2009
847:Accessed June 2021
726:Volker R. Berghahn
678:on August 15, 2012
624:Judendienstordnung
567:Operation Reinhard
563:
438:
413:before July 1942.
314:invasion of Poland
250:
146:invasion of Poland
2849:
2848:
2845:
2844:
2841:
2840:
2692:Sh'erit ha-Pletah
2639:Jewish emigration
2629:Hitler's prophecy
2624:Haavara Agreement
2570:
2569:
2566:
2565:
2558:Ypatingasis būrys
2455:Sicherheitsdienst
2391:
2390:
2387:
2386:
2330:
2329:
2250:Bielski partisans
2022:
2021:
2018:
2017:
2014:
2013:
1853:Totenkopfverbände
1512:
1511:
1179:978-0-340-76246-2
1074:978-0-231-11200-0
1041:978-0-7864-2913-4
549:Deportation to a
389:Living conditions
309:Volksgemeinschaft
142:
141:
16:(Redirected from
2884:
2741:Holocaust denial
2719:Nuremberg trials
2709:Postwar violence
2664:
2599:
2576:
2538:Special Brigades
2528:Nederlandsche SS
2495:Police Regiments
2419:
2397:
2257:Ghetto uprisings
2245:Jewish partisans
2192:Harvest Festival
2164:Holocaust trains
2050:
2041:
2028:
1893:
1789:
1767:
1749:
1730:
1712:
1535:
1518:
1226:
1211:
1204:
1197:
1188:
1183:
1164:
1140:
1107:
1099:
1093:
1085:
1079:
1078:
1062:
1052:
1046:
1045:
1027:
1021:
1011:
1005:
996:
990:
989:
987:
985:
962:
956:
951:, pp. 149, 167:
946:
940:
935:
922:
906:
900:
891:
882:
873:
871:
869:
860:. Archived from
854:
848:
842:
836:
835:
833:
831:
826:on 20 April 2021
812:
806:
805:
803:
801:
796:on 20 April 2021
782:
776:
775:
773:
771:
766:on 20 April 2021
752:
746:
745:
722:
716:
706:
700:
694:
688:
687:
685:
683:
674:. Archived from
663:
652:
645:
603:Heinrich Himmler
599:ghetto uprisings
595:local resistance
505:Auxiliary Police
502:collaborationist
417:Types of ghettos
376:
375:
371:
368:
245:Bezirk Bialystok
214:ghetto uprisings
208:, as defined by
168:, and sometimes
61:
47:
32:
21:
2892:
2891:
2887:
2886:
2885:
2883:
2882:
2881:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2837:
2752:
2668:
2662:
2651:Madagascar Plan
2644:Kindertransport
2593:
2592:
2562:
2504:
2476:
2461:Ordnungspolizei
2417:
2404:
2383:
2326:
2278:
2231:
2202:Maly Trostenets
2173:Mass executions
2168:
2138:
2076:
2035:
2010:
1980:
1939:
1877:
1839:
1798:
1787:
1765:
1747:
1728:
1710:
1698:
1655:
1529:
1508:
1428:
1419:Hidden children
1397:
1255:Czechoslovakia
1220:
1215:
1180:
1167:
1161:
1143:
1137:
1119:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1100:
1096:
1086:
1082:
1075:
1054:
1053:
1049:
1042:
1029:
1028:
1024:
1012:
1008:
997:
993:
983:
981:
979:
964:
963:
959:
947:
943:
936:
925:
916:Wayback Machine
907:
903:
892:
885:
867:
865:
856:
855:
851:
843:
839:
829:
827:
814:
813:
809:
799:
797:
784:
783:
779:
769:
767:
754:
753:
749:
742:
724:
723:
719:
711:, p. 139,
707:
703:
695:
691:
681:
679:
665:
664:
655:
646:
642:
637:
615:
583:occupied Poland
543:
514:
498:occupied Poland
419:
393:Ghettos across
391:
373:
369:
366:
364:
276:, first in the
248:, November 1941
232:
222:
138:
59:
54:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
2890:
2888:
2880:
2879:
2874:
2869:
2864:
2854:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2843:
2842:
2839:
2838:
2836:
2835:
2828:
2823:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2787:
2786:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2760:
2758:
2754:
2753:
2751:
2750:
2749:
2748:
2746:trivialization
2738:
2737:
2736:
2726:
2724:Eichmann trial
2721:
2716:
2711:
2706:
2705:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2684:
2678:
2676:
2670:
2669:
2667:
2666:
2658:
2653:
2648:
2647:
2646:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2619:Nuremberg Laws
2616:
2611:
2605:
2603:
2602:Early elements
2595:
2594:
2591:
2590:
2587:
2584:
2583:Early elements
2580:
2579:
2572:
2571:
2568:
2567:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2545:
2540:
2535:
2530:
2525:
2520:
2518:Arajs Kommando
2514:
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2497:
2492:
2489:Einsatzgruppen
2484:
2482:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2458:
2452:
2451:
2450:
2439:
2431:
2425:
2423:
2416:
2415:
2409:
2406:
2405:
2402:Responsibility
2400:
2393:
2392:
2389:
2388:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2340:
2338:
2332:
2331:
2328:
2327:
2325:
2324:
2319:
2314:
2309:
2304:
2299:
2294:
2288:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2277:
2276:
2275:
2274:
2269:
2264:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2241:
2239:
2233:
2232:
2230:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
2194:
2189:
2184:
2181:Einsatzgruppen
2176:
2174:
2170:
2169:
2167:
2166:
2161:
2156:
2150:
2148:
2145:Final Solution
2140:
2139:
2137:
2136:
2135:
2134:
2124:
2123:
2122:
2117:
2107:
2102:
2097:
2092:
2084:
2082:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2069:
2064:
2058:
2056:
2047:
2037:
2036:
2031:
2024:
2023:
2020:
2019:
2016:
2015:
2012:
2011:
2009:
2008:
2006:Ústredňa Židov
2003:
1998:
1992:
1990:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1973:
1971:Theresienstadt
1968:
1963:
1958:
1953:
1947:
1945:
1941:
1940:
1938:
1937:
1932:
1927:
1922:
1917:
1912:
1907:
1901:
1899:
1890:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1868:
1861:
1856:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1837:
1832:
1827:
1822:
1817:
1812:
1810:Einsatzgruppen
1806:
1804:
1800:
1799:
1797:
1796:
1791:
1784:
1779:
1774:
1769:
1762:
1757:
1752:
1743:
1738:
1733:
1724:
1719:
1714:
1706:
1704:
1700:
1699:
1697:
1696:
1691:
1686:
1681:
1676:
1671:
1665:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1654:
1653:
1648:
1643:
1638:
1633:
1628:
1623:
1618:
1616:Mittelbau-Dora
1613:
1604:
1599:
1597:Kraków-Płaszów
1594:
1589:
1584:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1564:
1559:
1554:
1549:
1543:
1541:
1531:
1530:
1521:
1514:
1513:
1510:
1509:
1507:
1506:
1505:
1504:
1499:
1494:
1487:Rescue of Jews
1484:
1483:
1482:
1477:
1472:
1467:
1462:
1457:
1452:
1447:
1436:
1434:
1430:
1429:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1411:
1405:
1403:
1399:
1398:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1393:
1388:
1380:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1358:
1353:
1348:
1343:
1338:
1333:
1328:
1323:
1322:
1321:
1310:
1305:
1304:
1303:
1293:
1288:
1283:
1278:
1273:
1272:
1271:
1266:
1261:
1253:
1248:
1243:
1238:
1232:
1230:
1222:
1221:
1216:
1214:
1213:
1206:
1199:
1191:
1185:
1184:
1178:
1165:
1160:978-0803203921
1159:
1141:
1136:978-0253355997
1135:
1123:, ed. (2012).
1115:
1112:
1109:
1108:
1094:
1080:
1073:
1047:
1040:
1022:
1006:
991:
977:
957:
941:
923:
901:
883:
849:
837:
807:
777:
747:
740:
717:
701:
689:
653:
639:
638:
636:
633:
632:
631:
626:
621:
614:
611:
555:Biała Podlaska
542:
539:
513:
510:
509:
508:
478:
460:
428:; walling-off
418:
415:
395:Eastern Europe
390:
387:
221:
218:
194:closed ghettos
186:Jewish Quarter
140:
139:
137:
136:
133:
130:
126:
124:
120:
119:
110:
106:
105:
102:
98:
97:
94:
90:
89:
76:
72:
71:
62:
56:
55:
48:
40:
39:
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2889:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2859:
2857:
2833:
2829:
2827:
2824:
2822:
2819:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2755:
2747:
2744:
2743:
2742:
2739:
2735:
2732:
2731:
2730:
2727:
2725:
2722:
2720:
2717:
2715:
2712:
2710:
2707:
2703:
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2689:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2671:
2665:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2645:
2642:
2641:
2640:
2637:
2635:
2632:
2630:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2617:
2615:
2614:Nazi eugenics
2612:
2610:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2596:
2588:
2585:
2582:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2543:Topf and Sons
2541:
2539:
2536:
2534:
2531:
2529:
2526:
2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
2515:
2513:
2511:
2510:Collaborators
2507:
2501:
2498:
2496:
2493:
2491:
2490:
2486:
2485:
2483:
2479:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2456:
2453:
2449:
2448:Referat IV B4
2446:
2445:
2444: (RSHA)
2443:
2440:
2438:
2436:
2435:Schutzstaffel
2432:
2430:
2427:
2426:
2424:
2422:Organizations
2420:
2414:
2411:
2410:
2407:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2364:Romani people
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2341:
2339:
2337:
2333:
2323:
2320:
2318:
2317:Working Group
2315:
2313:
2310:
2308:
2305:
2303:
2302:Kastner train
2300:
2298:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2281:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2265:
2263:
2260:
2259:
2258:
2255:
2251:
2248:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2238:
2234:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2177:
2175:
2171:
2165:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2155:
2152:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2141:
2133:
2130:
2129:
2128:
2125:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2112:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2101:
2098:
2096:
2093:
2091:
2090:
2089:Kristallnacht
2086:
2085:
2083:
2079:
2073:
2070:
2068:
2065:
2063:
2060:
2059:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2048:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2025:
2007:
2004:
2002:
1999:
1997:
1994:
1993:
1991:
1989:
1988:
1983:
1977:
1974:
1972:
1969:
1967:
1964:
1962:
1959:
1957:
1954:
1952:
1949:
1948:
1946:
1942:
1936:
1933:
1931:
1928:
1926:
1923:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1902:
1900:
1898:
1894:
1891:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1874:
1873:
1872:Sanitätswesen
1869:
1867:
1866:
1862:
1860:
1857:
1855:
1854:
1849:
1848:
1846:
1842:
1836:
1835:Death marches
1833:
1831:
1828:
1826:
1823:
1821:
1818:
1816:
1813:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1785:
1783:
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1763:
1761:
1758:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1750:
1744:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1734:
1732:
1731:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1718:
1715:
1713:
1708:
1707:
1705:
1701:
1695:
1692:
1690:
1687:
1685:
1682:
1680:
1677:
1675:
1672:
1670:
1667:
1666:
1664:
1662:
1661:Extermination
1658:
1652:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1642:
1639:
1637:
1636:Sachsenhausen
1634:
1632:
1629:
1627:
1624:
1622:
1619:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1608:
1605:
1603:
1600:
1598:
1595:
1593:
1590:
1588:
1585:
1583:
1580:
1578:
1577:Herzogenbusch
1575:
1573:
1570:
1568:
1565:
1563:
1560:
1558:
1555:
1553:
1552:Bergen-Belsen
1550:
1548:
1545:
1544:
1542:
1540:
1539:Concentration
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1519:
1515:
1503:
1500:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1489:
1488:
1485:
1481:
1478:
1476:
1475:United States
1473:
1471:
1468:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1456:
1453:
1451:
1448:
1446:
1443:
1442:
1441:
1438:
1437:
1435:
1431:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1404:
1400:
1392:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1381:
1377:
1374:
1372:
1369:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1362:
1359:
1357:
1354:
1352:
1349:
1347:
1344:
1342:
1339:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1320:
1317:
1316:
1315:and colonies
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1302:
1299:
1298:
1297:
1294:
1292:
1289:
1287:
1284:
1282:
1279:
1277:
1274:
1270:
1267:
1265:
1262:
1260:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1252:
1249:
1247:
1244:
1242:
1239:
1237:
1234:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1218:The Holocaust
1212:
1207:
1205:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1189:
1181:
1175:
1171:
1166:
1162:
1156:
1152:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1138:
1132:
1128:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1117:
1113:
1106:
1103:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1084:
1081:
1076:
1070:
1066:
1061:
1060:
1051:
1048:
1043:
1037:
1034:. McFarland.
1033:
1026:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1010:
1007:
1003:
1002:
995:
992:
980:
974:
970:
969:
961:
958:
954:
950:
949:Browning 2007
945:
942:
939:
934:
932:
930:
928:
924:
921:
917:
913:
910:
905:
902:
899:
895:
890:
888:
884:
880:
878:
863:
859:
853:
850:
846:
841:
838:
825:
821:
817:
811:
808:
795:
791:
787:
781:
778:
765:
761:
757:
751:
748:
743:
737:
733:
732:
727:
721:
718:
714:
710:
709:Browning 2007
705:
702:
698:
697:Browning 2007
693:
690:
677:
673:
669:
662:
660:
658:
654:
650:
649:"The Ghettos"
644:
641:
634:
630:
627:
625:
622:
620:
617:
616:
612:
610:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
588:
587:Warsaw Ghetto
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
560:
556:
552:
547:
540:
538:
536:
535:Armia Krajowa
532:
527:
523:
519:
511:
506:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
476:
472:
468:
464:
461:
458:
454:
451:
450:
449:
447:
443:
435:
434:Marszałkowska
431:
427:
426:Warsaw Ghetto
423:
416:
414:
412:
411:Warsaw Ghetto
408:
404:
400:
396:
388:
386:
384:
380:
361:
360:Warsaw Ghetto
357:
356:Litzmannstadt
353:
349:
345:
341:
337:
335:
334:
329:
328:
323:
317:
315:
311:
310:
305:
304:
300:
296:
295:
294:Untermenschen
289:
287:
286:
281:
280:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
258:Kristallnacht
255:
247:
246:
241:
240:Grodno Ghetto
236:
231:
227:
219:
217:
215:
211:
210:the Holocaust
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
183:
179:
175:
171:
170:Romani people
167:
163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
134:
131:
128:
127:
125:
121:
118:
114:
113:Schutzstaffel
111:
107:
103:
101:Incident type
99:
95:
91:
88:
84:
80:
77:
73:
70:
66:
63:
60:Also known as
57:
52:
46:
41:
38:
33:
27:
19:
2826:Yizkor books
2487:
2434:
2179:
2127:in Lithuania
2087:
1985:
1870:
1863:
1852:
1786:
1764:
1745:
1726:
1709:
1492:by Catholics
1361:Soviet Union
1229:By territory
1169:
1149:
1124:
1097:
1083:
1058:
1050:
1031:
1025:
1017:
1009:
1000:
994:
984:29 September
982:. Retrieved
967:
960:
944:
904:
875:
866:. Retrieved
862:the original
852:
840:
828:. Retrieved
824:the original
819:
810:
798:. Retrieved
794:the original
789:
780:
768:. Retrieved
764:the original
759:
750:
730:
720:
704:
692:
682:28 September
680:. Retrieved
676:the original
647:Yad Vashem,
643:
579:Nazi Germany
564:
534:
515:
481:
462:
457:Transnistria
453:Open ghettos
452:
439:
392:
383:Soviet Union
355:
338:
331:
326:
321:
318:
307:
301:
292:
290:
283:
277:
251:
243:
205:
201:
197:
193:
190:open ghettos
189:
181:
177:
150:World War II
143:
109:Perpetrators
64:
51:Radom Ghetto
26:
2832:Never again
2663:(Action T4)
2589:Remembrance
2374:Homosexuals
2344:Soviet POWs
2272:Częstochowa
1820:Gas chamber
1631:Ravensbrück
1572:Gross-Rosen
1567:Flossenbürg
1450:Philippines
1382:Yugoslavia
1341:Netherlands
1269:Sudetenland
541:Liquidation
507:battalions.
407:Łódź Ghetto
352:Łódź Ghetto
303:Herrenrasse
288:territory.
266:Polish Jews
154:Nazi regime
35:Ghettos in
2856:Categories
2821:Yad Vashem
2801:Uniqueness
2656:Nisko Plan
2429:Nazi Party
2237:Resistance
2207:Ninth Fort
2072:Vel' d'Hiv
1844:Nazi units
1782:Westerbork
1772:Amersfoort
1626:Neuengamme
1607:Mauthausen
1587:Kaiserwald
1557:Buchenwald
1336:Luxembourg
1114:References
1105:Yad Vashem
1091:Yad Vashem
978:0253347556
953:Sanitation
877:Yad Vashem
741:9042006889
551:death camp
512:Aryan side
279:Reichsgaue
2779:Education
2674:Aftermath
2586:Aftermath
2548:Trawnikis
2472:Wehrmacht
2467:Waffen-SS
2267:Białystok
2095:Bucharest
2067:Marseille
1944:Elsewhere
1905:Białystok
1717:Breendonk
1694:Treblinka
1547:Auschwitz
1331:Lithuania
1147:(2007) .
816:"Ghettos"
713:Gold rush
591:Treblinka
589:alone to
577:built by
531:Home Army
496:, and in
486:Lithuania
471:dysentery
348:Tuliszków
333:Judenrein
327:Endlösung
96:1939–1945
53:with gate
2764:Academia
2217:Piaśnica
2187:Babi Yar
2115:Jedwabne
2054:Roundups
1987:Judenrat
1951:Budapest
1722:Mechelen
1684:Majdanek
1641:Stutthof
1602:Majdanek
1497:by Poles
1455:Portugal
1433:Response
1424:Timeline
1402:Overview
1264:Slovakia
1251:Bulgaria
1088:"Warsaw"
912:Archived
830:20 April
800:20 April
770:20 April
629:Judenrat
613:See also
403:Odrzywół
75:Location
2791:Lessons
2227:Rumbula
2100:Dorohoi
2081:Pogroms
2033:Victims
1883:Ghettos
1815:Gas van
1803:Methods
1777:Schoorl
1755:Bolzano
1703:Transit
1689:Sobibor
1679:Chełmno
1646:Vaivara
1582:Hinzert
1527:ghettos
1480:Vatican
1386:Croatia
1376:Ukraine
1366:Belarus
1356:Romania
1308:Hungary
1291:Germany
1281:Estonia
1276:Denmark
1246:Belgium
1241:Austria
1236:Albania
909:Ghettos
868:June 1,
561:in 1942
526:baptism
494:Hungary
490:Ukraine
385:alone.
372:⁄
322:Endziel
202:transit
174:signage
160:across
158:ghettos
156:set up
148:during
83:Eastern
79:Central
2697:Bricha
2463:(Orpo)
2336:Others
2322:Żegota
2284:Rescue
2262:Warsaw
2222:Ponary
2132:Kaunas
1935:Warsaw
1920:Lublin
1910:Kraków
1897:Poland
1741:Drancy
1674:Belzec
1651:Warsaw
1562:Dachau
1470:Turkey
1465:Sweden
1391:Serbia
1371:Russia
1351:Poland
1346:Norway
1326:Latvia
1296:Greece
1286:France
1176:
1157:
1133:
1071:
1038:
1004:, 1991
975:
894:Warsaw
738:
518:Warsaw
492:), in
475:typhus
399:Warsaw
262:Poland
254:Nazism
204:, and
152:, the
123:Ghetto
115:(SS),
69:German
2811:Humor
2784:Films
2481:Units
2212:Odesa
2062:Izieu
1976:Vilna
1961:Minsk
1956:Kovno
1930:Radom
1794:Sereď
1611:Gusen
1592:Kauen
1523:Camps
1460:Spain
1445:Japan
1319:Libya
1313:Italy
635:Notes
299:Aryan
2702:List
2457:(SD)
2437:(SS)
2120:Lviv
2105:Iași
2045:Jews
1966:Riga
1925:Lwów
1915:Łódź
1887:list
1736:Gurs
1609:and
1525:and
1174:ISBN
1155:ISBN
1131:ISBN
1069:ISBN
1036:ISBN
986:2015
973:ISBN
870:2016
832:2021
802:2021
772:2021
736:ISBN
684:2015
488:and
480:The
473:and
228:and
198:work
166:Jews
93:Date
85:and
1851:SS-
1065:114
581:in
242:in
180:or
67:in
2858::
1788:sk
1766:nl
1748:it
1729:fr
1711:be
1067:.
926:^
918:,
896:,
886:^
874:.
818:.
788:.
758:.
670:.
656:^
216:.
200:,
196:,
192:,
81:,
2834:"
2830:"
2147:"
2143:"
1889:)
1885:(
1210:e
1203:t
1196:v
1182:.
1163:.
1139:.
1077:.
1044:.
988:.
955:.
881:.
872:.
834:.
804:.
774:.
744:.
715:.
533:(
436:)
374:8
370:3
367:+
365:1
354:(
20:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
