527:... the argument is fallacious. It mistakenly assumes that whether a court is of one class or the other depends on the intention of Congress, whereas the true test lies in the power under which the court was created and in the jurisdiction conferred. Nor has there been any settled practice on the part of Congress which gives special significance to the absence or presence of a provision respecting the tenure of judges. This may be illustrated by two citations. The same Congress that created the Court of Customs Appeals made provision for five additional circuit judges and declared that they should hold their offices during good behavior; and yet the status of the judges was the same as it would have been had that declaration been omitted. In creating courts for some of the Territories Congress failed to include a provision fixing the tenure of the judges; but the courts became legislative courts just as if such a provision had been included.
434:
cannot be decreased, which is in turn considered a requirement for the operation of judiciary as a separate branch of government. In the two cases at hand, judges from these courts had been assigned to courts of appeals and districts court by the Chief
Justice of the United States as part of the task of balancing the workloads among the various courts. It was contended that these judges were judges of Article I courts and therefore could not adjudicate decisions on Article III courts. It was contended that as the judgments of the Court of Claims had traditionally required Congressional appropriation to pay prevailing plaintiffs, because the Court of Claims issued advisory reports in response to matters referred to it by Congress under
519:, dissented on the grounds that the courts were Article I courts and that the importance of an independent judiciary prevented non-Article III judges from deciding matters brought before Article III courts. The same confluence of practical considerations that dictated the result in Canter has governed the decision in later cases sanctioning the creation of other courts with judges of limited tenure. Tenure that is guaranteed by the Constitution is a badge of a judge of an Article III court. The argument that mere statutory tenure is sufficient for judges of Article III courts was authoritatively answered in
31:
535:, for example, the Court sustained the authority of the Court of Private Land Claims to adjudicate claims under treaties to land in the territories, but left it expressly open whether such a course might be followed within the States. Upon like considerations, Article III has been viewed as inapplicable to courts created in unincorporated territories outside the mainland, and to the consular courts established by concessions from foreign countries.
599:, it remains important, having been cited in 68 Supreme Court cases and at least 367 lower court cases. It also stands as a defining case in the distinctions between Article I and Article III courts. Further, the need to retain Congressional reference jurisdiction was a reason that the Claims Court was specifically designated an Article I court by Congress in 1982.
478:
were decided incorrectly and that the courts had always been
Article III courts and that the Congressional act of 1953 and 1958 confirmed that status. As such, it was permissible for judges from either court to be designated for service on courts of appeals and district courts and the decisions of
433:
in 67 Stat. 226 (1953) and 72 Stat. 848 (1958), had indicated that the two courts were constituted under
Article III of the Constitution. This distinction was important as judges of Article III courts are considered part of the independent judiciary as they are appointed for life and their salary
579:
In response to this decision, Congress passed 80 Stat. 958 in 1966 which assigned
Congressional reference cases from the Article III appellate division judges of the Court of Claims to the Article I trial division commissioners of the Court of Claims. This permitted the Court of Claims to resume
190:
The Court of Claims and the Court of
Customs and Patent Appeals are courts created under Article III of the Constitution and their judges are constitutionally protected in tenure and compensation, the designation of judges from those courts to sit on Courts of Appeals and United States District
2513:
1194:
2111:
1986:
1409:
1401:
1369:
1822:
2167:
2071:
129:
1814:
2508:
1417:
1102:
1774:
1766:
862:
1393:
1094:
54:
Glidden
Company v. Olga Zdanok, John Zacharczyk, Mary A. Hackett, Quitman Williams, and Marcelle Kreischer; Durkee Famous Foods Division, a Foreign Corporation and Benny Lurk v. United States
2518:
2306:
1210:
557:
The Court does great mischief in today's opinions. The opinion of my
Brother Harlan stirs a host of problems that need not be opened. What is done will, I fear, plague us for years.
2199:
1078:
931:
718:
671:
645:
619:
340:
324:
173:
155:
137:
72:
1750:
1441:
2079:
1062:
1678:
1255:
376:
2191:
1247:
1694:
1011:
380:
306:
1457:
487:, concurred in the result, but concurred on the grounds that the 1953 and 1958 Acts made the courts Article III courts in light of the confusion that led to the
1790:
1598:
426:
1798:
1425:
1070:
773:
2503:
1489:
1272:
834:
1702:
2271:
2183:
2523:
1267:
1970:
999:
1449:
1218:
1114:
425:, the Court held that the United States Court of Customs and Patent Appeals and the United States Court of Claims were courts created under
2215:
1710:
1554:
1289:
2428:
1337:
1133:
389:
191:
Courts was valid and judgments of the Court of
Appeals and District Court were not vitiated by respective participation of such judges.
2103:
1505:
1046:
1008:
504:
496:
443:
435:
394:
368:
35:
2361:
442:, and because the Court of Customs and Patent Appeals could review certain administrative decisions of the Tariff Commission under
1465:
909:
238:
1806:
1497:
1025:
800:
750:
402:
397:
under 28 U.S.C. § 293(a) to designate judges from the Court of Claims and the Court of
Customs and Patent Appeals to serve on
2143:
2095:
1433:
1345:
585:
2175:
1904:
1529:
1513:
1202:
372:
2207:
2119:
1590:
1313:
1239:
398:
1230:
1888:
1329:
1305:
421:
2444:
1646:
1521:
1125:
992:
787:
737:
384:
2255:
1614:
2476:
2247:
1896:
1686:
1654:
1361:
1141:
114:
1782:
415:
2460:
2452:
2389:
2031:
1670:
1662:
1481:
1178:
589:
544:
463:
459:
960:
503:
could be resolved by the Court of Claims declining future cases and that the Tariff
Commission cases under
495:
decisions, which were otherwise accurate. He found that the issues of Congressional reference cases under
151:
2223:
1941:
1638:
1377:
1321:
1297:
1054:
246:
121:
2330:
2231:
2063:
1758:
1718:
1622:
1582:
985:
935:
774:
Congressional Reference Cases in the United States Court of Claims: A Historical and Current Perspective
722:
675:
649:
623:
344:
328:
177:
159:
141:
64:
942:
588:, Congress passed 96 Stat. 25, which removed the ability to designate judges from the new Article I
2047:
2023:
1933:
1880:
1566:
1353:
1037:
79:
2436:
2322:
2279:
2135:
2015:
1916:
1734:
1574:
1473:
1169:
854:
562:
512:
226:
111:
2468:
2336:
2314:
2298:
2263:
2239:
1994:
1830:
1726:
1630:
1281:
1149:
1086:
222:
1195:
Black & White Taxicab & Transfer Co. v. Brown & Yellow Taxicab & Transfer Co.
2373:
1838:
1385:
1157:
901:
898:
846:
118:
2420:
2381:
2127:
2087:
2039:
1606:
977:
511:
were too insignificant to countermand the express Congressional intent of the 1958 act.
2151:
2112:
Valley Forge Christian College v. Americans United for Separation of Church & State
2055:
2006:
1978:
1859:
1186:
951:
678:
652:
626:
467:
347:
331:
250:
725:
2497:
1962:
1925:
596:
430:
87:
2159:
796:
746:
480:
234:
2514:
United States Supreme Court decisions that overrule a prior Supreme Court decision
508:
500:
447:
439:
67:
580:
hearing Congressional reference cases, which it had ceased accepting in light of
1410:
C & L Enterprises, Inc. v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma
484:
296:
Frankfurter and White took no part in the consideration or decision of the case.
258:
206:
1987:
Williamson County Regional Planning Commission v. Hamilton Bank of Johnson City
516:
214:
133:
83:
1402:
College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board
1370:
Oklahoma Tax Commission v. Citizen Band, Potawatomi Indian Tribe of Oklahoma
539:
This Court, however is the expositor of the meaning of the Constitution ...
1953:
1871:
858:
754:
125:
1823:
Grable & Sons Metal Products, Inc. v. Darue Engineering & Mfg.
969:
804:
850:
450:, that they there not truly independent as required by Article III.
2168:
Friends of the Earth, Inc. v. Laidlaw Environmental Services, Inc.
2072:
United States v. Students Challenging Regulatory Agency Procedures
595:
Despite the reasoning's status as a plurality opinion that lacks
2408:
2359:
1857:
1815:
JPMorgan Chase Bank v. Traffic Stream (BVI) Infrastructure Ltd.
1552:
1023:
981:
30:
1418:
Inyo County v. Paiute-Shoshone Indians of the Bishop Community
1103:
Moses H. Cone Memorial Hospital v. Mercury Construction Corp.
835:"The Precedential Value of Supreme Court Plurality Decisions"
1775:
Northern Pipeline Construction Co. v. Marathon Pipe Line Co.
1767:
Mt. Healthy City School District Board of Education v. Doyle
1394:
Kiowa Tribe of Oklahoma v. Manufacturing Technologies, Inc.
1095:
Colorado River Water Conservation District v. United States
569:, 370 U.S. 530, 606, n.11, 82 S.Ct. 1459, 1502, n.11 (1962)
2307:
County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State
1211:
Hinderlider v. La Plata River & Cherry Creek Ditch Co.
885:
A Constitutional Analysis of Magistrate Judge Authority
823:, 8 West's Fed. Forms, National Courts § 13133 (2d ed.)
2509:
United States Supreme Court cases of the Warren Court
2200:
Arizona Christian School Tuition Organization v. Winn
1079:
England v. Louisiana State Board of Medical Examiners
1751:
Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida
1442:
City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York
1063:
Louisiana Power & Light Co. v. City of Thibodaux
2290:
2080:
Schlesinger v. Reservists Committee to Stop the War
2005:
1952:
1915:
1870:
1266:
1229:
1168:
1113:
1036:
300:
287:
279:
271:
266:
195:
184:
168:
100:
95:
59:
49:
42:
23:
1679:Louisville & Nashville Railroad Co. v. Mottley
788:
738:
2519:United States Constitution Article Three case law
1695:American Well Works Co. v. Layne & Bowler Co.
1256:Exxon Mobil Corp. v. Saudi Basic Industries Corp.
314:This case overturned a previous ruling or rulings
2192:Massachusetts v. Environmental Protection Agency
1248:District of Columbia Court of Appeals v. Feldman
371:case in which the Court held that judges of the
555:
551:, 370 U.S. 530, 602, 82 S.Ct. 1459, 1500 (1962)
537:
479:the lower courts in this instance were valid.
108:Zdanok v. Glidden Co., Durkee Famous Foods Div.
1458:Permanent Mission of India v. City of New York
1791:Commodity Futures Trading Commission v. Schor
1599:American Insurance Co. v. 356 Bales of Cotton
993:
888:, 150 F.R.D. 247, 292 (1993).
8:
1799:Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals Inc. v. Thompson
1426:United States v. White Mountain Apache Tribe
1071:United Gas Pipe Line Co. v. Ideal Cement Co.
2405:
2356:
1867:
1854:
1703:Smith v. Kansas City Title & Trust Co.
1549:
1490:Republic of Argentina v. NML Capital, Ltd.
1033:
1020:
1000:
986:
978:
663:
661:
637:
635:
20:
2272:FDA v. Alliance for Hippocratic Medicine
2184:Hein v. Freedom From Religion Foundation
393:). As such, it was permissible for the
608:
1450:Dolan v. United States Postal Service
1219:Clearfield Trust Co. v. United States
18:1962 United States Supreme Court case
7:
2216:Clapper v. Amnesty International USA
1711:Hartsville Oil Mill v. United States
2429:Osborn v. Bank of the United States
1971:Toilet Goods Ass'n, Inc. v. Gardner
1338:Banco Nacional de Cuba v. Sabbatino
1134:Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy
777:, 25 Am. U. L. Rev. 595 (1976).
429:of the Constitution. However, the
377:Court of Customs and Patent Appeals
2104:Pfizer Inc. v. Government of India
1506:Jam v. International Finance Corp.
1047:Railroad Commission v. Pullman Co.
865:from the original on March 3, 2016
793:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
743:Tooltip Public Law (United States)
395:Chief Justice of the United States
275:Harlan, joined by Brennan, Stewart
36:Supreme Court of the United States
14:
2504:United States Supreme Court cases
1290:The Schooner Exchange v. M'Faddon
938:530 (1962) is available from:
154:(D.C. Cir. 1961); cert. granted,
128:1961); on remand, 28 F.R.D. 346 (
1466:Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons
43:Argued February 21, 26, 1962
29:
1807:Plaut v. Spendthrift Farm, Inc.
1498:OBB Personenverkehr AG v. Sachs
592:for use on Article III courts.
307:U.S. Const. Article III, §§ 1-2
117:(S.D.N.Y. 1960); reversed, 288
2524:1962 in United States case law
2144:Lujan v. Defenders of Wildlife
2096:Illinois Brick Co. v. Illinois
1434:Republic of Austria v. Altmann
1346:Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez
586:Federal Courts Improvement Act
483:, writing for himself and the
1:
2176:DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno
1905:Acheson Hotels, LLC v. Laufer
1514:Republic of Sudan v. Harrison
1203:Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins
821:Congressional Reference Cases
367:), 370 U.S. 530 (1962), is a
2120:City of Los Angeles v. Lyons
1314:Schillinger v. United States
1240:Rooker v. Fidelity Trust Co.
458:In a plurality opinion, the
90:) ¶ 17,685; 50 L.R.R.M. 2693
1889:Campbell-Ewald Co. v. Gomez
1330:United States v. Wunderlich
584:. In 1982, as part of the
369:United States Supreme Court
2540:
2445:Mistretta v. United States
1671:Burton v. United States II
1647:City of St. Louis v. Myers
1522:Opati v. Republic of Sudan
1126:Murdock v. City of Memphis
970:Oyez (oral argument audio)
515:, writing for himself and
379:were judges created under
106:Summary judgment granted,
2415:
2404:
2368:
2355:
2256:TransUnion LLC v. Ramirez
1866:
1853:
1663:Burton v. United States I
1615:United States v. Jackalow
1591:Martin v. Hunter's Lessee
1561:
1548:
1032:
1019:
833:Novak, Linda (May 1980).
668:Williams v. United States
422:Williams v. United States
337:Williams v. United States
319:
312:
305:
295:
200:
189:
28:
2477:Bank Markazi v. Peterson
2248:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
1897:Uzuegbunam v. Preczewski
1687:Muskrat v. United States
1655:Barrett v. United States
1362:United States v. Stanley
1142:Fox Film Corp. v. Muller
1117:independent state ground
905:
772:
291:Douglas, joined by Black
2461:United States v. Hatter
2453:Peretz v. United States
2390:Cramer v. United States
2032:Massachusetts v. Mellon
1783:Thomas v. Union Carbide
1482:United States v. Bormes
1231:Rooker–Feldman doctrine
1179:United States v. Hudson
642:Ex parte Bakelite Corp.
575:Subsequent developments
521:Ex parte Bakelite Corp.
462:, writing for himself,
416:Ex parte Bakelite Corp.
321:Ex parte Bakelite Corp.
283:Clark, joined by Warren
2224:Spokeo, Inc. v. Robins
1942:Nixon v. United States
1639:United States v. Klein
1530:Trump v. United States
1378:Saudi Arabia v. Nelson
1322:Feres v. United States
1298:Mississippi v. Johnson
1055:Burford v. Sun Oil Co.
693:, 279 U.S. at 459-460.
572:
554:
529:
247:William J. Brennan Jr.
2382:United States v. Burr
2331:Rucho v. Common Cause
2232:Texas v. Pennsylvania
2208:Bond v. United States
2064:Sierra Club v. Morton
1759:Arizona v. New Mexico
1743:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
1719:Wisconsin v. Illinois
1623:Ex parte Vallandigham
1583:United States v. More
1273:presidential immunity
928:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
705:, 370 U.S. at 596-97.
616:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
567:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
549:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
525:
364:Lurk v. United States
358:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
148:Lurk v. United States
45:Decided June 25, 1962
24:Glidden Co. v. Zdanok
1306:United States v. Lee
912:879, 884 (2003).
771:Jeffrey M. Glosser,
715:United States v. Coe
533:United States v. Coe
454:Opinion of the Court
86:2139; 45 Lab. Cas. (
2048:Altvater v. Freeman
2024:Fairchild v. Hughes
1934:Goldwater v. Carter
1881:DeFunis v. Odegaard
1567:Chisholm v. Georgia
1354:Nixon v. Fitzgerald
961:Library of Congress
906:Unfinished Business
839:Columbia Law Review
361:(consolidated with
2437:Forrester v. White
2323:Vieth v. Jubelirer
2280:Murthy v. Missouri
2136:Diamond v. Charles
2016:Bailiff v. Tipping
1917:Political question
1735:Colegrove v. Green
1575:Marbury v. Madison
1474:Samantar v. Yousuf
1268:Sovereign immunity
1170:Federal common law
1009:U.S. Supreme Court
910:Geo. Wash. L. Rev.
390:Article III judges
227:William O. Douglas
211:Associate Justices
172:Rehearing denied,
78:82 S. Ct. 1459; 8
2491:
2490:
2487:
2486:
2469:Stern v. Marshall
2400:
2399:
2351:
2350:
2347:
2346:
2337:Benisek v. Lamone
2315:Davis v. Bandemer
2264:Biden v. Nebraska
2240:Trump v. New York
1995:Trump v. New York
1849:
1848:
1831:Bowles v. Russell
1727:Crowell v. Benson
1631:Ex parte McCardle
1544:
1543:
1540:
1539:
1282:Little v. Barreme
1150:Harrison v. NAACP
1087:Younger v. Harris
403:courts of appeals
354:
353:
239:John M. Harlan II
223:Felix Frankfurter
2531:
2406:
2374:Ex parte Bollman
2357:
1868:
1855:
1839:Patchak v. Zinke
1550:
1386:Clinton v. Jones
1158:Michigan v. Long
1034:
1021:
1002:
995:
988:
979:
974:
968:
965:
959:
956:
950:
947:
941:
914:
913:
907:
895:
889:
887:
881:
875:
874:
872:
870:
830:
824:
818:
812:
810:
794:
790:
785:
779:
778:
776:
768:
762:
760:
759:October 15, 1966
744:
740:
735:
729:
712:
706:
700:
694:
688:
682:
665:
656:
639:
630:
613:
570:
552:
196:Court membership
33:
32:
21:
2539:
2538:
2534:
2533:
2532:
2530:
2529:
2528:
2494:
2493:
2492:
2483:
2421:Stuart v. Laird
2411:
2396:
2364:
2343:
2286:
2128:Allen v. Wright
2088:Warth v. Seldin
2040:Ex parte Levitt
2001:
1948:
1911:
1862:
1845:
1607:Sheldon v. Sill
1557:
1536:
1271:
1262:
1225:
1164:
1116:
1109:
1028:
1015:
1006:
972:
966:
963:
957:
954:
948:
945:
939:
923:
918:
917:
897:
896:
892:
883:
882:
878:
868:
866:
851:10.2307/1122139
832:
831:
827:
819:
815:
808:
792:
786:
782:
770:
769:
765:
758:
742:
736:
732:
713:
709:
701:
697:
689:
685:
666:
659:
640:
633:
614:
610:
605:
577:
571:
563:Justice Douglas
561:
553:
543:
513:Justice Douglas
468:Justice Stewart
464:Justice Brennan
456:
411:
399:district courts
387:(also known as
373:Court of Claims
335:
315:
249:
237:
225:
180:854 (1962).
162:815 (1961).
144:814 (1961).
91:
44:
38:
19:
12:
11:
5:
2537:
2535:
2527:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2496:
2495:
2489:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2473:
2465:
2457:
2449:
2441:
2433:
2425:
2416:
2413:
2412:
2409:
2402:
2401:
2398:
2397:
2395:
2394:
2386:
2378:
2369:
2366:
2365:
2360:
2353:
2352:
2349:
2348:
2345:
2344:
2342:
2341:
2327:
2319:
2311:
2303:
2299:Hayburn's Case
2294:
2292:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2284:
2276:
2268:
2260:
2252:
2244:
2236:
2228:
2220:
2212:
2204:
2196:
2188:
2180:
2172:
2164:
2156:
2152:Raines v. Byrd
2148:
2140:
2132:
2124:
2116:
2108:
2100:
2092:
2084:
2076:
2068:
2060:
2056:Flast v. Cohen
2052:
2044:
2036:
2028:
2020:
2011:
2009:
2003:
2002:
2000:
1999:
1991:
1983:
1979:Laird v. Tatum
1975:
1967:
1958:
1956:
1950:
1949:
1947:
1946:
1938:
1930:
1921:
1919:
1913:
1912:
1910:
1909:
1901:
1893:
1885:
1876:
1874:
1864:
1863:
1860:Justiciability
1858:
1851:
1850:
1847:
1846:
1844:
1843:
1835:
1827:
1819:
1811:
1803:
1795:
1787:
1779:
1771:
1763:
1755:
1747:
1739:
1731:
1723:
1715:
1707:
1699:
1691:
1683:
1675:
1667:
1659:
1651:
1643:
1635:
1627:
1619:
1611:
1603:
1595:
1587:
1579:
1571:
1562:
1559:
1558:
1553:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1541:
1538:
1537:
1535:
1534:
1526:
1518:
1510:
1502:
1494:
1486:
1478:
1470:
1462:
1454:
1446:
1438:
1430:
1422:
1414:
1406:
1398:
1390:
1382:
1374:
1366:
1358:
1350:
1342:
1334:
1326:
1318:
1310:
1302:
1294:
1286:
1277:
1275:
1264:
1263:
1261:
1260:
1252:
1244:
1235:
1233:
1227:
1226:
1224:
1223:
1215:
1207:
1199:
1191:
1187:Swift v. Tyson
1183:
1174:
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1154:
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1138:
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1121:
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1017:
1016:
1007:
1005:
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943:Google Scholar
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921:External links
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545:Justice Harlan
541:
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497:28 U.S.C.
460:Justice Harlan
455:
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436:28 U.S.C.
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2018:
2017:
2013:
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2010:
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2004:
1997:
1996:
1992:
1989:
1988:
1984:
1981:
1980:
1976:
1973:
1972:
1968:
1965:
1964:
1963:Poe v. Ullman
1960:
1959:
1957:
1955:
1951:
1944:
1943:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1926:Baker v. Carr
1923:
1922:
1920:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1906:
1902:
1899:
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1894:
1891:
1890:
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1123:
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920:
911:
903:
900:
894:
891:
886:
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864:
860:
856:
852:
848:
845:(4): 756–81.
844:
840:
836:
829:
826:
822:
817:
814:
809:April 3, 1982
806:
802:
798:
791:
784:
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764:
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748:
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734:
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724:
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647:
643:
638:
636:
632:
628:
625:
621:
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612:
609:
602:
600:
598:
597:stare decisis
593:
591:
587:
583:
574:
568:
564:
558:
550:
546:
540:
536:
534:
528:
524:
522:
518:
517:Justice Black
514:
510:
506:
502:
498:
494:
490:
486:
485:Chief Justice
482:
481:Justice Clark
477:
473:
470:, held that
469:
465:
461:
453:
451:
449:
445:
441:
437:
432:
431:U.S. Congress
428:
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270:
267:Case opinions
265:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
213:
210:
208:
205:
203:Chief Justice
202:
201:
199:
194:
188:
183:
179:
175:
171:
167:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
143:
139:
135:
131:
127:
123:
120:
116:
113:
109:
105:
104:
103:
99:
94:
89:
85:
82:2d 671; 1962
81:
75:
74:
69:
66:
62:
58:
55:
52:
48:
41:
37:
27:
22:
16:
2475:
2467:
2459:
2451:
2443:
2435:
2427:
2419:
2388:
2380:
2372:
2335:
2329:
2321:
2313:
2305:
2297:
2278:
2270:
2262:
2254:
2246:
2238:
2230:
2222:
2214:
2206:
2198:
2190:
2182:
2174:
2166:
2160:FEC v. Akins
2158:
2150:
2142:
2134:
2126:
2118:
2110:
2102:
2094:
2086:
2078:
2070:
2062:
2054:
2046:
2038:
2030:
2022:
2014:
1993:
1985:
1977:
1969:
1961:
1940:
1932:
1924:
1903:
1895:
1887:
1879:
1837:
1829:
1821:
1813:
1805:
1797:
1789:
1781:
1773:
1765:
1757:
1749:
1742:
1741:
1733:
1725:
1717:
1709:
1701:
1693:
1685:
1677:
1669:
1661:
1653:
1645:
1637:
1629:
1621:
1613:
1605:
1597:
1589:
1581:
1573:
1565:
1555:Jurisdiction
1528:
1520:
1512:
1504:
1496:
1488:
1480:
1472:
1464:
1456:
1448:
1440:
1432:
1424:
1416:
1408:
1400:
1392:
1384:
1376:
1368:
1360:
1352:
1344:
1336:
1328:
1320:
1312:
1304:
1296:
1288:
1280:
1254:
1246:
1238:
1217:
1209:
1201:
1193:
1185:
1177:
1156:
1148:
1140:
1132:
1124:
1115:Adequate and
1101:
1093:
1085:
1077:
1069:
1061:
1053:
1045:
927:
893:
884:
879:
869:December 28,
867:. Retrieved
842:
838:
828:
820:
816:
783:
766:
733:
728: (1894).
714:
710:
702:
698:
690:
686:
681: (1933).
667:
655: (1929).
641:
629: (1962).
615:
611:
594:
590:Claims Court
581:
578:
566:
556:
548:
538:
532:
530:
526:
520:
492:
488:
475:
471:
457:
420:
414:
412:
388:
385:Constitution
363:
362:
357:
356:
355:
336:
320:
301:Laws applied
254:
242:
235:Tom C. Clark
230:
218:
147:
107:
96:Case history
71:
53:
15:
1012:Article III
509:§ 1543
501:§ 1492
448:§ 1543
440:§ 1492
381:Article III
350: (1933)
334: (1929)
280:Concurrence
259:Byron White
207:Earl Warren
150:, 296 F.2d
136:. granted,
2498:Categories
1038:Abstention
1026:Federalism
807:, enacted
799:, 96
757:, enacted
749:, 80
603:References
409:Background
215:Hugo Black
169:Subsequent
84:U.S. LEXIS
427:Article I
272:Plurality
60:Citations
2007:Standing
1954:Ripeness
1872:Mootness
1014:case law
926:Text of
902:Bruggink
863:Archived
691:Bakelite
560:—
542:—
493:Williams
489:Bakelite
476:Williams
472:Bakelite
375:and the
130:S.D.N.Y.
2362:Treason
899:Eric G.
859:1122139
789:Pub. L.
739:Pub. L.
582:Glidden
383:of the
288:Dissent
185:Holding
132:1961);
126:2d Cir.
112:F.Supp.
2480:(2016)
2472:(2011)
2464:(2001)
2456:(1991)
2448:(1989)
2440:(1988)
2432:(1824)
2424:(1803)
2410:Others
2393:(1945)
2385:(1807)
2377:(1807)
2340:(2019)
2326:(2004)
2318:(1986)
2310:(1985)
2302:(1792)
2291:Others
2283:(2024)
2275:(2024)
2267:(2023)
2259:(2021)
2251:(2021)
2243:(2020)
2235:(2020)
2227:(2016)
2219:(2013)
2211:(2011)
2203:(2011)
2195:(2007)
2187:(2007)
2179:(2006)
2171:(2000)
2163:(1998)
2155:(1997)
2147:(1992)
2139:(1986)
2131:(1984)
2123:(1983)
2115:(1982)
2107:(1978)
2099:(1977)
2091:(1975)
2083:(1974)
2075:(1973)
2067:(1972)
2059:(1968)
2051:(1943)
2043:(1937)
2035:(1923)
2027:(1922)
2019:(1805)
1998:(2020)
1990:(1985)
1982:(1972)
1974:(1967)
1966:(1961)
1945:(1993)
1937:(1979)
1929:(1962)
1908:(2023)
1900:(2021)
1892:(2016)
1884:(1974)
1842:(2018)
1834:(2007)
1826:(2005)
1818:(2002)
1810:(1995)
1802:(1986)
1794:(1986)
1786:(1985)
1778:(1982)
1770:(1977)
1762:(1976)
1754:(1974)
1746:(1962)
1738:(1946)
1730:(1932)
1722:(1929)
1714:(1926)
1706:(1921)
1698:(1916)
1690:(1911)
1682:(1908)
1674:(1906)
1666:(1905)
1658:(1898)
1650:(1885)
1642:(1871)
1634:(1869)
1626:(1864)
1618:(1862)
1610:(1850)
1602:(1828)
1594:(1816)
1586:(1805)
1578:(1803)
1570:(1793)
1533:(2024)
1525:(2020)
1517:(2019)
1509:(2019)
1501:(2015)
1493:(2014)
1485:(2012)
1477:(2010)
1469:(2008)
1461:(2007)
1453:(2006)
1445:(2005)
1437:(2004)
1429:(2003)
1421:(2003)
1413:(2001)
1405:(1999)
1397:(1998)
1389:(1997)
1381:(1993)
1373:(1991)
1365:(1987)
1357:(1982)
1349:(1978)
1341:(1964)
1333:(1951)
1325:(1950)
1317:(1894)
1309:(1882)
1301:(1867)
1293:(1812)
1285:(1804)
1259:(2005)
1251:(1983)
1243:(1923)
1222:(1943)
1214:(1938)
1206:(1938)
1198:(1928)
1190:(1842)
1182:(1812)
1161:(1983)
1153:(1959)
1145:(1935)
1137:(1896)
1129:(1875)
1106:(1983)
1098:(1976)
1090:(1971)
1082:(1964)
1074:(1962)
1066:(1959)
1058:(1943)
1050:(1941)
973:
967:
964:
958:
955:
952:Justia
949:
946:
940:
857:
803:
797:97–164
795:
753:
747:89–681
745:
717:,
703:Zdanok
670:,
644:,
507:
499:
446:
438:
339:,
323:,
257:
255:·
253:
245:
243:·
241:
233:
231:·
229:
221:
219:·
217:
110:, 185
80:L. Ed.
934:
908:, 71
855:JSTOR
801:Stat.
751:Stat.
721:
674:
648:
622:
343:
327:
176:
158:
140:
101:Prior
936:U.S.
871:2009
723:U.S.
676:U.S.
650:U.S.
624:U.S.
491:and
474:and
466:and
419:and
401:and
345:U.S.
329:U.S.
178:U.S.
160:U.S.
142:U.S.
134:cert
119:F.2d
73:more
65:U.S.
63:370
1270:and
932:370
847:doi
755:958
719:155
679:553
672:289
653:438
646:279
627:530
620:370
531:In
413:In
348:553
341:289
332:438
325:279
174:371
156:368
152:360
138:368
115:441
88:CCH
68:530
2500::
2334:/
930:,
904:,
861:.
853:.
843:80
841:.
837:.
805:25
726:76
660:^
634:^
618:,
565:,
547:,
523::
405:.
122:99
1001:e
994:t
987:v
873:.
849::
811:.
761:.
124:(
76:)
70:(
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