311:
362:, and spawns its eggs or sperm directly into the water column. Clouds of sperm from males are emitted from the osculum, while females produce flocculent masses of eggs that are slightly negatively buoyant. Spawning can occur at any time of the year, and occurs patchily on the reef, but usually with many individuals participating at the same time. Fertilization occurs in the water column. Resulting sponge larvae disperse with ocean currents, but there is some genetic differentiation among populations from Florida, the Bahamas and Belize.
31:
69:
259:. However, some individuals within the same population may be low and squat or relatively tall and thin. Similarly, the surface can range from smooth to rough, rugged, and irregular, sometimes with buttresses. In shallow water, the color is brownish-red to brownish-gray; but, at greater depths and in caves and under-hangs, or when the sponge is undergoing cyclic bleaching events, it is pinkish or white.
407:, which give the sponge its color. Individuals may undergo periodic bleaching, but this is a cyclic event, and the sponge recovers its normal coloration over time. This cyclical bleaching is likely to be a response by the cyanobacteria rather than by the host sponge, it has no negative effect on the host sponge. Unlike the circumstances for coral bleaching,
386:
422:
The giant barrel sponge is an important member of the reef community. Sponges filter large amounts of water, and are a predominant link in benthic-pelagic coupling on reefs and they harbor diverse assemblages of bacteria that can take part in nitrification and carbon fixation. It serves as a habitat
231:
coral reefs. It is common at depths greater than 10 metres (33 ft) down to 120 metres (390 ft) and can reach a diameter of 1.8 metres (6 feet). It is typically brownish-red to brownish-gray in color, with a hard or stony texture.
373:, about the size of an oil barrel, were estimated to be about 130 years old. The largest individual for which a photograph was available (now dead) was estimated to be 2300 years old. By using the growth model, the age of an individual
291:
of the sponge is greater than any other benthic invertebrate. The sponge grows on any hard surface; the smallest individuals observed are about 1 cm. Two or more closely related species that are visually indistinguishable from
287:. In terms of benthic surface coverage, it is the second most abundant sponge on reefs in the Caribbean region. On the reefs off the Florida Keys, it may be as common at two individuals per square metre (yard), and the total
1034:
López-Legentil, Susanna; Song, Bongkeun; McMurray, Steven E.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2008). "Bleaching and stress in coral reef ecosystems: hsp70 expression by the giant barrel sponge
Xestospongia muta".
331:. Water is continually pumped into the sides of the sponge, through the sponge body, and out of the osculum at the top of the sponge. Small pores in the sponge body are connected to channels lined by
369:
have been formulated from digital photographs of the same sponges over a period of 4.5 years. Sponge growth rates ranged from over 400% per year to only 2% per year. The largest sponges on
239:
of the reef" because of its large size and its long lifespan, which can be more than 2,000 years. It is, perhaps, the best-studied species of sponge in the sea; a population on
602:
McMurray, Steven E.; Henkel, Timothy P.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2010). "Demographics of increasing populations of the giant barrel sponge
Xestospongia muta in the Florida Keys".
1077:
Cowart, J. D.; Henkel, T. P.; McMurray, S. E.; Pawlik, J. R. (2006). "Sponge orange band (SOB): a pathogenic-like condition of the giant barrel sponge, Xestospongia muta".
1400:
1426:
560:
McMurray, S. E.; Blum, J. E.; Pawlik, J. R. (2008). "Redwood of the reef: growth and age of the giant barrel sponge
Xestospongia muta in the Florida Keys".
255:
The giant barrel sponge is variable in form. It is very large and firm, typically being barrel-shaped, with a cone-shaped cavity at the apex known as the
887:
López-Legentil, S.; Pawlik, J. R. (2008). "Genetic structure of the
Caribbean giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta using the I3-M11 partition of COI".
1374:
516:
754:"Resilience to Disturbance Despite Limited Dispersal and Self-Recruitment in Tropical Barrel Sponges: Implications for Conservation and Management"
419:
called "sponge orange band" that can result in the death of the sponge. The cause and transmission of this pathogenic condition remains a mystery.
1413:
244:
1452:
852:
Ritson-Williams, Raphael; Becerro, Mikel A.; Paul, Valerie J. (2004). "Spawning of the giant barrel sponge
Xestospongia muta in Belize".
1112:
Angermeier, Hilde; Kamke, Janine; Abdelmohsen, Usama R.; Krohne, Georg; Pawlik, Joseph R.; Lindquist, Niels L.; Hentschel, Ute (2011).
1524:
1491:
1418:
68:
1348:
339:, and the beating of these flagellae draws water through the channels. Incoming particles, particularly microscopic
1431:
298:
310:
1247:"In situ fluxes of dissolved inorganic nitrogen from the sponge community on Conch Reef, Key Largo, Florida"
30:
1288:
1217:
1353:
1326:
1155:"Demographics of increasing populations of the giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta in the Florida Keys"
520:
1154:
163:
1496:
1335:
1258:
1209:
1114:"The pathology of sponge orange band disease affecting the Caribbean barrel sponge Xestospongia muta"
998:
949:
824:
765:
752:
Bell, James J.; Smith, David; Hannan, Danielle; Haris, Abdul; Jompa, Jamaludin; Thomas, Luke (2014).
706:
665:
1222:
484:
39:
423:
for various invertebrates which live on the surface or in the interior and is grazed upon by some
1519:
1483:
1200:
Dunlap, M.; Pawlik, JR (1998). "Spongivory by parrotfish in
Florida mangrove and reef habitats".
1094:
1059:
904:
869:
695:"Chemical defenses and resource trade-offs structure sponge communities on Caribbean coral reefs"
577:
185:
63:
1405:
411:
does not appear to rely on its photosynthetic symbionts for nutrition, and they are considered
1465:
1361:
1182:
1174:
1135:
1051:
1016:
967:
793:
734:
627:
619:
428:
316:
1470:
1266:
1227:
1166:
1125:
1086:
1043:
1006:
957:
896:
861:
832:
783:
773:
724:
714:
673:
611:
569:
452:
321:
1245:
Southwell, Melissa W.; Weisz, Jeremy B.; Martens, Christopher S.; Lindquist, Niels (2008).
1439:
1340:
355:
also absorb dissolved organic compounds directly from the seawater as part of their diet.
1262:
1213:
1002:
953:
828:
769:
710:
669:
1231:
788:
753:
729:
694:
344:
284:
1513:
1130:
1113:
1047:
962:
937:
432:
400:
328:
268:
228:
120:
53:
48:
1098:
908:
873:
581:
392:
on Conch Reef, Florida Keys, dying of "sponge orange band." 2 June 2015, 15 m depth.
1366:
1063:
985:
McMurray, Steven E.; Blum, James E.; Leichter, James J.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2011).
648:
McMurray, Steven E.; Blum, James E.; Leichter, James J.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2011).
412:
348:
140:
922:
778:
1478:
1387:
1320:
461:
130:
1311:
1271:
1246:
1090:
1011:
986:
900:
865:
678:
649:
573:
541:
424:
370:
332:
240:
110:
1178:
1020:
971:
623:
987:"Bleaching of the giant barrel sponge Xestospongia muta in the Florida Keys"
719:
397:
359:
336:
80:
1186:
1139:
1055:
797:
738:
631:
1444:
811:
Pawlik, Joseph R.; McMurray, Steven E.; Erwin, Patrick; Zea, Sven (2015).
1305:
340:
813:"A review of evidence for food limitation of sponges on Caribbean reefs"
427:. It is also host to a diverse community of microbes, some of which are
1379:
377:
can be estimated from the osculum diameter and the base circumference.
288:
280:
276:
272:
256:
236:
1392:
1170:
837:
812:
615:
224:
100:
90:
1282:
385:
1153:
McMurray, Steven E.; Henkel, Timothy P.; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2010).
938:"The ecology and phylogeny of cyanobacterial symbionts in sponges"
384:
309:
296:
are found on reefs in the
Pacific and Indian Oceans (particularly
1457:
1286:
396:
The tissues of the giant barrel sponge contain photosynthetic
415:. Unrelated to cyclic bleaching is a pathogenic condition of
267:
The giant barrel sponge is common on reefs throughout the
1295:
699:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
247:, has been monitored and studied since 1997.
235:The giant barrel sponge has been called the "
8:
1283:
491:. World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS)
29:
20:
1270:
1221:
1129:
1010:
961:
836:
787:
777:
728:
718:
693:Loh, Tse-Lynn; Pawlik, Joseph R. (2014).
677:
263:Distribution, habitat, and climate needs
444:
650:"Bleaching of the giant barrel sponge
279:, the reefs and hard-bottom areas of
7:
643:
641:
597:
595:
593:
591:
555:
553:
551:
510:
508:
506:
358:The giant barrel sponge is probably
320:) using a giant barrel sponge as a
1232:10.1111/j.1439-0485.1998.tb00471.x
923:"Xestospongia muta Age Calculator"
351:by the collar cells. Sponges like
14:
1131:10.1111/j.1574-6941.2010.01001.x
1048:10.1111/j.1365-294X.2008.03667.x
963:10.1111/j.1439-0485.2008.00245.x
67:
817:Marine Ecology Progress Series
1:
515:Zea, S.; et al. (2014).
327:The giant barrel sponge is a
779:10.1371/journal.pone.0091635
223:) is the largest species of
1541:
1251:Limnology and Oceanography
991:Limnology and Oceanography
658:Limnology and Oceanography
1525:Sponges described in 1870
1272:10.4319/lo.2008.53.3.0986
1118:FEMS Microbiology Ecology
1091:10.1007/s00338-006-0149-y
1012:10.4319/lo.2011.56.6.2243
936:Usher, Kayley M. (2008).
901:10.1007/s00338-008-0430-3
866:10.1007/s00338-004-0460-4
679:10.4319/lo.2011.56.6.2243
574:10.1007/s00227-008-1014-z
299:Xestospongia testudinaria
191:
184:
169:
162:
64:Scientific classification
62:
46:
37:
28:
23:
405:Synechococcus spongiarum
720:10.1073/pnas.1321626111
542:"Redwoods of the Reef"
457:, Giant barrel sponge"
393:
324:
388:
313:
654:in the Florida Keys"
314:Two cleaner shrimp (
24:Giant barrel sponge
1263:2008LimOc..53..986S
1214:1998MarEc..19..325D
1003:2011LimOc..56.2243M
954:2008MarEc..29..178U
829:2015MEPS..519..265P
770:2014PLoSO...991635B
711:2014PNAS..111.4151L
670:2011LimOc..56.2243M
217:giant barrel sponge
40:Conservation status
517:"The Sponge Guide"
394:
365:Growth models for
325:
1507:
1506:
1466:Open Tree of Life
1341:Xestospongia_muta
1327:Xestospongia muta
1297:Xestospongia muta
1289:Taxon identifiers
1171:10.1890/08-2060.1
1036:Molecular Ecology
838:10.3354/meps11093
705:(11): 4151–4156.
652:Xestospongia muta
616:10.1890/08-2060.1
487:Xestospongia muta
455:Xestospongia muta
429:primary producers
390:Xestospongia muta
317:Stenopus hispidus
227:found growing on
221:Xestospongia muta
213:
212:
207:
199:
173:Xestospongia muta
57:
16:Species of sponge
1532:
1500:
1499:
1487:
1486:
1474:
1473:
1461:
1460:
1448:
1447:
1435:
1434:
1422:
1421:
1409:
1408:
1396:
1395:
1383:
1382:
1370:
1369:
1357:
1356:
1344:
1343:
1331:
1330:
1329:
1316:
1315:
1314:
1284:
1277:
1276:
1274:
1242:
1236:
1235:
1225:
1197:
1191:
1190:
1150:
1144:
1143:
1133:
1109:
1103:
1102:
1074:
1068:
1067:
1042:(7): 1840–1849.
1031:
1025:
1024:
1014:
997:(6): 2243–2250.
982:
976:
975:
965:
933:
927:
926:
919:
913:
912:
884:
878:
877:
849:
843:
842:
840:
808:
802:
801:
791:
781:
749:
743:
742:
732:
722:
690:
684:
683:
681:
664:(6): 2243–2250.
645:
636:
635:
599:
586:
585:
557:
546:
545:
538:
532:
531:
529:
528:
519:. Archived from
512:
501:
500:
498:
496:
483:van Soest, Rob.
480:
474:
473:
471:
469:
449:
322:cleaning station
205:
197:
175:
72:
71:
51:
33:
21:
1540:
1539:
1535:
1534:
1533:
1531:
1530:
1529:
1510:
1509:
1508:
1503:
1495:
1490:
1482:
1477:
1469:
1464:
1456:
1451:
1443:
1440:Observation.org
1438:
1430:
1425:
1417:
1412:
1404:
1399:
1391:
1386:
1378:
1373:
1365:
1360:
1352:
1347:
1339:
1334:
1325:
1324:
1319:
1310:
1309:
1304:
1291:
1281:
1280:
1244:
1243:
1239:
1223:10.1.1.616.9432
1199:
1198:
1194:
1152:
1151:
1147:
1111:
1110:
1106:
1076:
1075:
1071:
1033:
1032:
1028:
984:
983:
979:
935:
934:
930:
921:
920:
916:
886:
885:
881:
851:
850:
846:
810:
809:
805:
751:
750:
746:
692:
691:
687:
647:
646:
639:
601:
600:
589:
559:
558:
549:
540:
539:
535:
526:
524:
514:
513:
504:
494:
492:
482:
481:
477:
467:
465:
451:
450:
446:
441:
431:or involved in
383:
345:prochlorophytes
308:
265:
253:
198:(Schmidt, 1870)
180:
179:(Schmidt, 1870)
177:
171:
158:
66:
58:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
1538:
1536:
1528:
1527:
1522:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1504:
1502:
1501:
1488:
1475:
1462:
1449:
1436:
1423:
1410:
1397:
1384:
1371:
1358:
1345:
1332:
1317:
1301:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1287:
1279:
1278:
1257:(3): 986–996.
1237:
1208:(4): 325–337.
1202:Marine Ecology
1192:
1165:(2): 560–570.
1145:
1124:(2): 218–230.
1104:
1069:
1026:
977:
948:(2): 178–192.
942:Marine Ecology
928:
914:
879:
844:
803:
744:
685:
637:
610:(2): 560–570.
587:
568:(2): 159–171.
562:Marine Biology
547:
533:
502:
475:
443:
442:
440:
437:
382:
379:
335:, each with a
307:
304:
285:Gulf of Mexico
264:
261:
252:
249:
211:
210:
209:
208:
203:Schmidtia muta
200:
189:
188:
182:
181:
178:
167:
166:
160:
159:
152:
150:
146:
145:
138:
134:
133:
128:
124:
123:
118:
114:
113:
108:
104:
103:
98:
94:
93:
88:
84:
83:
78:
74:
73:
60:
59:
47:
44:
43:
38:
35:
34:
26:
25:
15:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1537:
1526:
1523:
1521:
1518:
1517:
1515:
1498:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1480:
1476:
1472:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1372:
1368:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1350:
1346:
1342:
1337:
1333:
1328:
1322:
1318:
1313:
1307:
1303:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1294:
1290:
1285:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1260:
1256:
1252:
1248:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1229:
1224:
1219:
1215:
1211:
1207:
1203:
1196:
1193:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1149:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1132:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1108:
1105:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1073:
1070:
1065:
1061:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1037:
1030:
1027:
1022:
1018:
1013:
1008:
1004:
1000:
996:
992:
988:
981:
978:
973:
969:
964:
959:
955:
951:
947:
943:
939:
932:
929:
924:
918:
915:
910:
906:
902:
898:
894:
890:
883:
880:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
848:
845:
839:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
807:
804:
799:
795:
790:
785:
780:
775:
771:
767:
764:(3): e91635.
763:
759:
755:
748:
745:
740:
736:
731:
726:
721:
716:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
689:
686:
680:
675:
671:
667:
663:
659:
655:
653:
644:
642:
638:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
609:
605:
598:
596:
594:
592:
588:
583:
579:
575:
571:
567:
563:
556:
554:
552:
548:
544:. Pawlik Lab.
543:
537:
534:
523:on 2016-03-04
522:
518:
511:
509:
507:
503:
490:
488:
479:
476:
464:
463:
458:
456:
448:
445:
438:
436:
434:
433:nitrification
430:
426:
420:
418:
414:
410:
406:
402:
401:cyanobacteria
399:
391:
387:
380:
378:
376:
372:
368:
363:
361:
356:
354:
350:
346:
342:
338:
334:
330:
329:filter feeder
323:
319:
318:
312:
305:
303:
301:
300:
295:
290:
286:
282:
278:
274:
270:
269:Caribbean Sea
262:
260:
258:
250:
248:
246:
242:
238:
233:
230:
226:
222:
218:
206:Schmidt, 1870
204:
201:
196:
195:Petrosia muta
193:
192:
190:
187:
183:
176:
174:
168:
165:
164:Binomial name
161:
157:
156:
151:
148:
147:
144:
143:
139:
136:
135:
132:
129:
126:
125:
122:
121:Haplosclerida
119:
116:
115:
112:
109:
106:
105:
102:
99:
96:
95:
92:
89:
86:
85:
82:
79:
76:
75:
70:
65:
61:
55:
50:
49:Not evaluated
45:
41:
36:
32:
27:
22:
19:
1296:
1254:
1250:
1240:
1205:
1201:
1195:
1162:
1158:
1148:
1121:
1117:
1107:
1082:
1078:
1072:
1039:
1035:
1029:
994:
990:
980:
945:
941:
931:
917:
892:
888:
882:
857:
853:
847:
820:
816:
806:
761:
757:
747:
702:
698:
688:
661:
657:
651:
607:
603:
565:
561:
536:
525:. Retrieved
521:the original
493:. Retrieved
486:
478:
466:. Retrieved
460:
454:
447:
421:
416:
408:
404:
395:
389:
374:
366:
364:
357:
352:
349:phagocytosed
333:collar cells
326:
315:
297:
293:
266:
254:
245:Florida Keys
234:
220:
216:
214:
202:
194:
172:
170:
155:X. muta
154:
153:
142:Xestospongia
141:
111:Demospongiae
18:
1479:SeaLifeBase
1388:iNaturalist
1321:Wikispecies
1079:Coral Reefs
895:: 157–165.
889:Coral Reefs
854:Coral Reefs
823:: 265–283.
462:SeaLifeBase
251:Description
131:Petrosiidae
1514:Categories
1085:(4): 513.
527:2015-06-23
439:References
425:parrotfish
413:commensals
371:Conch Reef
241:Conch Reef
1520:Petrosina
1218:CiteSeerX
1179:1939-9170
1021:1939-5590
972:1439-0485
624:0012-9658
495:8 January
398:symbiotic
360:dioecious
337:flagellum
283:,and the
243:, in the
229:Caribbean
149:Species:
87:Kingdom:
81:Eukaryota
1406:10204824
1312:Q2143351
1306:Wikidata
1187:20392020
1140:21118276
1099:44595340
1056:18331247
909:24622468
874:38718270
798:24651687
758:PLOS ONE
739:24567392
632:20392020
582:55834932
468:17 April
341:bacteria
186:Synonyms
127:Family:
101:Porifera
97:Phylum:
91:Animalia
77:Domain:
54:IUCN 3.1
1380:2246280
1259:Bibcode
1210:Bibcode
1159:Ecology
1064:3567880
999:Bibcode
950:Bibcode
860:: 160.
825:Bibcode
789:3961256
766:Bibcode
730:3964098
707:Bibcode
666:Bibcode
604:Ecology
417:X. muta
409:X. muta
381:Ecology
375:X. muta
367:X. muta
353:X. muta
306:Biology
294:X. muta
289:biomass
281:Florida
277:Bermuda
273:Bahamas
257:osculum
237:redwood
137:Genus:
117:Order:
107:Class:
52: (
1497:166894
1471:880230
1458:166894
1445:900320
1432:178552
1393:130046
1354:106233
1220:
1185:
1177:
1138:
1097:
1062:
1054:
1019:
970:
907:
872:
796:
786:
737:
727:
630:
622:
580:
347:, are
271:, the
225:sponge
1492:WoRMS
1484:51422
1419:47837
1401:IRMNG
1367:7G9M2
1095:S2CID
1060:S2CID
905:S2CID
870:S2CID
578:S2CID
1453:OBIS
1427:NCBI
1414:ITIS
1375:GBIF
1349:BOLD
1183:PMID
1175:ISSN
1136:PMID
1052:PMID
1017:ISSN
968:ISSN
794:PMID
735:PMID
628:PMID
620:ISSN
497:2011
470:2024
343:and
215:The
1362:CoL
1336:ADW
1267:doi
1228:doi
1167:doi
1126:doi
1087:doi
1044:doi
1007:doi
958:doi
897:doi
862:doi
833:doi
821:519
784:PMC
774:doi
725:PMC
715:doi
703:111
674:doi
612:doi
570:doi
566:155
302:).
1516::
1494::
1481::
1468::
1455::
1442::
1429::
1416::
1403::
1390::
1377::
1364::
1351::
1338::
1323::
1308::
1265:.
1255:53
1253:.
1249:.
1226:.
1216:.
1206:19
1204:.
1181:.
1173:.
1163:91
1161:.
1157:.
1134:.
1122:75
1120:.
1116:.
1093:.
1083:25
1081:.
1058:.
1050:.
1040:17
1038:.
1015:.
1005:.
995:56
993:.
989:.
966:.
956:.
946:29
944:.
940:.
903:.
893:28
891:.
868:.
858:24
856:.
831:.
819:.
815:.
792:.
782:.
772:.
760:.
756:.
733:.
723:.
713:.
701:.
697:.
672:.
662:56
660:.
656:.
640:^
626:.
618:.
608:91
606:.
590:^
576:.
564:.
550:^
505:^
459:.
435:.
403:,
275:,
1275:.
1269::
1261::
1234:.
1230::
1212::
1189:.
1169::
1142:.
1128::
1101:.
1089::
1066:.
1046::
1023:.
1009::
1001::
974:.
960::
952::
925:.
911:.
899::
876:.
864::
841:.
835::
827::
800:.
776::
768::
762:9
741:.
717::
709::
682:.
676::
668::
634:.
614::
584:.
572::
530:.
499:.
489:"
485:"
472:.
453:"
219:(
56:)
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
