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such cases, logical reasoning includes weighing the potential benefits and drawbacks as well as considering their likelihood in order to arrive at a balanced all-things-considered decision. For example, when a person runs out of drinking water in the middle of a hiking trip, they could employ the skills associated with logical reasoning to decide whether to boil and drink water from a stream that might contain dangerous microorganisms rather than break off the trip and hike back to the parking lot. This could include considering factors like assessing how dangerous the microorganisms are and the likelihood that they survive the boiling procedure. It may also involve gathering relevant information to make these assessments, for example, by asking other hikers.
543:: they are either true or false. For example, the sentence "The water is boiling." expresses a proposition since it can be true or false. The sentences "Is the water boiling?" or "Boil the water!", on the other hand, express no propositions since they are neither true nor false. The propositions used as the starting point of logical reasoning are called the premises. The proposition inferred from them is called the conclusion. For example, in the argument "all puppies are dogs; all dogs are animals; therefore all puppies are animals", the propositions "all puppies are dogs" and "all dogs are animals" act as premises while the proposition "all puppies are animals" is the conclusion.
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to understand a position, to generate and evaluate reasons for and against it as well as to critically assess whether to accept or reject certain information. It is about making judgments and drawing conclusions after careful evaluation and contrasts in this regard with uncritical snap judgments and gut feelings. Other core skills linked to logical reasoning are to assess reasons before accepting a claim and to search for new information if more is needed to reach a reliable conclusion. It also includes the ability to consider different courses of action and compare the advantages and disadvantages of their consequences, to use common sense, and to avoid
1038:, even involve correct deductive reasoning on the formal level. The content of an argument is the idea that is expressed in it. For example, a false dilemma is an informal fallacy that is based on an error in one of the premises. The faulty premise oversimplifies reality: it states that things are either one way or another way but ignore many other viable alternatives. False dilemmas are often used by politicians when they claim that either their proposal is accepted or there will be dire consequences. Such claims usually ignore that various alternatives exist to avoid those consequences, i.e. that their proposal is not the only viable solution.
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the currently available evidence even if it is very limited. For example, if a friend yells "Duck!" during a baseball game the most logical response may be to blindly trust them and duck instead of demanding an explanation or investigating what might have prompted their exclamation. Generally speaking, the less time there is, the more significant it is to trust intuitions and gut feelings. If there is more time, on the other hand, it becomes important to examine ambiguities and assess contradictory information.
565:: if the premises of a correct argument are true, it raises the probability that its conclusion is also true. Forms of logical reasoning can be distinguished based on how the premises support the conclusion. Deductive arguments offer the strongest possible support. Non-deductive arguments are weaker but are nonetheless correct forms of reasoning. The term "proof" is often used for deductive arguments or very strong non-deductive arguments. Incorrect arguments offer no or not sufficient support and are called
801:
can be defined as "the process of inferring a general law or principle from the observations of particular instances." For example, starting from the empirical observation that "all ravens I have seen so far are black", inductive reasoning can be used to infer that "all ravens are black". In a slightly weaker form, induction can also be used to infer an individual conclusion about a single case, for example, that "the next raven I will see is black". Inductive reasoning is closely related to
885:
usually that they believe it and have evidence for it. This form of abductive reasoning is relevant to why one normally trusts what other people say even though this inference is usually not drawn in an explicit way. Something similar happens when the speaker's statement is ambiguous and the audience tries to discover and explain what the speaker could have meant. Abductive reasoning is also common in medicine when a doctor examines the symptoms of their patient in order to arrive at a
402:. Inductive reasoning is a form of generalization that infers a universal law from a pattern found in many individual cases. It can be used to conclude that "all ravens are black" based on many individual observations of black ravens. Abductive reasoning, also known as "inference to the best explanation", starts from an observation and reasons to the fact explaining this observation. An example is a doctor who examines the symptoms of their patient to make a
449:
522:. For non-deductive reasoning, the premises make the conclusion more likely but do not ensure it. This support comes in degrees: strong arguments make the conclusion very likely, as is the case for well-researched issues in the empirical sciences. Some theorists give a very wide definition of logical reasoning that includes its role as a cognitive skill responsible for high-quality thinking. In this regard, it has roughly the same meaning as
1010:. This fallacy is committed, for example, when a person argues that "the burglars entered by the front door" based on the premises "the burglars forced the lock" and "if the burglars entered by the front door, then they forced the lock". This fallacy is similar to the valid rule of inference known as modus ponens. It is faulty because the first premise and the conclusion are switched around. Other well-known formal fallacies are
793:
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This means that if the premises are true, it makes it more likely but not certain that the conclusion is also true. So for a non-deductive argument, it is possible for all its premises to be true while its conclusion is still false. There are various types of non-deductive reasoning, like inductive, abductive, and analogical reasoning. Non-deductive reasoning is more common in everyday life than deductive reasoning.
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given feature of one object also characterizes the other object. Another factor concerns not just the degree of similarity but also its relevance. For example, an artificial strawberry made of plastic may be similar to a real strawberry in many respects, including its shape, color, and surface structure. But these similarities are irrelevant to whether the artificial strawberry tastes as sweet as the real one.
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example, when making a generalization about human beings, the sample should include members of different races, genders, and age groups. A lot of reasoning in everyday life is inductive. For example, when predicting how a person will react to a situation, inductive reasoning can be employed based on how the person reacted previously in similar circumstances. It plays an equally central role in the
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does not mean that the conclusion is false. Instead, it only means that some kind of error was committed on the way to reaching the conclusion. An argument can be a fallacy even if, by a fortuitous accident, the conclusion is true. Outside the field of logic, the term "fallacy" is sometimes used in a slightly different sense for a false belief or theory and not for an argument.
778:. This means that one may have to withdraw a conclusion upon learning new information. For example, if all birds a person has seen so far can fly, this person is justified in reaching the inductive conclusion that all birds fly. This conclusion is defeasible because the reasoner may have to revise it upon learning that penguins are birds that do not fly.
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present in the premises without adding any additional information. So with non-deductive reasoning, one can learn something new that one did not know before. But the fact that new information is added means that this additional information may be false. This is why non-deductive reasoning is not as secure as deductive reasoning.
550:. An inference is the mental process of reasoning that starts from the premises and arrives at the conclusion. But the terms "argument" and "inference" are often used interchangeably in logic. The purpose of arguments is to convince a person that something is the case by providing reasons for this belief. Many arguments in
1052:, like the argument "(1) feathers are light; (2) light is opposed to darkness; (3) therefore feathers are opposed to darkness". The error is found in the ambiguous term "light", which has one meaning in the first premise ("not heavy") and a different meaning in the second premise ("visible electromagnetic radiation").
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this view. For example, an alcohol lobbyist may respond to the suggestion to ban alcohol advertisements on television by claiming that it is impossible to make people give up drinking alcohol. This is a strawman fallacy since the suggestion was merely to ban advertisements and not to stop all alcohol consumption.
558:. Some theorists distinguish between simple and complex arguments. A complex argument is made up of many sub-arguments. This way, a chain is formed in which the conclusions of earlier arguments act as premises for later arguments. Each link in this chain has to be successful for a complex argument to succeed.
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to differentiate between reliable and unreliable sources of information. This matters for effective reasoning since it is often necessary to rely on information provided by other people instead of checking every single fact for oneself. This way, logical reasoning can help the person avoid the effects of
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Time also plays a central role in logical reasoning. If one lacks important information, it is often better to delay a decision and look for new information before coming to a conclusion. If the decision is time-sensitive, on the other hand, logical reasoning may imply making a fast decision based on
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level. On the theoretical level, it helps decrease the number of false beliefs. A central aspect concerns the abilities used to distinguish facts from mere opinions, like the process of finding and evaluating reasons for and against a position to come to one's own conclusion. This includes being able
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The more plausible the explanation is, the stronger it is supported by the premises. In this regard, it matters that the explanation is simple, i.e. does not include any unnecessary claims, and that it is consistent with established knowledge. Other central criteria for a good explanation are that it
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to reach a conclusion. It can be defined as "selecting and interpreting information from a given context, making connections, and verifying and drawing conclusions based on provided and interpreted information and the associated rules and processes." Logical reasoning is rigorous in the sense that it
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responsible for high-quality thinking. In this sense, it is roughly equivalent to critical thinking and includes the capacity to select and apply the appropriate rules of logic to specific situations. It encompasses a great variety of abilities besides drawing conclusions from premises. Examples are
800:
Inductive reasoning starts from a set of individual instances and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. Some theorists use the term in a very wide sense to include any form of non-deductive reasoning, even if no generalization is involved. In the more narrow sense, it
974:
A fallacy is an incorrect argument or a faulty form of reasoning. This means that the premises provide no or not sufficient support for the conclusion. Fallacies often appear to be correct on the first impression and thereby seduce people into accepting and using them. In logic, the term "fallacy"
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that try to discover the relation between causes and effects. Abduction is also very common in everyday life. It is used there in a similar but less systematic form. This relates, for example, to the trust people put in what other people say. The best explanation of why a person asserts a claim is
1092:
On the practical level, logical reasoning concerns the issue of making rational and effective decisions. For many real-life decisions, various courses of action are available to the agent. For each possible action, there can be conflicting reasons, some in favor of it and others opposed to it. In
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The strawman fallacy is another informal fallacy. Its error happens on the level of the context. It consists in misrepresenting the view of an opponent and then refuting this view. The refutation itself is often correct but the error lies in the false assumption that the opponent actually defends
944:
Through analogical reasoning, knowledge can be transferred from one situation or domain to another. Arguments from analogy provide support for their conclusion but do not guarantee its truth. Their strength depends on various factors. The more similar the systems are, the more likely it is that a
809:. Like other forms of non-deductive reasoning, induction is not certain. This means that the premises support the conclusion by making it more probable but do not ensure its truth. In this regard, the conclusion of an inductive inference contains new information not already found in the premises.
750:
Non-deductive reasoning is an important form of logical reasoning besides deductive reasoning. It happens in the form of inferences drawn from premises to reach and support a conclusion, just like its deductive counterpart. The hallmark of non-deductive reasoning is that this support is fallible.
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if it is valid and all its premises are true. For example, inferring the conclusion "no cats are frogs" from the premises "all frogs are amphibians" and "no cats are amphibians" is a sound argument. But even arguments with false premises can be deductively valid, like inferring that "no cats are
517:
agreement about the application of the norms, i.e. agreement about whether and to what degree the premises support their conclusion. The types of logical reasoning differ concerning the exact norms they use as well as the certainty of the conclusion they arrive at. Deductive reasoning offers the
846:
Abductive reasoning is usually understood as an inference from an observation to a fact explaining this observation. Inferring that it has rained after seeing that the streets are wet is one example. Often, the expression "inference to the best explanation" is used as a synonym. This expression
816:
should be large to guarantee that many individual cases were considered before drawing the conclusion. An intimately connected factor is that the sample is random and representative. This means that it includes a fair and balanced selection of individuals with different key characteristics. For
770:
are used synonymously even though there are slight differences in their meaning. Non-deductive reasoning is ampliative in the sense that it arrives at information not already present in the premises. Deductive reasoning, by contrast, is non-ampliative since it only extracts information already
941:. Analogical reasoning can be used, for example, to infer information about humans from medical experiments on animals: (1) rats are similar to humans; (2) birth control pills affect the brain development of rats; (3) therefore they may also affect the brain development of humans.
350:
argument, for example: all men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore, Socrates is mortal. For valid arguments, it is not important whether the premises are actually true but only that, if they were true, the conclusion could not be false. Valid arguments follow a
437:. In this regard, it encompasses cognitive skills besides the ability to draw conclusions from premises. Examples are skills to generate and evaluate reasons and to assess the reliability of information. Further factors are to seek new information, to avoid
591:
inferences are the most reliable form of inference: it is impossible for their conclusion to be false if all the premises are true. This means that the truth of the premises ensures the truth of the conclusion. A deductive argument is
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Franks, Bridget A.; Therriault, David J.; Buhr, Miriam I.; Chiang, Evelyn S.; Gonzalez, Claire M.; Kwon, Heekyung K.; Schelble, Jenni L.; Wang, Xuesong (August 2013). "Looking back: reasoning and metacognition with narrative texts".
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Abductive reasoning plays a central role in science when researchers discover unexplained phenomena. In this case, they often resort to a form of guessing to come up with general principles that could explain the observations. The
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does not generate any conclusion but ensures that the premises support the conclusion and act as reasons for believing it. One central aspect is that this support is not restricted to a specific reasoner but that any
1029:
Informal fallacies are expressed in natural language. Their main fault usually lies not in the form of the argument but has other sources, like its content or context. Some informal fallacies, like some instances of
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could also explain why the streets are wet but this is usually not the best explanation. As a form of non-deductive reasoning, abduction does not guarantee the truth of the conclusion even if the premises are true.
956:, and learning. It can be used both for simple physical characteristics and complex abstract ideas. In science, analogies are often used in models to understand complex phenomena in a simple way. For example, the
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frogs" from the premises "all frogs are mammals" and "no cats are mammals". In this regard, it only matters that the conclusion could not be false if the premises are true and not whether they actually are true.
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can be used to draw inferences about what happened before, during, and after an event. Classical logic and its extensions rest on a set of basic logical intuitions accepted by most logicians. They include the
534:
A variety of basic concepts is used in the study and analysis of logical reasoning. Logical reasoning happens by inferring a conclusion from a set of premises. Premises and conclusions are normally seen as
636:
stand for. For example, the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today" is deductively valid because it has the form of
698:
and covers many additional forms of inferences besides syllogisms. So-called extended logics are based on classical logic and introduce additional rules of inference for specific domains. For example,
433:, the source of the faulty reasoning is usually found in the content or the context of the argument. Some theorists understand logical reasoning in a wide sense that is roughly equivalent to
346:
offers the strongest support: the premises ensure the conclusion, meaning that it is impossible for the conclusion to be false if all the premises are true. Such an argument is called a
331:, i.e. true or false claims about what is the case. Together, they form an argument. Logical reasoning is norm-governed in the sense that it aims to formulate correct arguments that any
832:, who holds that future events need not resemble past observations. In this regard, inductive reasoning about future events seems to rest on the assumption that nature remains uniform.
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and usually belong to deductive reasoning. Their fault lies in the logical form of the argument, i.e. that it does not follow a valid rule of inference. A well-known formal fallacy is
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913:. It starts from information about one system and infers information about another system based on the resemblance between the two systems. Expressed schematically, arguments from
719:, and the bivalence of truth. So-called deviant logics reject some of these basic intuitions and propose alternative rules governing the validity of arguments. For example,
382:: the premises make it more likely that the conclusion is true and strong inferences make it very likely. Some uncertainty remains because the conclusion introduces new
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by others. When important information is missing, it is often better to suspend judgment than to jump to conclusions. In this regard, logical reasoning should be
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Analogical reasoning can be used to transfer insights from animal experiments to humans, like in the case of research on obesity and hypertension performed on
3618:
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828:. It concerns the question of whether or why anyone is justified in believing the conclusions of inductive inferences. This problem was initially raised by
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Enyeart, Morris A.; Baker, Dale; Vanharlingen, Dave (May 1980). "Correlation of inductive and deductive logical reasoning to college physics achievement".
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694:, like concluding that "Socrates is a mortal" from the premises "Socrates is a man" and "all men are mortal". The currently dominant system is known as
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The forms of logical reasoning have in common that they use premises to make inferences in a norm-governed way. As norm-governed practices, they aim at
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and vague expressions in natural language are often responsible for the faulty reasoning in informal fallacies. For example, this is the case for
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Distinct types of logical reasoning differ from each other concerning the norms they employ and the certainty of the conclusion they arrive at.
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The rules governing deductive reasoning are often expressed formally as logical systems for assessing the correctness of deductive arguments.
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An argument is correct or incorrect depending on whether the premises offer support for the conclusion. This is often understood in terms of
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fits observed and commonly known facts and that it is relevant, precise, and not circular. Ideally, the explanation should be verifiable by
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do not explicitly state all the premises. Instead, the premises are often implicitly assumed, especially if they seem obvious and belong to
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1956:
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is one of the earliest systems and was treated as the canon of logic in the
Western world for over two thousand years. It is based on
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Logical reasoning is concerned with the correctness of arguments. A key distinction is between deductive and non-deductive arguments.
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Various aspects of the premises are important to ensure that they offer significant support to the conclusion. In this regard, the
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821:, which often start with many particular observations and then apply the process of generalization to arrive at a universal law.
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Margolis, James M.; Margolis, Joseph; Krausz, Michael; Krausz, A. S.; Burian, R.; Margolis, Professor Joseph (31 October 1986).
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underlines that there are usually many possible explanations of the same fact and that the reasoner should only infer the best
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734:. In mathematics, it is used to prove mathematical theorems based on a set of premises, usually called axioms. For example,
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Based on many individual observations of black ravens, inductive reasoning can be used to infer that all ravens are black.
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are then tested and compared to discover which one provides the best explanation. This pertains particularly to cases of
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person would find the conclusion convincing based on the premises. This way, logical reasoning plays a role in expanding
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494:, which study formal and informal logical reasoning. Traditionally, logical reasoning was primarily associated with
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For non-deductive logical reasoning, the premises make their conclusion rationally convincing without ensuring its
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of the premises and the conclusion but not on their specific content. The most-discussed rule of inference is the
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Doctors use abductive reasoning when investigating the symptoms of a patient to determine their underlying cause.
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The
Relativity of Theory: Key Positions and Arguments in the Contemporary Scientific Realism/Antirealism Debate
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539:. A proposition is a statement that makes a claim about what is the case. In this regard, propositions act as
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not already found in the premises. Non-deductive reasoning plays a central role in everyday life and in most
910:
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441:, and to consider the advantages and disadvantages of different courses of action before making a decision.
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systems. It observes that one of them has a feature and concludes that the other one also has this feature.
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studied by formal logic. But in a wider sense, it also includes forms of non-deductive reasoning, such as
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explains the interactions of sub-atomic particles in analogy to how planets revolve around the sun.
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Overconfidence and Risk Taking in
Foreign Policy Decision Making: The Case of Turkey's Syria Policy
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Some theorists discuss logical reasoning in a very wide sense that includes its role as a broad
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that is concerned with arriving at a conclusion in a rigorous way. This happens in the form of
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The
Tapestry of Reason: An Inquiry into the Nature of Coherence and its Role in Legal Argument
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Logical
Investigative Methods: Critical Thinking and Reasoning for Successful Investigations
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864:. If the explanation involves extraordinary claims then it requires very strong evidence.
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Thinking in Clinical Practice: Improving the Quality of Judgments and Decisions
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Deductive reasoning is the mental process of drawing deductive inferences. Deductively
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1069:. The skills responsible for logical reasoning can be learned, trained, and improved.
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Cognitive-behavioural Therapy with Delusions and Hallucinations: A Practice Manual
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Analogical reasoning involves the comparison of two systems in relation to their
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to a conclusion supported by these premises. The premises and the conclusion are
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Falsehood and Fallacy: How to Think, Read, and Write in the Twenty-First Century
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Bronkhorst, Hugo; Roorda, Gerrit; Suhre, Cor; Goedhart, Martin (December 2020).
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person would find convincing. The main discipline studying logical reasoning is
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Inductive Reasoning: Experimental, Developmental, and Computational Approaches
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An Illustrated Brief History of Western Philosophy, 20th Anniversary Edition
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reject the law of excluded middle and the double negation elimination while
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2205:
2203:
2201:
1236:
1234:
413:
Arguments that fall short of the standards of logical reasoning are called
4565:
4520:
897:
774:
A closely related aspect is that non-deductive reasoning is defeasible or
738:
is based on a small set of axioms from which all essential properties of
547:
476:
463:
332:
316:
3234:
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824:
A well-known issue in the field of inductive reasoning is the so-called
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852:
818:
471:
387:
320:
4247:
3356:
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1457:
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1287:
4540:"The Zucker fatty rat as a genetic model of obesity and hypertension"
3678:
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5113:
4299:
4121:
3862:
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4281:
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4126:. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. pp. 1, 4.
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3232:
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Deductive reasoning plays a central role in formal logic and
2646:
5282:
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3061:
3059:
2999:
2997:
2995:
2455:
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2451:
2449:
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4839:. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 2066β9.
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3485:
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A set of premises together with a conclusion is called an
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3911:
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1550:
1548:
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The main discipline studying logical reasoning is called
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4471:. World Scientific Publishing Company. pp. 54, 57.
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4820:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 419.
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3217:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 128.
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2226:
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2681:
2679:
2677:
2675:
2538:
2536:
2491:
2489:
2472:
2470:
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2387:
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1651:
1649:
1647:
1251:
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4759:
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2727:
2725:
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by transforming the information present in a set of
3695:Craig, Edward (1996). "Formal and informal logic".
3213:Anshakov, Oleg M.; Gergely, TamΓ‘s (11 March 2010).
1921:
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4913:Priest, Graham; Tanaka, Koji; Weber, Zach (2018).
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2112:
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1980:
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4123:Deviant Logic, Fuzzy Logic: Beyond the Formalism
3913:The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning
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4921:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
4746:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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4233:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
4063:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
3425:Blackburn, Simon (1 January 2008). "argument".
3341:. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University
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5168:. Cambridge University Press. p. 8, 103.
4673:Rationality, Relativism and the Human Sciences
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3951:The SAGE Handbook of Qualitative Data Analysis
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3524:The Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy
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1909:
5246:. University of Alabama Press. pp. 1β3.
5147:Political Communication in American Campaigns
4227:"The Problem of Induction: 1. Hume's Problem"
4210:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1β24.
2144:
1683:
948:Analogical reasoning plays a central role in
571:does not mean their conclusions are incorrect
8:
4452:. University of Toronto Press. p. 100.
3543:Human Reasoning: The Psychology Of Deduction
3279:Audi, Robert (1999). "Philosophy of logic".
1893:
5227:. University Press of America. p. ix.
4975:Introduction to Logic and Critical Thinking
3867:. St. Martin's Press. pp. 74, 108β11.
3602:. Princeton University Press. p. 104.
3018:
1968:
742:can be inferred using deductive reasoning.
641:. Other popular rules of inference include
4992:SandkΓΌhler, Hans JΓΆrg (2010). "Analogie".
4816:Norman, J.; Sylvan, R. (6 December 2012).
4763:. Princeton University Press. p. 81.
4696:. Oxford University Press. pp. 3β14.
4616:. Eolss Publishers / UNESCO. p. 103.
4055:Goranko, Valentin; Rumberg, Antje (2022).
2662:
2554:
1940:, 1. 'Alternative' in 'Alternative Logic'.
1844:, Introduction: Philosophy of logic today.
1072:Logical reasoning is relevant both on the
754:Non-deductive reasoning is ampliative and
569:, although the use of incorrect arguments
5284:. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 10.
5225:Informal Logical Fallacies: A Brief Guide
5185:Routledge Handbook of Bounded Rationality
4555:
3810:"Fallacies: 6. Partial List of Fallacies"
3504:
3117:
2712:
2614:
2406:
2364:
2211:
1837:
1783:
1517:
1453:
5114:"False Dilemma: A Systematic Exposition"
4837:Encyclopedia of the Sciences of Learning
4654:Springer Handbook of Model-Based Science
4369:Johnson-Laird, Phil (30 December 2009).
4279:Ivory, Sarah Birrell (11 January 2021).
3562:Rethinking Knowledge: The Heuristic View
3398:. Oxford University Press. p. 422.
3077:
3046:
2523:
2289:Lorenzano, Rheinberger & Galles 2010
2189:Niiniluoto, Sintonen & Wolenski 2004
2128:
1952:
1802:
1767:
5164:Velleman, Daniel J. (16 January 2006).
5074:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
5049:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4919:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4744:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4507:Koslowski, Barbara (14 November 2017).
4492:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4283:. Oxford University Press. p. 73.
4231:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4185:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4061:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3884:Journal of Research in Science Teaching
3431:. Oxford University Press. p. 29.
3339:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3318:The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3025:, Introduction: Aspects of Rationality.
2933:
2887:
2587:
2376:
2304:
2232:
2008:
1865:
1533:
1148:
378:. This is often understood in terms of
5166:How to Prove It: A Structured Approach
4433:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 140.
4036:Girod, Robert J. (25 September 2014).
4021:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 540.
3680:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 110.
3282:The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy
3236:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 115.
3215:Cognitive Reasoning: A Formal Approach
3198:. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 202.
3176:
3148:
3133:
3105:
3093:
3065:
3034:
3003:
2966:
2954:
2912:
2907:Enyeart, Baker & Vanharlingen 1980
2871:
2839:
2823:
2795:
2747:
2700:
2685:
2596:
2582:
2573:
2542:
2495:
2476:
2459:
2434:
2418:
2391:
2352:
2343:, What Is Induction and Why Study It?.
2260:
2081:
2024:
1992:
1818:
1755:
1730:, p. 169, 8. Deductive Reasoning.
1699:
1655:
1622:
1594:
1566:
1554:
1415:
1398:
1386:
1359:Enyeart, Baker & Vanharlingen 1980
1299:
1255:
1213:
986:. Formal fallacies are expressed in a
5080:from the original on 26 December 2021
4509:"Abductive reasoning and explanation"
4412:Critical Thinking: A Beginner's Guide
4160:Halpern, Diane F. (4 February 2014).
4107:from the original on 29 December 2021
3749:"Abduction and Explanatory Reasoning"
3160:
2924:
2855:
2807:
2779:
2763:
2731:
2630:
2512:Kurtz, Morris & Pershadsingh 1989
2244:
2160:
2093:
1933:
1877:
1853:
1727:
1711:
1634:
1485:
1370:
1327:
1311:
1283:
1267:
1176:
600:Deductively valid arguments follow a
29:Process of drawing correct inferences
7:
5026:Dialogues Concerning Natural Numbers
4318:from the original on 7 December 2021
4266:from the original on 29 January 2021
3998:Gabbay, Michael (4 September 2002).
3715:from the original on 16 January 2021
3698:Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3253:Statistical Methods for Human Rights
2336:
2272:
2172:
1501:
1434:
5183:Viale, Riccardo (2 December 2020).
4954:Robertson, Simon (1 October 2009).
4940:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
4719:Mizrahi, Moti (29 September 2020).
4410:Kaye, Sharon M. (1 December 2012).
4350:Johnson, Gregory (6 January 2017).
4101:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3814:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3794:Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3774:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
3445:from the original on 8 January 2022
3428:The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy
3412:from the original on 8 January 2022
1024:fallacy of the undistributed middle
978:Fallacies are usually divided into
727:reject the principle of explosion.
232:
189:
181:
173:
117:
74:
66:
59:
51:
44:
36:
5261:Walton, Douglas (26 August 2013).
5093:Sriram, Ram D. (6 December 2012).
4693:The Oxford Handbook of Rationality
4429:Kenny, Anthony (15 October 2018).
4414:. Simon and Schuster. p. 57.
4249:The Oxford Companion to Philosophy
4191:from the original on 29 March 2021
3676:Cottrell, Stella (14 March 2017).
3600:Introduction to Mathematical Logic
3314:"Analogy and Analogical Reasoning"
3299:from the original on 14 April 2021
1089:and open-minded at the same time.
25:
4076:Goswami, Usha (23 October 2013).
3560:Cellucci, Carlo (29 March 2017).
3270:Atwater, Lyman Hotchkiss (1867).
1183:, Logical Reasoning and Learning.
994:. It has the following form: (1)
5303:. World Scientific. p. 70.
4854:Nute, Donald (6 December 2012).
4581:Li, Ming; VitΓ‘nyi, Paul (2019).
4304:. North Holland. pp. 1β12.
4078:Analogical Reasoning in Children
3845:. Wadsworth Publishing Company.
3581:Principles of Scientific Methods
3358:. Springer Nature. p. 110.
3274:. J. B. Lippincott. p. 167.
2321:Asher, Banks & Scheuren 2007
1740:Byrne, Evans & Newstead 2019
490:. It is divided into formal and
447:
5242:Walton, Douglas (15 May 2014).
5055:from the original on 3 May 1998
4782:. Nelson Thornes. p. 167.
4723:. Springer Nature. p. 83.
4515:. Routledge. pp. 366β382.
4467:Kohar, Richard (15 June 2016).
4017:Gambrill, Eileen (1 May 2012).
4002:. Broadview Press. p. 15.
3949:Flick, Uwe (10 December 2013).
3841:Dowden, Bradley Harris (1993).
3194:Amaya, Amalia (30 April 2015).
1981:Priest, Tanaka & Weber 2018
1922:Shapiro & Kouri Kissel 2021
1127:Transduction (machine learning)
462:Logical reasoning is a form of
311:way. It happens in the form of
4145:. Cambridge University Press.
3915:. Cambridge University Press.
3839:(for an earlier version, see:
3728:Demir, Imran (24 March 2017).
3373:Bird, Alexander (9 May 2006).
3285:. Cambridge University Press.
2113:Bertolaso & Sterpetti 2020
1:
5299:Weaver, Nik (22 April 2015).
4331:Jamieson, D. (9 March 2013).
4141:Haack, Susan (27 July 1978).
3768:Douven, Igor (9 March 2011).
2481:1.2 The ubiquity of abduction
2059:Magnani & Bertolotti 2017
1668:Arp, Barbone & Bruce 2018
1607:Copi, Cohen & Rodych 2018
1470:Copi, Cohen & Rodych 2018
917:have the following form: (1)
612:. It has the following form:
5223:Vleet, Jacob E. Van (2011).
4895:A Dictionary of Epidemiology
4818:Directions in Relevant Logic
3579:Chang, Mark (22 July 2014).
1290:, 1. 'Philosophy of logics'.
390:. Often-discussed types are
5280:Walton, Douglas N. (1987).
4958:. OUP Oxford. p. 192.
4936:"Induction, The Problem of"
4898:. Oxford University Press.
4702:10.1093/0195145399.001.0001
4595:10.1007/978-3-030-11298-1_5
4448:Kilcrease, Bethany (2021).
4252:. Oxford University Press.
3828:Dowden, Bradley H. (2020).
3623:. Oxford University Press.
2040:Anshakov & Gergely 2010
889:of their underlying cause.
713:double negation elimination
5350:
5187:. Routledge. p. 746.
5028:. Peter Lang. p. 15.
4738:Moschovakis, Joan (2021).
4095:Groarke, Louis F. (2022).
4000:Logic With Added Reasoning
3971:Metacognition and Learning
3620:A Dictionary of Psychology
3506:10.1007/s10763-019-10039-8
3395:A Dictionary of Philosophy
3377:. Routledge. p. 123.
1910:Goranko & Rumberg 2022
1401:, p. 346-7, 432, 470.
1122:List of rules of inference
967:
937:probably also has feature
839:
785:
580:
319:by starting from a set of
5210:. Oxford University Press
5202:Vickers, John M. (2022).
5145:Tuman, Joseph S. (2008).
5130:10.1007/s10503-013-9292-0
5024:Sayward, Charles (2009).
4973:Salmon, Merrilee (2012).
4934:Psillos, Stathis (2023).
4778:Nelson, Hazel E. (2005).
4656:. Springer. p. 152.
4164:. Routledge. p. 81.
4080:. Routledge. p. 86.
3983:10.1007/s11409-013-9099-2
3861:Engel, S. Morris (2014).
3755:. Oxford University Press
3642:. Springer. p. 738.
3583:. CRC Press. p. 37.
3564:. Springer. p. 154.
3545:. Routledge. p. 59.
2145:Nadler & Shapiro 2021
1597:, p. 67-8, 432, 470.
1332:Formal and informal logic
1132:Transduction (psychology)
1074:theoretical and practical
303:that aims to arrive at a
237:
230:
207:
194:
187:
179:
171:
122:
115:
92:
79:
72:
64:
57:
49:
42:
5263:Methods of Argumentation
4995:EnzyklopΓ€die Philosophie
4856:Defeasible Deontic Logic
4799:Handbook of Epistemology
4354:. MIT Press. p. 2.
4225:Henderson, Leah (2022).
3808:Dowden, Bradley (2021).
3788:Dowden, Bradley (2023).
3732:. Springer. p. 32.
2752:affirming the consequent
2263:, p. 432, 450, 470.
1894:Norman & Sylvan 2012
992:affirming the consequent
423:affirming the consequent
5301:Truth And Assertibility
4557:10.1161/01.HYP.13.6.896
4375:WIREs Cognitive Science
3598:Church, Alonzo (1996).
3019:Mele & Rawling 2004
807:probabilistic reasoning
760:non-deductive reasoning
758:. Sometimes, the terms
746:Non-deductive reasoning
4915:"Paraconsistent Logic"
4488:"Defeasible Reasoning"
4486:Koons, Robert (2022).
3904:10.1002/tea.3660170311
2919:Bronkhorst et al. 2020
2663:Ornek & Saleh 2012
2218:, Inductive Reasoning.
1716:8. Deductive reasoning
1583:Bronkhorst et al. 2020
1344:Bronkhorst et al. 2020
1226:Bronkhorst et al. 2020
1193:Bronkhorst et al. 2020
1050:fallacies of ambiguity
1012:denying the antecedent
906:
872:
797:
717:principle of explosion
709:law of excluded middle
5208:Oxford Bibliographies
5204:"Inductive Reasoning"
5112:TomiΔ, Taeda (2013).
5068:Smith, Robin (2020).
4583:"Inductive Reasoning"
4521:10.4324/9781315725697
4371:"Deductive reasoning"
4179:Hansen, Hans (2020).
3953:. SAGE. p. 123.
3934:. Brill. p. 51.
3753:Oxford Bibliographies
3747:Douven, Igor (2022).
3659:Introduction to Logic
3526:. Wiley. p. 25.
3375:Philosophy Of Science
3333:Bartha, Paul (2022).
3312:Bartha, Paul (2019).
2615:Fasko & Fair 2020
2439:Explicating Abduction
2355:, p. 346-7, 432.
2212:Li & VitΓ‘nyi 2019
1625:, p. 31-2, 67-8.
900:
870:
803:statistical reasoning
795:
725:paraconsistent logics
721:intuitionistic logics
665:disjunctive syllogism
5149:. SAGE. p. 75.
4977:. Cengage Learning.
4143:Philosophy of Logics
2647:Margolis et al. 1986
2524:Bunnin & Yu 2008
1957:Logic, Non-Classical
1790:, rule of inference.
1107:Argumentation theory
1016:affirming a disjunct
826:problem of induction
768:defeasible reasoning
764:ampliative reasoning
508:analogical reasoning
400:analogical reasoning
177:Non‑deductive
5244:Abductive Reasoning
5070:"Aristotle's Logic"
4877:. IAP. p. 82.
4550:(6_pt_2): 896β901.
4301:Philosophy of Logic
3896:1980JRScT..17..263E
3497:2020IJSME..18.1673B
3037:, p. 143, 172.
2249:Inductive Reasoning
2027:, p. 432, 470.
1458:philosophical logic
1439:Philosophy of logic
842:Abductive reasoning
788:Inductive reasoning
583:Deductive reasoning
577:Deductive reasoning
520:mathematical proofs
496:deductive reasoning
344:Deductive reasoning
4097:"Aristotle: Logic"
2983:Conati et al. 2015
2514:, p. 896β901.
1684:Johnson-Laird 2009
1361:, p. 263β267.
1241:Franks et al. 2013
1036:strawman fallacies
1020:denying a conjunct
984:informal fallacies
907:
873:
862:empirical evidence
798:
688:Aristotelian logic
427:informal fallacies
5334:Concepts in logic
5045:"Classical Logic"
3843:Logical Reasoning
3831:Logical Reasoning
3243:978-1-119-16580-4
2909:, p. 263β267
2462:, p. 519-20.
1585:, p. 1676-7.
1389:, p. 5, 432.
1346:, p. 1674-6.
851:. For example, a
602:rule of inference
524:critical thinking
435:critical thinking
353:rule of inference
297:Logical reasoning
294:
293:
284:
283:
275:
274:
266:
265:
257:
256:
248:
247:
218:
217:
160:
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151:
150:
142:
141:
133:
132:
103:
102:
16:(Redirected from
5341:
5314:
5295:
5276:
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5238:
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5217:
5215:
5198:
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5141:
5108:
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5039:
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5018:
5017:
5008:. Archived from
4988:
4969:
4950:
4948:
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4930:
4928:
4926:
4909:
4888:
4869:
4850:
4831:
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4793:
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4755:
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4751:
4734:
4715:
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4667:
4648:
4627:
4608:
4577:
4559:
4534:
4503:
4501:
4499:
4482:
4463:
4444:
4425:
4406:
4365:
4346:
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4325:
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4294:
4275:
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4271:
4242:
4240:
4238:
4221:
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4198:
4196:
4175:
4156:
4137:
4116:
4114:
4112:
4091:
4072:
4070:
4068:
4057:"Temporal Logic"
4051:
4032:
4013:
3994:
3964:
3945:
3926:
3907:
3878:
3856:
3838:
3836:
3824:
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3800:
3784:
3782:
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3722:
3720:
3691:
3672:
3653:
3634:
3613:
3594:
3575:
3556:
3537:
3518:
3508:
3491:(8): 1673β1694.
3475:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3421:
3419:
3417:
3388:
3369:
3350:
3348:
3346:
3329:
3327:
3325:
3308:
3306:
3304:
3275:
3266:
3247:
3228:
3209:
3180:
3174:
3168:
3158:
3152:
3146:
3137:
3131:
3125:
3115:
3109:
3103:
3097:
3091:
3085:
3075:
3069:
3068:, p. 263-4.
3063:
3054:
3044:
3038:
3032:
3026:
3016:
3007:
3006:, p. 1, 13.
3001:
2990:
2980:
2974:
2964:
2958:
2952:
2943:
2901:
2895:
2885:
2879:
2869:
2863:
2853:
2847:
2837:
2831:
2821:
2815:
2805:
2799:
2793:
2787:
2777:
2771:
2761:
2755:
2745:
2739:
2729:
2720:
2710:
2704:
2698:
2689:
2683:
2670:
2660:
2654:
2644:
2638:
2628:
2622:
2612:
2606:
2568:
2562:
2552:
2546:
2540:
2531:
2521:
2515:
2509:
2503:
2493:
2484:
2474:
2463:
2457:
2442:
2432:
2426:
2416:
2410:
2404:
2395:
2389:
2380:
2374:
2368:
2362:
2356:
2350:
2344:
2334:
2328:
2318:
2312:
2302:
2296:
2286:
2280:
2270:
2264:
2258:
2252:
2242:
2236:
2230:
2219:
2209:
2196:
2186:
2180:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2152:
2142:
2136:
2126:
2120:
2110:
2101:
2091:
2085:
2079:
2066:
2056:
2047:
2037:
2028:
2022:
2016:
2006:
2000:
1990:
1984:
1978:
1972:
1969:Moschovakis 2021
1966:
1960:
1950:
1941:
1931:
1925:
1919:
1913:
1907:
1901:
1891:
1885:
1875:
1869:
1863:
1857:
1851:
1845:
1835:
1826:
1816:
1810:
1800:
1791:
1781:
1775:
1765:
1759:
1753:
1747:
1737:
1731:
1725:
1719:
1709:
1703:
1697:
1691:
1681:
1675:
1665:
1659:
1653:
1642:
1632:
1626:
1620:
1614:
1604:
1598:
1592:
1586:
1580:
1574:
1564:
1558:
1552:
1541:
1531:
1525:
1515:
1509:
1499:
1493:
1483:
1477:
1467:
1461:
1451:
1442:
1432:
1419:
1413:
1402:
1396:
1390:
1384:
1378:
1368:
1362:
1356:
1347:
1341:
1335:
1325:
1319:
1309:
1303:
1297:
1291:
1281:
1275:
1265:
1259:
1253:
1244:
1238:
1229:
1223:
1217:
1211:
1196:
1190:
1184:
1174:
1112:Dialogical logic
1006:; (3) therefore
933:; (3) therefore
882:causal reasoning
736:Peano arithmetic
659:; therefore not
552:natural language
515:inter-subjective
451:
419:formal fallacies
233:
190:
182:
174:
118:
75:
67:
60:
52:
45:
37:
32:
31:
21:
5349:
5348:
5344:
5343:
5342:
5340:
5339:
5338:
5319:
5318:
5317:
5311:
5298:
5292:
5279:
5273:
5260:
5254:
5241:
5235:
5222:
5213:
5211:
5201:
5195:
5182:
5176:
5163:
5157:
5144:
5111:
5105:
5092:
5083:
5081:
5067:
5058:
5056:
5042:
5036:
5023:
5015:
5013:
5006:
4991:
4985:
4972:
4966:
4953:
4944:
4942:
4933:
4924:
4922:
4912:
4906:
4891:
4885:
4872:
4866:
4853:
4847:
4834:
4828:
4815:
4809:
4796:
4790:
4777:
4771:
4758:
4749:
4747:
4737:
4731:
4718:
4712:
4689:
4683:
4670:
4664:
4651:
4645:
4630:
4624:
4611:
4605:
4580:
4537:
4531:
4506:
4497:
4495:
4485:
4479:
4466:
4460:
4447:
4441:
4428:
4422:
4409:
4368:
4362:
4349:
4343:
4330:
4321:
4319:
4312:
4297:
4291:
4278:
4269:
4267:
4260:
4245:
4236:
4234:
4224:
4218:
4203:
4194:
4192:
4178:
4172:
4159:
4153:
4140:
4134:
4119:
4110:
4108:
4094:
4088:
4075:
4066:
4064:
4054:
4048:
4035:
4029:
4016:
4010:
3997:
3967:
3961:
3948:
3942:
3929:
3923:
3910:
3881:
3875:
3860:
3853:
3840:
3834:
3827:
3818:
3816:
3807:
3798:
3796:
3787:
3778:
3776:
3767:
3758:
3756:
3746:
3740:
3727:
3718:
3716:
3709:
3694:
3688:
3675:
3669:
3656:
3650:
3637:
3631:
3616:
3610:
3597:
3591:
3578:
3572:
3559:
3553:
3540:
3534:
3521:
3478:
3472:
3457:
3448:
3446:
3439:
3424:
3415:
3413:
3406:
3391:
3385:
3372:
3366:
3353:
3344:
3342:
3332:
3323:
3321:
3311:
3302:
3300:
3293:
3278:
3269:
3263:
3250:
3244:
3231:
3225:
3212:
3206:
3193:
3189:
3184:
3183:
3175:
3171:
3159:
3155:
3147:
3140:
3132:
3128:
3116:
3112:
3104:
3100:
3092:
3088:
3076:
3072:
3064:
3057:
3045:
3041:
3033:
3029:
3017:
3010:
3002:
2993:
2981:
2977:
2965:
2961:
2953:
2946:
2942:
2902:
2898:
2886:
2882:
2870:
2866:
2854:
2850:
2838:
2834:
2822:
2818:
2806:
2802:
2794:
2790:
2778:
2774:
2762:
2758:
2746:
2742:
2730:
2723:
2711:
2707:
2699:
2692:
2684:
2673:
2661:
2657:
2645:
2641:
2629:
2625:
2613:
2609:
2605:
2569:
2565:
2555:SandkΓΌhler 2010
2553:
2549:
2541:
2534:
2522:
2518:
2510:
2506:
2494:
2487:
2475:
2466:
2458:
2445:
2433:
2429:
2417:
2413:
2405:
2398:
2390:
2383:
2375:
2371:
2363:
2359:
2351:
2347:
2335:
2331:
2319:
2315:
2303:
2299:
2287:
2283:
2271:
2267:
2259:
2255:
2243:
2239:
2231:
2222:
2210:
2199:
2187:
2183:
2171:
2167:
2159:
2155:
2143:
2139:
2127:
2123:
2111:
2104:
2092:
2088:
2080:
2069:
2057:
2050:
2038:
2031:
2023:
2019:
2007:
2003:
1991:
1987:
1979:
1975:
1967:
1963:
1951:
1944:
1932:
1928:
1920:
1916:
1908:
1904:
1892:
1888:
1876:
1872:
1864:
1860:
1852:
1848:
1836:
1829:
1817:
1813:
1801:
1794:
1782:
1778:
1766:
1762:
1754:
1750:
1738:
1734:
1726:
1722:
1710:
1706:
1698:
1694:
1682:
1678:
1666:
1662:
1654:
1645:
1633:
1629:
1621:
1617:
1605:
1601:
1593:
1589:
1581:
1577:
1565:
1561:
1557:, p. 67-8.
1553:
1544:
1532:
1528:
1516:
1512:
1500:
1496:
1484:
1480:
1468:
1464:
1452:
1445:
1433:
1422:
1414:
1405:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1369:
1365:
1357:
1350:
1342:
1338:
1326:
1322:
1310:
1306:
1298:
1294:
1282:
1278:
1266:
1262:
1254:
1247:
1239:
1232:
1228:, p. 1676.
1224:
1220:
1212:
1199:
1195:, p. 1675.
1191:
1187:
1175:
1150:
1145:
1140:
1103:
1067:inconsistencies
1058:
988:formal language
972:
966:
954:decision-making
950:problem-solving
895:
844:
838:
790:
784:
748:
740:natural numbers
696:classical logic
585:
579:
532:
460:
455:
454:
453:
452:
439:inconsistencies
285:
276:
267:
258:
249:
219:
161:
152:
143:
134:
104:
30:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5347:
5345:
5337:
5336:
5331:
5321:
5320:
5316:
5315:
5309:
5296:
5290:
5277:
5271:
5258:
5252:
5239:
5233:
5220:
5199:
5193:
5180:
5174:
5161:
5155:
5142:
5124:(4): 347β368.
5109:
5103:
5090:
5065:
5040:
5034:
5021:
5004:
4989:
4984:978-1133711643
4983:
4970:
4964:
4951:
4931:
4910:
4904:
4889:
4883:
4870:
4864:
4851:
4845:
4832:
4826:
4813:
4807:
4794:
4788:
4775:
4769:
4756:
4735:
4729:
4716:
4710:
4687:
4681:
4668:
4662:
4649:
4643:
4628:
4622:
4609:
4603:
4578:
4535:
4529:
4504:
4483:
4477:
4464:
4458:
4445:
4439:
4426:
4420:
4407:
4387:10.1002/wcs.20
4366:
4360:
4347:
4341:
4328:
4310:
4295:
4289:
4276:
4258:
4243:
4222:
4216:
4201:
4176:
4170:
4157:
4151:
4138:
4132:
4117:
4092:
4086:
4073:
4052:
4046:
4033:
4027:
4014:
4008:
3995:
3965:
3959:
3946:
3940:
3927:
3921:
3908:
3890:(3): 263β267.
3879:
3873:
3858:
3851:
3825:
3805:
3785:
3765:
3744:
3738:
3725:
3707:
3692:
3686:
3673:
3667:
3654:
3648:
3635:
3629:
3614:
3608:
3595:
3589:
3576:
3570:
3557:
3551:
3538:
3532:
3519:
3476:
3470:
3455:
3437:
3422:
3404:
3389:
3383:
3370:
3364:
3351:
3330:
3309:
3291:
3276:
3267:
3261:
3248:
3242:
3229:
3223:
3210:
3204:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3181:
3169:
3153:
3138:
3136:, p. 2-5.
3126:
3118:Robertson 2009
3110:
3098:
3086:
3070:
3055:
3039:
3027:
3008:
2991:
2975:
2959:
2944:
2941:
2940:
2931:
2922:
2921:, p. 1674
2916:
2910:
2903:
2896:
2880:
2864:
2848:
2832:
2816:
2800:
2788:
2772:
2756:
2740:
2721:
2713:Kilcrease 2021
2705:
2703:, p. 290.
2690:
2671:
2655:
2639:
2623:
2607:
2604:
2603:
2594:
2585:
2580:
2570:
2563:
2547:
2532:
2516:
2504:
2485:
2464:
2443:
2427:
2411:
2407:Koslowski 2017
2396:
2381:
2369:
2365:Henderson 2022
2357:
2345:
2329:
2313:
2297:
2281:
2265:
2253:
2237:
2220:
2197:
2181:
2165:
2153:
2137:
2121:
2102:
2086:
2084:, p. 470.
2067:
2048:
2029:
2017:
2001:
1985:
1973:
1961:
1942:
1926:
1914:
1902:
1886:
1870:
1858:
1846:
1838:Jacquette 2006
1827:
1811:
1792:
1784:Blackburn 2016
1776:
1760:
1758:, p. 392.
1748:
1732:
1720:
1704:
1702:, p. 432.
1692:
1676:
1660:
1643:
1627:
1615:
1599:
1587:
1575:
1559:
1542:
1526:
1518:Blackburn 2008
1510:
1494:
1478:
1462:
1454:Honderich 2005
1443:
1420:
1403:
1391:
1379:
1363:
1348:
1336:
1320:
1304:
1302:, p. 355.
1292:
1276:
1260:
1245:
1243:, p. 146.
1230:
1218:
1197:
1185:
1147:
1146:
1144:
1141:
1139:
1136:
1135:
1134:
1129:
1124:
1119:
1114:
1109:
1102:
1099:
1057:
1054:
1032:false dilemmas
968:Main article:
965:
962:
921:is similar to
894:
891:
840:Main article:
837:
834:
786:Main article:
783:
780:
747:
744:
704:Temporal logic
581:Main article:
578:
575:
531:
530:Basic concepts
528:
492:informal logic
459:
456:
446:
445:
444:
443:
431:false dilemmas
292:
291:
287:
286:
282:
281:
278:
277:
273:
272:
269:
268:
264:
263:
260:
259:
255:
254:
251:
250:
246:
245:
242:
241:
236:
231:
229:
225:
224:
221:
220:
216:
215:
212:
211:
206:
203:
202:
199:
198:
193:
188:
186:
180:
178:
172:
170:
167:
166:
163:
162:
158:
157:
154:
153:
149:
148:
145:
144:
140:
139:
136:
135:
131:
130:
127:
126:
121:
116:
114:
110:
109:
106:
105:
101:
100:
97:
96:
91:
88:
87:
84:
83:
78:
73:
71:
65:
63:
58:
56:
50:
48:
43:
41:
35:
28:
24:
14:
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5346:
5335:
5332:
5330:
5327:
5326:
5324:
5312:
5310:9789814619981
5306:
5302:
5297:
5293:
5291:9789027250056
5287:
5283:
5278:
5274:
5272:9781107039308
5268:
5264:
5259:
5255:
5253:9780817357825
5249:
5245:
5240:
5236:
5234:9780761854333
5230:
5226:
5221:
5209:
5205:
5200:
5196:
5194:9781317330790
5190:
5186:
5181:
5177:
5175:9780521675994
5171:
5167:
5162:
5158:
5156:9781412909457
5152:
5148:
5143:
5139:
5135:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5119:
5118:Argumentation
5115:
5110:
5106:
5104:9781447106319
5100:
5096:
5091:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5066:
5054:
5050:
5046:
5041:
5037:
5035:9781433107801
5031:
5027:
5022:
5012:on 2021-03-11
5011:
5007:
5005:9783787319992
5001:
4997:
4996:
4990:
4986:
4980:
4976:
4971:
4967:
4965:9780191610219
4961:
4957:
4952:
4941:
4937:
4932:
4920:
4916:
4911:
4907:
4905:9780199976720
4901:
4897:
4896:
4890:
4886:
4884:9781617356100
4880:
4876:
4871:
4867:
4865:9789401588515
4861:
4857:
4852:
4848:
4846:9781441914279
4842:
4838:
4833:
4829:
4827:9789400910058
4823:
4819:
4814:
4810:
4808:9781402019852
4804:
4800:
4795:
4791:
4789:9780748792566
4785:
4781:
4776:
4772:
4770:9780691220086
4766:
4762:
4757:
4745:
4741:
4736:
4732:
4730:9783030580476
4726:
4722:
4717:
4713:
4711:9780195145397
4707:
4703:
4699:
4695:
4694:
4688:
4684:
4682:9789024732715
4678:
4674:
4669:
4665:
4663:9783319305264
4659:
4655:
4650:
4646:
4644:9780028657905
4640:
4637:. Macmillan.
4636:
4635:
4629:
4625:
4623:9781848263239
4619:
4615:
4610:
4606:
4604:9783030112981
4600:
4596:
4592:
4588:
4584:
4579:
4575:
4571:
4567:
4563:
4558:
4553:
4549:
4545:
4541:
4536:
4532:
4530:9781315725697
4526:
4522:
4518:
4514:
4510:
4505:
4493:
4489:
4484:
4480:
4478:9789814730419
4474:
4470:
4465:
4461:
4459:9781487588618
4455:
4451:
4446:
4442:
4440:9781119531173
4436:
4432:
4427:
4423:
4421:9781780741475
4417:
4413:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4384:
4380:
4376:
4372:
4367:
4363:
4361:9780262035255
4357:
4353:
4348:
4344:
4342:9789401583138
4338:
4334:
4329:
4317:
4313:
4311:9780444515414
4307:
4303:
4302:
4296:
4292:
4290:9780198841531
4286:
4282:
4277:
4265:
4261:
4259:9780199264797
4255:
4251:
4250:
4244:
4232:
4228:
4223:
4219:
4217:9780521856485
4213:
4209:
4208:
4202:
4190:
4186:
4182:
4177:
4173:
4171:9781317778370
4167:
4163:
4158:
4154:
4152:9780521293297
4148:
4144:
4139:
4135:
4133:9780226311333
4129:
4125:
4124:
4118:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4093:
4089:
4087:9781317775393
4083:
4079:
4074:
4062:
4058:
4053:
4049:
4047:9781482243147
4043:
4040:. CRC Press.
4039:
4034:
4030:
4028:9780470904381
4024:
4020:
4015:
4011:
4009:9781551114057
4005:
4001:
3996:
3992:
3988:
3984:
3980:
3976:
3972:
3966:
3962:
3960:9781446296691
3956:
3952:
3947:
3943:
3941:9789004444591
3937:
3933:
3928:
3924:
3922:9780521824170
3918:
3914:
3909:
3905:
3901:
3897:
3893:
3889:
3885:
3880:
3876:
3874:9781457695957
3870:
3866:
3865:
3859:
3854:
3852:9780534176884
3848:
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3833:
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3811:
3806:
3795:
3791:
3786:
3775:
3771:
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3745:
3741:
3739:9783319526058
3735:
3731:
3726:
3714:
3710:
3708:9780415073103
3704:
3701:. Routledge.
3700:
3699:
3693:
3689:
3687:9781350314672
3683:
3679:
3674:
3670:
3668:9781351386975
3664:
3661:. Routledge.
3660:
3655:
3651:
3649:9783319197739
3645:
3641:
3636:
3632:
3630:9780199534067
3626:
3622:
3621:
3615:
3611:
3609:9780691029061
3605:
3601:
3596:
3592:
3590:9781482238099
3586:
3582:
3577:
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3571:9783319532370
3567:
3563:
3558:
3554:
3552:9781317716266
3548:
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3539:
3535:
3533:9780470997215
3529:
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3512:
3507:
3502:
3498:
3494:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3477:
3473:
3471:9780028657905
3467:
3464:. Macmillan.
3463:
3462:
3456:
3444:
3440:
3438:9780199541430
3434:
3430:
3429:
3423:
3411:
3407:
3405:9780198735304
3401:
3397:
3396:
3390:
3386:
3384:9781135364236
3380:
3376:
3371:
3367:
3365:9783030250010
3361:
3357:
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3336:
3331:
3319:
3315:
3310:
3298:
3294:
3292:9781107643796
3288:
3284:
3283:
3277:
3273:
3268:
3264:
3262:9780387728377
3258:
3254:
3249:
3245:
3239:
3235:
3230:
3226:
3224:9783540688754
3220:
3216:
3211:
3207:
3205:9781782255161
3201:
3197:
3192:
3191:
3186:
3179:, p. 10.
3178:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3157:
3154:
3150:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3135:
3130:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3114:
3111:
3107:
3102:
3099:
3096:, p. 19.
3095:
3090:
3087:
3083:
3079:
3078:Gambrill 2012
3074:
3071:
3067:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3052:
3048:
3047:Cottrell 2017
3043:
3040:
3036:
3031:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3015:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3000:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2979:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2963:
2960:
2957:, p. 18.
2956:
2951:
2949:
2945:
2939:
2935:
2932:
2930:
2926:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2914:
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2900:
2897:
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2501:
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2415:
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2326:
2322:
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2310:
2306:
2301:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2285:
2282:
2278:
2274:
2269:
2266:
2262:
2257:
2254:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2238:
2234:
2229:
2227:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2198:
2194:
2190:
2185:
2182:
2178:
2174:
2169:
2166:
2162:
2157:
2154:
2150:
2146:
2141:
2138:
2134:
2130:
2129:Cellucci 2017
2125:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2109:
2107:
2103:
2099:
2095:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2078:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2055:
2053:
2049:
2045:
2041:
2036:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2018:
2014:
2010:
2005:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1989:
1986:
1982:
1977:
1974:
1970:
1965:
1962:
1958:
1954:
1953:Borchert 2006
1949:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1930:
1927:
1923:
1918:
1915:
1911:
1906:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1890:
1887:
1883:
1879:
1874:
1871:
1867:
1862:
1859:
1855:
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1847:
1843:
1839:
1834:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1820:
1815:
1812:
1808:
1804:
1803:Velleman 2006
1799:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1768:Jamieson 2013
1764:
1761:
1757:
1752:
1749:
1745:
1741:
1736:
1733:
1729:
1724:
1721:
1717:
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1600:
1596:
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1584:
1579:
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1563:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1547:
1543:
1539:
1535:
1530:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1511:
1507:
1503:
1498:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1482:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1466:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1431:
1429:
1427:
1425:
1421:
1417:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1395:
1392:
1388:
1383:
1380:
1376:
1372:
1367:
1364:
1360:
1355:
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1349:
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1340:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1324:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1305:
1301:
1296:
1293:
1289:
1285:
1280:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1264:
1261:
1257:
1252:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1237:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1222:
1219:
1216:, p. 24.
1215:
1210:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1202:
1198:
1194:
1189:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1173:
1171:
1169:
1167:
1165:
1163:
1161:
1159:
1157:
1155:
1153:
1149:
1142:
1137:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1118:
1115:
1113:
1110:
1108:
1105:
1104:
1100:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1088:
1084:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1068:
1063:
1055:
1053:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1039:
1037:
1033:
1027:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
993:
989:
985:
981:
976:
971:
963:
961:
959:
955:
951:
946:
942:
940:
936:
932:
928:
924:
920:
916:
912:
904:
899:
892:
890:
888:
883:
879:
869:
865:
863:
857:
854:
850:
843:
835:
833:
831:
827:
822:
820:
815:
810:
808:
804:
794:
789:
781:
779:
777:
776:non-monotonic
772:
769:
765:
761:
757:
752:
745:
743:
741:
737:
733:
728:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
705:
701:
697:
693:
689:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
645:
644:modus tollens
640:
635:
631:
627:
623:
619:
615:
611:
607:
603:
598:
595:
590:
584:
576:
574:
572:
568:
564:
559:
557:
553:
549:
544:
542:
541:truth-bearers
538:
529:
527:
525:
521:
516:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
484:
482:
478:
473:
469:
465:
457:
450:
442:
440:
436:
432:
428:
424:
420:
416:
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
393:
389:
385:
381:
377:
372:
370:
366:
365:
364:modus tollens
360:
359:
354:
349:
345:
340:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
318:
314:
310:
306:
302:
298:
289:
288:
280:
279:
271:
270:
262:
261:
253:
252:
244:
243:
240:
235:
234:
227:
226:
223:
222:
214:
213:
210:
205:
204:
201:
200:
197:
192:
191:
184:
183:
176:
175:
169:
168:
165:
164:
156:
155:
147:
146:
138:
137:
129:
128:
125:
120:
119:
112:
111:
108:
107:
99:
98:
95:
90:
89:
86:
85:
82:
77:
76:
69:
68:
62:
61:
54:
53:
47:
46:
39:
38:
34:
33:
27:
19:
18:Good argument
5300:
5281:
5262:
5243:
5224:
5212:. Retrieved
5207:
5184:
5165:
5146:
5121:
5117:
5094:
5082:. Retrieved
5073:
5057:. Retrieved
5048:
5025:
5014:. Retrieved
5010:the original
4994:
4974:
4955:
4943:. Retrieved
4939:
4923:. Retrieved
4918:
4894:
4874:
4855:
4836:
4817:
4798:
4779:
4760:
4748:. Retrieved
4743:
4720:
4692:
4672:
4653:
4633:
4613:
4586:
4547:
4544:Hypertension
4543:
4512:
4496:. Retrieved
4491:
4468:
4449:
4430:
4411:
4378:
4374:
4351:
4332:
4320:. Retrieved
4300:
4280:
4268:. Retrieved
4248:
4235:. Retrieved
4230:
4206:
4193:. Retrieved
4184:
4161:
4142:
4122:
4109:. Retrieved
4100:
4077:
4065:. Retrieved
4060:
4037:
4018:
3999:
3974:
3970:
3950:
3931:
3912:
3887:
3883:
3863:
3842:
3830:
3817:. Retrieved
3813:
3797:. Retrieved
3793:
3777:. Retrieved
3773:
3757:. Retrieved
3752:
3729:
3717:. Retrieved
3697:
3677:
3658:
3639:
3619:
3599:
3580:
3561:
3542:
3523:
3488:
3484:
3460:
3447:. Retrieved
3427:
3414:. Retrieved
3394:
3374:
3355:
3343:. Retrieved
3338:
3322:. Retrieved
3317:
3301:. Retrieved
3281:
3271:
3252:
3233:
3214:
3195:
3172:
3156:
3151:, p. 9.
3129:
3113:
3108:, p. 6.
3101:
3089:
3073:
3042:
3030:
2978:
2962:
2934:Halpern 2014
2899:
2888:Atwater 1867
2883:
2867:
2851:
2835:
2819:
2803:
2791:
2775:
2759:
2743:
2708:
2658:
2642:
2626:
2610:
2588:Goswami 2013
2566:
2550:
2519:
2507:
2430:
2414:
2377:Psillos 2023
2372:
2360:
2348:
2332:
2316:
2305:Mizrahi 2020
2300:
2284:
2268:
2256:
2240:
2233:Vickers 2022
2184:
2168:
2156:
2140:
2124:
2089:
2020:
2009:Sayward 2009
2004:
1988:
1976:
1964:
1929:
1917:
1905:
1889:
1873:
1866:Groarke 2022
1861:
1849:
1814:
1779:
1763:
1751:
1735:
1723:
1707:
1695:
1679:
1663:
1630:
1618:
1602:
1590:
1578:
1562:
1534:Johnson 2017
1529:
1513:
1497:
1481:
1465:
1418:, p. 1.
1394:
1382:
1366:
1339:
1323:
1307:
1295:
1279:
1263:
1258:, p. 5.
1221:
1188:
1095:
1091:
1071:
1059:
1044:
1040:
1028:
1007:
1003:
999:
995:
977:
973:
947:
943:
938:
934:
930:
929:has feature
926:
922:
918:
908:
874:
858:
845:
823:
811:
799:
773:
767:
763:
759:
753:
749:
729:
685:
680:
679:; therefore
676:
672:
668:
660:
656:
652:
648:
642:
639:modus ponens
638:
633:
629:
625:
624:; therefore
621:
617:
613:
610:modus ponens
606:logical form
599:
586:
560:
556:common sense
545:
537:propositions
533:
512:
485:
461:
412:
373:
362:
358:modus ponens
356:
341:
329:propositions
299:is a mental
296:
295:
238:
208:
195:
123:
93:
80:
26:
4925:14 December
4750:11 December
4381:(1): 8β17.
4322:29 December
4181:"Fallacies"
3790:"Fallacies"
3770:"Abduction"
3719:29 December
3303:29 December
3177:Dowden 2020
3149:Dowden 2020
3134:Dowden 2020
3106:Dowden 2020
3094:Dowden 2020
3066:Dowden 2020
3035:Dowden 2020
3004:Dowden 2020
2967:Nelson 2005
2955:Dowden 2020
2915:, p. 1
2913:Dowden 2020
2872:Mackie 2006
2840:Walton 1987
2824:Walton 2013
2796:Dowden 2021
2748:Colman 2009
2701:Dowden 2020
2686:Dowden 2023
2597:Sriram 2012
2583:Bartha 2022
2574:Salmon 2012
2543:Bartha 2019
2496:Salmon 2012
2477:Douven 2011
2460:Dowden 2020
2435:Douven 2011
2419:Walton 2014
2392:Douven 2022
2353:Dowden 2020
2261:Dowden 2020
2082:Dowden 2020
2025:Dowden 2020
1993:Weaver 2015
1819:Church 1996
1756:Dowden 2020
1700:Dowden 2020
1656:Hansen 2020
1623:Dowden 2020
1595:Dowden 2020
1567:Gabbay 2002
1555:Dowden 2020
1524:, argument.
1416:Dowden 2020
1399:Dowden 2020
1387:Dowden 2020
1300:Dowden 2020
1256:Dowden 2020
1214:Dowden 2020
1083:manipulated
903:Zucker rats
849:explanation
814:sample size
732:mathematics
700:modal logic
563:probability
384:information
380:probability
369:mathematics
5323:Categories
5214:18 January
5059:4 December
5016:2023-01-24
4998:. Meiner.
4945:22 January
4498:22 January
4237:18 January
4067:24 January
3977:(2): 146.
3799:22 January
3779:18 January
3759:18 January
3345:19 January
3324:21 January
3163:, p.
3161:Viale 2020
3120:, p.
3080:, p.
3049:, p.
3021:, p.
2985:, p.
2969:, p.
2936:, p.
2927:, p.
2925:Ivory 2021
2890:, p.
2860:74, 108β11
2858:, p.
2856:Engel 2014
2842:, p.
2826:, p.
2810:, p.
2808:Tuman 2008
2782:, p.
2780:TomiΔ 2013
2766:, p.
2764:Kohar 2016
2734:, p.
2732:Vleet 2011
2715:, p.
2665:, p.
2649:, p.
2633:, p.
2631:Demir 2017
2617:, p.
2599:, p.
2590:, p.
2576:, p.
2526:, p.
2498:, p.
2421:, p.
2339:, p.
2323:, p.
2307:, p.
2291:, p.
2275:, p.
2245:Porta 2016
2214:, p.
2191:, p.
2175:, p.
2161:Koons 2022
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