Government spending

584:. Governments can be separated into two distinct types when it comes to their fiscal and monetary sovereignty: currency-issuers and currency-users. Currency-users at all levels (national, regional and local) need to raise revenue from a variety of sources to finance public-sector expenditures. They are not in control of the currency that their jurisdiction transacts in and so are restricted by what revenue they can raise prior to executing spending policies. Currency-issuing governments have no such nominal fiscal restriction. They have an infinite fiscal capacity in that, in principle, they can issue as much of their own currency as they like. However, real resources and productive capacity within an economy are finite. It is the acquisition of these real resources for the public purpose and a non-inflationary bias in government policy-making that places the constraint on currency-issuing government spending, rather than nominal financing from prior revenue collection. 1712:

average annual growth in high-income countries was 3.5%, which is about twice as fast as economic growth. In contrast, health spending by the high-income countries continues to represent to be the largest share of global spending, which is about 81%, despite it covers only 16% of world's population; although it down from 87% in 2000. The primary drivers of this change in global spending on healthcare are India and China, which they moved to higher-income groups. Furthermore, just over 40% of the world population lived in low-income countries, which is now dropped to 10%. Moreover, significant spending increments were in upper-middle-income economies, where population share has more than doubled over the period, and share of global health spending nearly also doubled due to China and India's vast population joining that group. Unfortunately, all other spending share income groups had declined.

4497:

the European Union, the most important function in public expenditure is social protection. Almost 20 percent of GDP of European Union went to social protection in 2018. The highest ratio had Finland and France, both around 24 percent of their GDPs. The country with least social protection expenditure as percent of its GDP was Ireland with 9 percent. The second largest function in public expenditure is expenditure on health. The general government expenditure on health in European Union was over 7 percent of GDP in 2018. The country with highest share of health expenditure in 2018 Denmark with 8.4 percent. The least percentage had Cyprus with 2.7 percent. General public services had 6 percent of total GDP of European Union in 2018, Education around 4.6 percent and all other categories had less than 4.5 percent of the GDP.

4199: 1817: 1936: 4853:

additional reforms, government spending in emerging market economies can rise by between 3 and 6 percentage points of GDP until 2050. In developed economies, where there is a greater need for consolidation and limited scope for generating extra revenue through taxes, spending reductions might be required as a component of a broader reform plan. In contrast, in many emerging markets and low-income economies, a substantial portion of the population does not have access to comprehensive public services like education and healthcare. Here, there is potential to enhance the availability of public goods and services through increased taxation. However, some reallocation of spending will also likely be necessary.

4706:

slightly increasing. The United States increased its public expenditure with the New Deal. Other governments also increased public expenditure to create more employment. The increase was accelerated by World War II anticipation in the second part of the 30s among European countries. In 1937 the amount of average public expenditure share was between 22 and 23 percent, twice as much as before World War I. However, it is fair to mention that part of this increase of public expenditure share was caused by GDP fall. Most of industrialized countries had its GDP over 15 percent before the World War II. Only Australia, Norway and Spain had less than 15 percent of GDP.

55: 1157: 4892:

10%, surpassing the financial returns from investing in the stock market. Moreover, education promotes social inclusion with research indicating that investing in girl's education gives particularly significant returns. Universal education levels the playing field by ensuring that all individuals have access to it and have the same starting-point public educational opportunities. Finally, education has a crucial role in fostering productivity. So, improving its access and quality becomes essential as countries face productivity slowdowns.

1469: 2460: 4905:(SDGs). These 17 global goals, set by the General Assembly of the United Nations, cover social and economic development matters and are in the 2030 UN Agenda. Its main objective is to aim for sustainable economic growth, social inclusion, and environmental protection all over the world. Through their targets and indicators, these goals set a critical guide for how governments can spend money and formulate policies to approach areas where they can really make a big positive impact. 3886: 1547: 1993: 1275: 1651: 1128: 2029:(BEA). The SNA counts as government spending the gross cost of public services such as state universities and public hospitals. For example, the SNA counts the entire cost of running the public-university system, not just what legislators appropriate to supplement students' tuition payments. Those adjustments push up the SNA's measure of spending by roughly 4 percent of GDP compared with the standard measure tallied by the BEA. 3455: 1245: 4510: 1417: 693: 3034: 3011: 3068: 443: 1625: 1333: 3742: 4865:

have different objectives depending on the ultimate goal that governments are trying to achieve. The main aim of the Spending Reviews is to examine the value of the public money being spent, i.e., if the spending is leading to the expected outcome. SpR takes part in the budget process. After the global financial crisis, the use of spending reviews has risen significantly among OECD countries.

1521: 4828:

geo-political instability have been leading many countries to reduce their reliance on fossil fuels. The high level of government spending on clean energy is motivating “substantial flows of private investment”, said the IEA (International Energy Agency). The IEA projects an increase in the overall level of global clean energy investment by 50% to more than $ 2 trillion per year in 2030.

4173: 1304: 3190: 1599: 1495: 1362: 1186: 4837:

since 2009, military spending increased across all five continents identified by SIPRI (Stockholm International Peace Research Institute), with significant rises observed in Europe, Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East. According to Statista, in the US, the country that spends more on Defense and Security, spending in Defense is predicted to increase every year until 2034.

1573: 1443: 1391: 1215: 1921:

spent $ 11,041 per person. Other large economy country spending figures include South Korea ($ 4,557), Brazil ($ 2,813), Russia ($ 2,458), China ($ 1,010), and India ($ 226). The figures below of 42% of GDP spending and a GDP per capita of $ 54,629 for the U.S. indicate a total per person spending including national, state, and local governments was $ 22,726 in the U.S.

4724:

public expenditure kept increasing, but the growth significantly slowed down. In 1996 the average public expenditure was around 45 percent, which is in comparison with 1960–1980 period slow increase from year 1980. During 1980–1996 period the public expenditure share even declined in many countries, for example United Kingdom, Belgium, Netherlands etc.

6416: 636: 1692:

increase in government R&D funding reduced private R&D expenditure by 3%...In Australia, the average cost of public funds is estimated to be $ 1.20 and $ 1.30 for each dollar raised (Robson, 2005). The marginal cost is probably higher, but estimates differ widely depending on the tax that is increased".

4802:

expenditures is decreasing, raising concerns over the system's ability to provide these public goods/services without imposing a heavy financial burden on the working-age population. The nature of technological advancements and their implementation can either increase or decrease expenditure pressures.

6412: 1691:

Crowding 'in' also happens in university life science research Subsidies, funding and government business or projects like this are often justified on the basis of their positive return on investment. Life science crowding in contrasts with crowding out in public funding of research more widely: "10%

1027:

Transfer payments are government payments to individuals. Such payments are made without the exchange of good or services, for example old-age security payments, employment insurance benefits, veteran and civil service pensions, foreign aid, and social assistance payments. Subsidies to businesses are

4864:

A recent instrument used to decrease the public debts in OECD countries and increase its efficiency is the Spending Reviews. These are tools that work as a collaborative effort to develop and implement policy choices by examining the government’s current expenditures within specific areas. These can

4852:

With the rise in government spending due to various crises and long-term investments, managing public debt will become a critical issue. Fiscal policies may need to balance between stimulating growth and maintaining financial stability. According to the IMF (International Monetary Fund), without any

4496:

Public expenditures represented 46.7 percent of total GDP of the European Union in 2018. Countries with the highest percentage of public expenditure were France and Finland with 56 and 53 percent, respectively. The lowest percentage had Ireland with only 25 percent of its GDP. Among the countries of

1831:

are a significant barrier to the energy transition. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies were $ 319 billion in 2017. This rises to $ 5.2 trillion when indirect costs are priced in, like the effects of air pollution. Ending these could lead to a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a

4792:

Looking at how the world panorama has been developing in the last years and bearing in mind various factors such as economic conditions, government priorities, demographic changes, and technological advancements, these are some key trends that will probably shape public spending in the near future:

4766:

5) Creation of super national organizations – E.g., the United Nations, NATO, European community and other multinational organizations that are responsible for the provision of public goods and services on an international basis, have to be financed out of funds subscribed by member states, thereby

4714:

From the start of the World War I until 1960 the average share of public expenditure in GDP increased slowly from 22 to 28 percent. Most of this increase was given by growth of military spending caused by World War II. Spain, Switzerland and Japan had their public expenditure still below 20 percent

4696:

At the end of the 19th century average public expenditure was around 10 percent of GDP. In US it was only 7 percent and in countries like United Kingdom, Germany or Netherlands it did not exceed amount of 10 percent. Australia, Italy, Switzerland and France had public expenditure over 12 percent of

1711:

According to the World Health Organisation (WHO), the increase in health spending in low-income countries, and it rose by 7.8% a year between 2000 and 2017, while their economies grew by 6.4%, it is explained in the figure. However, the middle-income economies health spending grew more than 6%, and

4723:

The average public expenditure, as a share of GDP, increased rapidly between years 1960 and 1980 from around 28 to 43 percent. No industrial country had this share below 30 percent in 1980. In Belgium, Sweden and Netherlands it was even over 50 percent. In last two decades of 20th century share of

1740:

Government acquisition intended to create future benefits, such as infrastructure investment or research spending, is called gross fixed capital formation, or government investment, which usually is the largest part of the government. Acquisition of goods and services is made through production by

1695:

In the US the total investment in medical and health research and development (R&D) in the US had grown by 27% over the five years from 2013 to 2017, and it is led by industry and the federal government. However, the industry accounted for 67% of total spending in 2017, followed by the federal

728:

or an employment guarantee, which provide financial assistance to unemployed workers or direct wages to recently unemployed workers, respectively. Discretionary stabilization is when a government takes actions to change government spending or taxes in direct response to changes in the economy. For

4891:

fields (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) and vocational training, to prepare the workforce for future job markets. Education is more and more seen rather as an investment than an expenditure. Each additional year of schooling typically increases a person’s yearly income by about

4818:

As digital technology becomes integral to all aspects of life, governments may invest more in cybersecurity, digital services for citizens, and smart city technologies. According to a UN’ study, achieving an inclusive digital transformation is expected to cost $ 5.6 trillion annually from 2023 to

1719:

It is also true that fast economic growth is associated with increased health spending and sustained rapid economic growth between 2000 and 2017. Even more, fast economic growth which is generally associated with the higher government revenues and health spending is mostly located in Asia such as

1707:

On the other hand, global health spending continues to increase and rise rapidly – to US$ 7.8 trillion in 2017 or about 10% of GDP and $ 1.80 per capita – up from US£7.6 trillion in 2016. In addition, about 605 of this spending was public and 40% private, with donor funding representing

1703:

Also, academic and research institutions, this includes colleges, and universities, independent research (IRIs), and independent hospital medical research centres also increased spending, dedicating more than $ 14.2 billion of their own funds (endowment, donations etc.) to medical and health

1066:

and related deteriorating security situation. The countries with highest total military spending are USA and China, and the countries with highest military spending as percentage of GDP in 2023 among top 20 military spenders are Ukraine, Algeria, Saudi Arabia and Russia. Top 20 countries with the

714:

and employment. On the other hand, contractionary fiscal policy can be used by governments to cool down the economy during an economic boom. A decrease in government spending or an increase in taxes can help reduce inflationary pressures within the economy. During economic downturns, in the short

643:

The criteria and pre-conditions for arriving at this solution are collectively referred to as the principle of maximum social advantage. Taxation (government revenue) and government expenditure are the two tools. Neither of excess is good for the society, it has to be balanced to achieve maximum

4836:

Geopolitical tensions and national security concerns can also direct public spending toward defense and security. This includes not only military spending but also cybersecurity and border security. World military expenditure reached an all-time high of $ 2443 billion in 2023. For the first time

1920:

In 2010 national governments spent an average of $ 2,376 per person, while the average for the world's 20 largest economies (in terms of GDP) was $ 16,110 per person. Norway and Sweden expended the most at $ 40,908 and $ 26,760 per capita respectively. The federal government of the United States

803:

and reduce the supply of savings to S2. The new equilibrium is at point B, where the interest rate has increased to R2 and the quantity of capital available to the private sector has decreased to K2. The government has essentially made borrowing more expensive and has taken away savings from the

705:

can be defined as the use of government spending and/or taxation as a mechanism to influence an economy. There are two types of fiscal policy: expansionary fiscal policy, and contractionary fiscal policy. Expansionary fiscal policy is an increase in government spending or a decrease in taxation,

4827:

As global warming becomes a critical issue, climate change mitigation and adaptation are becoming urgent. Public spending is expected to rise in areas like sustainable urban development, renewable energy sources, and climate resilience projects. Russia’s invasion of Ukraine and the consequently

4801:

As life expectancy increases all over the world, governments are expected to spend more on healthcare and pensions for elderly people. Aging populations will continue to pressure health and long-term care spending as well as pension spending while the working-age population able to finance such

4762:

4) Wars and social crises – fighting among people and communities, and prolonged drought or unemployment, earthquake, hurricanes or tornadoes may lead to an increase in public expenditure of a country. This is because it will involve governments to re-plan and allocate resources to finance the

4697:

GDP. It was considered as a significant involvement of government in economy. This average share of public expenditure increased to almost 12 percent before the start of World War I. Due to the World War I anticipation, the share increased quickly in Austria, France, United Kingdom or Germany.

4705:

The World War I caused a global growth of the public expenditure share in GDP. In United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and France, which were affected a lot by the war, the share of public expenditure even exceeded 25 percent. In interwar period the average share of the public expenditure was still

677:

in 1919". According to his theory, determination of public expenditure and taxation will happen on the basis of public preferences which they will reveal themselves. Cost of supplying a good will be taken up by the people. The tax that they will pay will be revealed by them according to their

811:

liquidity in the banking system, thereby pushing down on interest rates. Government borrowing is the act of swapping the excess bank reserves created via the increased deficit spending with Treasury securities, thus draining this excess liquidity back down to pre-spending levels. There is no

812:"loanable funds" pool of currency in reality. Crowding out only refers to the shift of real resources from private to public use, not the crowding out of nominal private investment. Government deficit spending increases the net financial assets available to the non-government sector. 4783:

Since the late 1980s, the average public expenditure to GDP ratio is increasing slowly. The only industrialized countries that reduced significantly are New Zealand, Ireland and Norway. One of the reasons is growing skepticism about governmental intervention in the economy.

4658:

may also concern government spending, affecting the shares and intentions of government spending or their respective rationales (beyond ethical principles or implications of the contextual socioeconomic structures), as well as corruption or diversion of public funds.

507:

Spending by a government that issues its own currency is nominally self-financing. However, under a full employment assumption, to acquire resources produced by its population without potential inflationary pressures, removal of purchasing power must occur via

4550:

There is research into government spending such as their efficacies or effective design or comparisons to other options as well as research containing conclusions of public spending-related recommendations. Examples of such are studies outlining benefits of

594:

Rules or principles that govern the expenditure policy of the government are called "canons of public expenditure". Economist George Findlay Shirras laid down the following four canons of public expenditure, although some are understood not to be required:

4738:

2) Population growth – It increases with the increase in population, more of investment is required to be done by government on law and order, education, infrastructure, etc. investment in different fields depending on the different age group is required.

696:

The Market for Capital (the Loanable Funds Market) and the Crowding Out Effect. An increase in government deficit spending "crowds out" private investment by increasing interest rates and lowering the quantity of capital available to the private sector

4206:

Public social spending comprises cash benefits, direct in-kind provision of goods and services, and tax breaks with social purposes provided by general government (that is central, state, and local governments, including social security funds).

794:

S1 represents savings by private individuals. The initial equilibrium in this market is represented by point A, where the equilibrium quantity of capital is K1 and the equilibrium interest rate is R1. In this theory, if the government increases

4878:

Political commitment and ownership are essential for the success of spending reviews. They ensure cross-government cooperation throughout the process and facilitate decisions on the goals, scope, and implementation of the recommended actions.

1715:

From the continent view, North America, Western Europe, and Oceanic countries have the highest levels of spending, and West Central Asia, and East Africa the lowest, which is closely followed by South Asia, it is explained in the figure.

1902:

Although expenditure on ministerial, elected member and staff travel makes up only a small amount of central government expenditure, and the great majority of work trips by officials are undertaken at standard or economy class, the UK's

4770:

6) Foreign aid – Acceptance by the richer industrialized countries of their responsibility to help the poor developing countries has channeled some of the increased public expenditure of the donor country into foreign aid programmes.

719:

or discretionary stabilization. Automatic stabilization is when existing policies automatically change government spending or taxes in response to economic changes, without the additional passage of laws. A primary example of an

4819:

2030 for the 48 developing economies studied, equal to 18% of their combined GDP. This means the cost of universal digital connectivity and internet use, widespread access to banking and financing services is $ 1231 per capita.

1720:

China, India and Indonesia followed by the Middle East and Latin America. In these countries, the real health spending per capita grew by 2.2 times and increased by 0.6 percentage point as per a share of GDP from 2000 to 2017.

4555:

or identifying potential "misallocations" or "misalignments". Often, such spending may be broad – indirect in terms of national interests – such as with human resources/education-related spending or establishments of novel

520:, the sale or lease of natural resources, and various fees like national park entry fees or licensing fees. When these sovereign governments choose to temporarily remove spent money by issuing securities in its place, they 4670:

issued a memorandum to the heads of federal departments and agencies calling for the avoidance of wasteful expenditure, identifying "practical steps" and setting specific targets for reduction of expenditure on travel,

1704:

R&D in 2017. Although other funding sources – foundations, state and local government, voluntary health associations and professional societies – accounted for 3.7% of total medical and health R&D expenditure.

4774:

7) Inflation – This is the general rise in the price level of goods and services. It increases the cost of all activities of the public sector and thus a major factor in growth in money terms of public expenditure

6336:

CIA World Factbook, population data from 2010, Spending and GDP data from 2011. Note: these numbers do not include U.S. state and local government spending which when included bring the per capita spending to $

1039:, including securities held by the government's central bank. The interest paid out to the central bank on these securities effectively is interest paid out on reserve balances deposited with the central bank. 1775:

in the U.S. returns an average of about $ 1.92 for each $ 1.00 spent on nonresidential construction because it is almost always less expensive to maintain than repair or replace once it has become unusable.

6991:

Eyhorn, Frank; Muller, Adrian; Reganold, John P.; Frison, Emile; Herren, Hans R.; Luttikholt, Louise; Mueller, Alexander; Sanders, Jürn; Scialabba, Nadia El-Hage; Seufert, Verena; Smith, Pete (April 2019).

6023: 729:

instance, a government may decide to increase government spending as a result of a recession. With discretionary stabilization, most governments must pass a new law to make changes in government spending.

4900:

Public Spending is increasingly important to determine the future of the world. Its extremely large footprint makes it a powerful force for countries to achieve certain goals and standards, such as the

7138: 1021:

Government consumption refers to government purchases of goods and services. Examples include road and infrastructure repairs, national defence, schools, healthcare, and government workers’ salaries.

5725: 7473: 6690: 4984: 1930: 5998: 6820:

De Renzio, Paolo; Masud, Harika (July 2011). "Measuring and Promoting Budget Transparency: The Open Budget Index as a Research and Advocacy Tool: MEASURING AND PROMOTING BUDGET TRANSPARENCY".

807:

A closer understanding of government fiscal operations contradicts the above loanable funds theory. In fact, in the first instance and all else equal, increased government deficit spending

6116: 4735:

1) Defense expenditure due to modernization of defense equipment by the navy, army and air force to prepare the country for war or for prevention causes-for-growth-of-public-expenditure.

500:. Government acquisition of goods and services intended to create future benefits, such as infrastructure investment or research spending, is classed as government investment (government 1014:

and sales and of purchases by the government of goods and services produced by market producers that are supplied to households—without any transformation—as "social transfers" in kind.

4806: 706:

while contractionary fiscal policy is a decrease in government spending or an increase in taxes. Expansionary fiscal policy can be used by governments to stimulate the economy during a

7230: 6608: 5469:

Taylor, Lance (2016) - "The "Natural" Interest Rate and Secular Stagnation: Loanable Funds Macro Models Don't Fit Today's Institutions or Data - Institute of New Economic Thinking

591:, and who can pay. Public expenditure means the expenditure on the developmental and non-developmental activity such as construction of roadways and dams, and other activity. 6048: 4572:

of public sector spending between departments" may be needed and that decisions about public spending may miss opportunities to improve social welfare from existing budgets.

6052: 5141: 804:

market, which "crowds out" some private investment. The crowding out of private investment could limit the economic growth from the initial increase in government spending.

7130: 7078: 562:

in the economy. Public expenditure plays an important role in the economy as it establishes fiscal policy and provides public goods and services for households and firms.

504:). These two types of government spending, on final consumption and on gross capital formation, together constitute one of the major components of gross domestic product. 7167: 5803: 5695: 7291: 5887: 6015: 5543: 4198: 6712:

Ríos, Ana-María; Bastida, Francisco; Benito, Bernardino (September 2016). "Budget Transparency and Legislative Budgetary Oversight: An International Approach".

5855: 5453:"Endogenous Money and the Natural Rate of Interest: The Reemergence of Liquidity Preference and Animal Spirits in the Post-Keynesian Theory of Capital Markets" 496:, the acquisition by governments of goods and services for current use, to directly satisfy the individual or collective needs of the community, is classed as 6320: 620:

Canon of elasticity – it says there should be enough scope in expenditure policy.government should be able to increase or decrease it according to the period.

4560:. In some cases, various goals and expenditures are made public to various degrees, referred to "budget transparency" or "government spending transparency". 1688:

Research Australia found 91% of Australians think 'improving hospitals and the health system' should be the Australian Government's first spending priority.

6912: 6117:"The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate" 6078: 5717: 4746:

Provision of public and utility services – provision of basic public goods given by government (their maintenance and installation) such as transportation.

7454: 6682: 1017:

Government spending or government expenditure can be divided into three primary groups, government consumption, transfer payments, and interest payments.

7403: 5199: 1053: 654:– maximum satisfaction should be yield by striking a balance between public revenue and expenditure by the government. Economic welfare is achieved when 5994: 5115: 6755: 6477: 6390: 998:

Government spending on goods and services for current use to directly satisfy individual or collective needs of the members of the community is called

5083:"The self-financing state: An institutional analysis of government expenditure, revenue collection and debt issuance operations in the United Kingdom" 4974: 4979: 999: 993: 497: 472: 7427: 5038: 7419: 5082: 4887:

The rapid pace of technological change necessitates continual skill upgrades. Governments might increase investment in education, particularly in

1935: 7532: 7255:

Di Fatta, Davide; Musotto, Roberto; Vesperi, Walter (2018). "Government Performance, Ethics and Corruption in the Global Competitiveness Index".

5908: 4869: 1948: 1787:, can save several hundreds of billions of dollars per year in the U.S., because for example cancer patients are more likely to be diagnosed at 626:

Canon of equitable distribution – expenditure policy should minimize inequalities and it should be designed in a way to benefit poorer sections.

4615:

Studies and organizations have called for systematically applying principles to spending decisions or to take current issues and goals such as

1904: 2000:

This is a list of countries by government spending as a percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) for the listed countries, according to the

7499: 7467: 7272: 7223: 5833: 5519: 4805: 7484: 7047: 6600: 1002:(GFCE) It is a purchase from the national accounts "use of income account" for goods and services directly satisfying of individual needs ( 6003:

Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels

6192: 1708:

less than 0.2% of the total although the health spending in real terms has risen by 3.79% in a year while global GDP had grown by 3.0%.

4758:

International obligation – maintenance of socio-economic obligation, cultural exchange etc. (these are indirect expenses of government)

1764:

Infrastructure spending is considered government investment because it will usually save money in the long run, and thereby reduce the

763:

by shifting resources from the private sector, which they consider productive, to the public sector, which they consider unproductive.

7371: 4841: 1816: 1629: 1087: 7341: 6360: 5916:(report). Williamsburg, Virginia: Thomas Jefferson Program in Public Policy, College of William & Mary. p. 5. Archived from 5427: 5394: 5356: 5320: 5286: 5068: 7435: 7379: 6041: 5137: 1700:(NIH) accounted for the lion's share of federal spending in medical and health research in 2017 was $ 32.4 billion or 82.1%. 7505: 6461: 7070: 5755: 4640:(FSFE) has called for a principle of "Public Money, Public Code" – that software created using taxpayers' money is developed as 602:

Canon of economy – it says that economy does not mean miserliness. Public expenditure must be made productively and efficiently.

7160: 5795: 4667: 4637: 4589: 1891: 1850: 1754: 820:

Public expenditure can be divided into COFOG (Classification of the Functions of Government) categories. Those categories are:

7325: 6849:"Allocating Public Spending Efficiently: Is There a Need for a Better Mechanism to Inform Decisions in the UK and Elsewhere?" 5482: 1421: 710:. For example, an increase in government spending directly increases demand for goods and services, which can help increase 5944:"Cost savings associated with improving appropriate and reducing inappropriate preventive care: Cost-consequences analysis" 7288: 5884: 4902: 4641: 1729: 501: 7411: 4648:

calls for a requirement for scientific publications that result from research funded by public grants being published as

7552: 7547: 7289:

Memorandum to the Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies: Promoting Efficient Spending to Support Agency Operations

1697: 1249: 465: 35: 7193:"'Plan S' and 'cOAlition S' – Accelerating the transition to full and immediate Open Access to scientific publications" 6777:

Cuadrado-Ballesteros, Beatriz; Bisogno, Marco (6 August 2021). "The relevance of budget transparency for development".

7395: 4752:

Price rise – higher price level compels the government to spend an increased amount on purchase of goods and services.

2026: 2022: 1821: 1063: 1032: 852: 5644:

Tian, Nan; Lopes da Silva, Diego; Béraud-Sudreau, Lucie; Liang, Xiao; Scarazzato, Lorenzo; Assis, Ana (4 July 2023).

5164: 1161: 5863: 5779: 4755:

Increase in public revenue – with the rise in public revenue government is bound to increase the public expenditure.

6317: 1132: 782:. The figure to the right depicts an outdated theory for the market for capital, otherwise known as the market for 493: 5688: 6904: 5606:

Palmer, Glenn (1991). "Deterrence, defense spending, and elasticity: Alliance contributions to the public good".

5245: 5224: 4616: 4604: 2003: 1940: 1395: 1010:). GFCE consists of the value of the goods and services produced by the government itself other than own-account 160: 4585: 1784: 1742: 1655: 1473: 868: 779: 6445: 5107: 6747: 6382: 2013: 2008: 1880: 1772: 752: 639:

Dalton's Principle of Maximum Social Advantage. Graph showing point of Maximum Social Advantage at point "P"

539: 458: 30:"Public Purse" and "Public money" redirect here. For the term used in relation to the British monarchy, see 6070: 54: 7557: 7200: 1603: 1337: 725: 559: 372: 6016:"Global Clean Energy Investment Jumps 17%, Hits $ 1.8 Trillion in 2023, According to BloombergNEF Report" 4607:". The investigated drivers can be broadly described as crisis responses, cooperations and competitions. 550:, emergency services, infrastructure, etc. Until the 19th century, public expenditure was limited due to 5034: 4989: 4954: 4924: 4732:

There are several factors that have led to an enormous increase in public expenditure through the years

2465: 1876: 1551: 1525: 839: 1741:

the government (using the government's labour force, fixed assets and purchased goods and services for

5917: 7005: 6947: 6548: 4655: 4625:

that governments should withstand various pressures and influences and "only support agriculture and

1577: 1447: 1279: 1190: 756: 721: 716: 509: 7108: 4568:

A study suggests "Greater attention to the development of methods and evidence to better inform the

605:

Canon of sanction – public spending should not be made without sanction of an appropriate authority.

599:

Canon of benefit – public spending must be done in a manner that it brings greatest social benefits.

4809:

Projected Public spending on health care as a percentage of GDP, 2019-70. Source: EC and EPC (2021)

4569: 1832:

46% reduction in air pollution deaths. Funding for clean energy has been largely unaffected by the

1758: 1499: 1366: 1219: 744: 732: 555: 217: 71: 7527: 5825: 1067:

highest military spending 2023, where the values for China, Russia and Saudi Arabia are estimated:

442: 7039: 6973: 6934:

Meckling, Jonas; Galeazzi, Clara; Shears, Esther; Xu, Tong; Anadon, Laura Diaz (September 2022).

6802: 6729: 6149: 5588: 5537: 4959: 4593: 4545: 1809: 711: 645: 623:

Canon of productivity – public expenditure should encourage production efficiency of the economy.

571: 377: 347: 301: 239: 175: 6993: 658:

of expenditure = marginal disutility of taxation. He explains this principle with reference to

5826:"Strong but uneven spending in medical and health R&D across sectors over five-year period" 4588:

and demonstration reported insights about past impacts of its drivers, that may be relevant to

538:

is spending made by the government of a country on collective or individual needs and wants of

7495: 7463: 7321: 7268: 7259:. Springer Proceedings in Business and Economics. Springer International Publishing: 141–151. 7031: 6965: 6886: 6868: 6794: 6663: 6582: 6564: 6299: 6281: 6227: 6209: 6141: 6097: 5975: 5667: 5623: 5580: 5525: 5515: 5452: 5433: 5423: 5400: 5390: 5362: 5352: 5326: 5316: 5282: 5064: 4934: 4581: 1992: 1872: 1833: 1765: 1059: 1011: 824: 588: 423: 331: 279: 136: 91: 86: 7260: 7021: 7013: 6955: 6876: 6860: 6829: 6786: 6721: 6653: 6643: 6572: 6556: 6515: 6289: 6273: 6217: 6201: 6186:

Kuzemko, Caroline; Bradshaw, Michael; Bridge, Gavin; Goldthau, Andreas; et al. (2020).

6133: 6087: 5995:"Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $ 1 Trillion for the First Time" 5965: 5955: 5657: 5615: 5570: 4939: 4680: 4621: 4552: 922: 796: 775: 748: 736: 655: 581: 296: 286: 185: 165: 141: 7522: 1907:

has noted that this is an aspect of expenditure attracting high levels of public interest.

558:

argued that the role of public expenditure was pivotal in determining levels of income and

7345: 7295: 6465: 6352: 6324: 5891: 5783: 5718:"Why Russian Military Expenditure Is Much Higher Than Commonly Understood (As Is China's)" 4964: 4919: 4868: 4858: 4541: 3460: 1947: 1746: 1049: 1024:

Investments in sciences and strategic technological innovations to serve the public needs.

960: 895: 521: 428: 405: 400: 395: 362: 326: 224: 205: 148: 111: 76: 5185: 7009: 6951: 6552: 790:

D1 represents demand for private capital by firms and investors, and the upward sloping

692: 608:

Canon of surplus – public revenue should exceed government expenditure, this avoiding a

7489:

Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene

6905:"Competition with China a 'driving force' for clean energy funding in the 21st century" 6881: 6848: 6577: 6536: 6294: 6261: 6222: 6187: 5970: 5943: 4949: 4929: 1837: 1828: 1796: 1792: 1788: 1780: 1750: 1274: 1036: 935:

police, fire-protection services, emergency medical services, law courts, prisons, etc.

887: 876: 860: 800: 783: 767: 609: 547: 543: 529: 321: 261: 249: 46: 17: 7488: 6458: 6137: 5498:

F. Lequiller, D. Blades: Understanding National Accounts, Paris: OECD 2006, pp. 127–30

4509: 7541: 7043: 6977: 6833: 6806: 6733: 6260:

McCullough, J. Mac; Leider, Jonathon P.; Resnick, Beth; Bishai, David (1 July 2020).

6153: 5747: 4944: 4676: 1127: 1062:

and active military operations. Factors of recent defense spending increases include

946: 925:, forestry, fishing and hunting, mining, manufacturing, transport, communication etc. 771: 702: 687: 551: 525: 517: 306: 256: 234: 229: 212: 153: 129: 106: 96: 81: 64: 6601:"Man v food: is lab-grown meat really going to solve our nasty agriculture problem?" 5592: 1031:

Interest payments are the interest paid to the holders of government bonds, such as

973:

waste management, pollution abatement, protection of biodiversity and landscape etc.

6092: 4663: 1244: 791: 787: 674: 446: 266: 244: 170: 101: 5662: 5645: 7387: 7264: 6683:"Governments that budget transparently are more likely to spend as they promise" 6478:"Archive:Evolution of government expenditure by function – Statistics Explained" 6042:"Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps: How to pay for an energy revolution" 5265: 4649: 4626: 3039: 3016: 2018: 1650: 1416: 367: 31: 6960: 6935: 6864: 6648: 6631: 6205: 5559:"The (ir)rational consideration of the cost of science in transition economies" 1820:

Electrified transport and renewable energy are key areas of investment for the

759:, on the other hand, believe that increased government spending exacerbates an 644:

social benefit. Dalton called this principle as "Maximum Social Advantage" and

7017: 6790: 6560: 6124: 5619: 5575: 5558: 5330: 4914: 4672: 4619:

into account in all such decisions. For example, scientists have suggested in

4202:

Government Expenditure as a Percentage of GDP (2014 Index of Economic Freedom)

3073: 1735: 1308: 883: 316: 291: 192: 116: 7035: 6969: 6872: 6798: 6725: 6667: 6568: 6285: 6277: 6213: 6101: 6040:

Bridle, Richard; Sharma, Shruti; Mostafa, Mostafa; Geddes, Anna (June 2019).

5671: 5627: 5529: 5437: 5404: 5366: 4749:

Accelerating economic growth – to raise the standard of living of the people.

1996:

Government spending as percentage of GDP in different countries, 1890 to 2011

1791:

where curative treatment is typically a few outpatient visits, instead of at

5646:"Developments in Military Expenditure and the Effects of the War in Ukraine" 5279:

Voluntary Exchange Theory of Lindhal for Determination of Public expenditure

4557: 1836:, and pandemic-related economic stimulus packages offer possibilities for a 1799:

where treatment can involve years of hospitalization and is often terminal.

1468: 983:

Housing development, community amenities, water supply, street lighting etc.

908: 760: 740: 707: 6890: 6586: 6303: 6231: 6145: 6028:

Start years differ by sector but all sectors are present from 2020 onwards.

5979: 5960: 5584: 4840: 755:, which leads to increased production and faster recovery from recessions. 492:

includes all government consumption, investment, and transfer payments. In

6537:"The place of algae in agriculture: policies for algal biomass production" 5509: 701:

Government spending can be a useful economic policy tool for governments.

6658: 6115:

Watts, N.; Amann, M.; Arnell, N.; Ayeb-Karlsson, S.; et al. (2019).

4969: 3747: 1855:

Governments fund various research beyond healthcare and medical research

864: 856: 7161:"Input for the development of the UNESCO Recommendation on Open Science" 6847:

Cubi-Molla, Patricia; Buxton, Martin; Devlin, Nancy (1 September 2021).

5776: 5315:(Fourth ed.). Minneapolis: Textbook Media Press. pp. 366–340. 635: 6520: 6503: 1745:) or through purchases of goods and services from market producers. In 1624: 1332: 1303: 835: 831: 7026: 6262:"Aligning US Spending Priorities Using the Health Impact Pyramid Lens" 6071:"Financing renewable energy: Who is financing what and why it matters" 2025:(SNA), which measures the government sector differently than the U.S. 1757:

which are not consumed but are to be used for future production (i.e.

6535:

Trentacoste, Emily M.; Martinez, Alice M.; Zenk, Tim (1 March 2015).

4645: 4178: 3891: 2021:

is included for comparison. These statistics use the United Nations'

1673: 1598: 1546: 1520: 1494: 1361: 1185: 311: 6353:"Economic Data and Statistics on World Economy and Economic Freedom" 6173: 6441: 911:, primary, secondary, tertiary education, R&D on education etc. 7450: 5907:

Cohen, Isabelle; Freiling, Thomas; Robinson, Eric (January 2012).

4804: 4197: 3195: 1815: 1677: 1572: 1442: 1390: 1214: 1156: 634: 513: 7131:"European countries demand that publicly funded research be free" 6347: 6345: 6343: 5351:(Seventh ed.). Stamford, CT: Southwestern Publishing Group. 6994:"Sustainability in global agriculture driven by organic farming" 4888: 1885: 7192: 6936:"Energy innovation funding and institutions in major economies" 963:, broadcasting and publishing services, religious services etc. 921:

general economic, agriculture, fuel and energy, commercial and

6502:

Hinderer, Sebastian; Brändle, Leif; Kuckertz, Andreas (2021).

5514:. David I. Laibson, John A. List (Second ed.). New York. 5108:"Sources of Federal Goveuent Revenue | U.S. Treasury Data Lab" 4630: 4504: 891: 6188:"Covid-19 and the politics of sustainable energy transitions" 4985:

List of countries by government spending as percentage of GDP

1931:

List of countries by government spending as percentage of GDP

766:

In economics, the potential "shifting" in resources from the

34:. For the academic journal formerly called Public Money, see 5910:

The Economic Impact and Financing of Infrastructure Spending

4867: 4839: 6255: 6253: 1871:. Sometimes, relevant funding decision-making makes use of 735:

was one of the first economists to advocate for government

27:

Government consumptions, investments, and transfer payments

5897:

European Union Statistics Directorate, European Commission

5035:"Government | U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA)" 842:, R&D (Research and Development) on social protection. 524:. Changes in government spending are a major component of 7100: 5856:"WHO | Global Spending on Health: A World in Transition" 7071:"Open CoDE: Open-Source für die öffentliche Verwaltung" 6630:

Overland, Indra; Sovacool, Benjamin K. (1 April 2020).

5313:

Principles of Macroeconomics: Economics and the Economy

5200:"Public Expenditure: Causes, Principles and Importance" 4742:

3) Welfare activities – social welfare, pensions, etc.

4521: 612:. Government must prepare a budget to create a surplus. 7298:, M-12-12, published 11 May 2012, accessed 26 May 2023 5796:"Do innovation programs actually increase innovation?" 1761:). Examples include railroad or factory construction. 587:

The details of taxation are guided by two principles:

7224:"Ethical Dimensions of Public Expenditure Management" 1873:

coordinative and prioritizing tools, data or methods

1858: 6049:

International Institute for Sustainable Development

4636:Similarly in regard to openness, a campaign by the 1006:) or collective needs of members of the community ( 715:run, government spending can be changed either via 6383:"Is Government Spending Really 41 Percent of GDP?" 4633:(in line with "public funds for public goods")". 6327:, published 11 March 2015, accessed 26 June 2023 6318:Investigation into government travel expenditure 5997:. Bloomberg NEF (New Energy Finance). Figure 1. 5696:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 5246:"Dalton's Principle of Maximum Social Advantage" 1736:Investment § In economics or macroeconomics 7456:World Energy Transitions Outlook: 1.5°C Pathway 6779:International Review of Administrative Sciences 6632:"The misallocation of climate research funding" 5942:Hogg, W.; Baskerville, N.; Lemelin, J. (2005). 1892:major causes of human diseases and early deaths 7372:"The Future of Public Spending- The Economist" 6069:Mazzucato, Mariana; Semieniuk, Gregor (2018). 5389:(Fifth ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. 5186:Shirras, George Findlay, 1885–1955 (economist) 1866: 652:Dalton's Principle of Maximum Social Advantage 6442:"Social spending Public, % of GDP, 2015" 5683: 5681: 5483:"Composition of Public Expenditure in the EU" 5451:Pilkington, Philip Clarke (13 October 2014). 5422:(8th ed.). Mason, OH: Cengage Learning. 5081:Berkeley, Andrew; et al. (24 May 2022). 4580:A study investigated funding allocations for 466: 8: 6714:The American Review of Public Administration 6413:"Report for Selected Countries and Subjects" 5281:. S. Chand and Company Ltd. pp. 57–59. 4875:Source: OECD (2020), Spending Review Survey 1058:Stated reasons for Defense spending include 898:, R&D related to general public services 739:as part of the fiscal policy response to an 6079:Technological Forecasting and Social Change 5225:"Diminishing Marginal Social Benefit Curve" 1680:military spending are actually far higher. 7107:. Free Software Foundation Europe (FSFE). 6909:University of Cambridge via techxplore.com 6853:Applied Health Economics and Health Policy 6436: 6434: 5542:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 4599: 4576:Underlying drivers of spending alterations 4209: 2031: 1071: 1054:List of countries by military expenditures 930:Public order and safety/emergency services 648:termed it as "Maximum Aggregate Welfare". 473: 459: 53: 42: 7533:Eurostat's government spending per sector 7342:"Causes for Growth of public expenditure" 7025: 6959: 6880: 6657: 6647: 6576: 6519: 6293: 6221: 6174:United Nations Development Programme 2020 6091: 5969: 5959: 5661: 5574: 5059:Robert Barro and Vittorio Grilli (1994), 4975:Government spending in the United Kingdom 4701:Effect of World War I and interwar period 4603:) "to come close to achieving meaningful 774:as a result of an increase in government 546:, such as pension, healthcare, security, 6504:"Transition to a Sustainable Bioeconomy" 4980:Government spending in the United States 1991: 1946: 1939:Tax Burden as a Percentage of GDP (2014 1934: 1753:, investment is the amount purchased of 1000:government final consumption expenditure 994:Government final consumption expenditure 799:, it will borrow money from the private 691: 673:It was introduced by Swedish Economist " 498:government final consumption expenditure 5639: 5637: 5026: 5001: 747:, increased government spending raises 45: 7511:from the original on 15 December 2020. 7312: 7310: 7308: 7306: 7304: 6387:Center on Budget and Policy Priorities 6058:from the original on 17 November 2019. 5535: 5477: 5475: 4553:participation in bioeconomy innovation 4501:Research, assessments and transparency 7236:from the original on 28 November 2022 7203:from the original on 30 November 2018 7111:from the original on 19 February 2020 7081:from the original on 28 November 2022 7050:from the original on 28 November 2022 6758:from the original on 28 November 2022 6693:from the original on 28 November 2022 6611:from the original on 28 November 2022 6363:from the original on 16 December 2017 6244: 5993:Catsaros, Oktavia (26 January 2023). 5777:http://www.nber.org/papers/w15146.pdf 5758:from the original on 10 November 2017 5728:from the original on 12 December 2021 5689:"Trends in Military Expenditure 2023" 5385:Jonathan, Gruber (28 December 2015). 5380: 5378: 5376: 5342: 5340: 5306: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5298: 2033:List of Countries as a % of GDP 631:Principle of maximum social advantage 7: 7485:United Nations Development Programme 7396:"Clean Energy Government investment" 7173:from the original on 9 November 2020 6915:from the original on 19 October 2022 6636:Energy Research & Social Science 6193:Energy Research & Social Science 4767:adding to their public expenditure. 1696:government at 22%. According to the 959:Recreational and sporting services, 528:used to stabilize the macroeconomic 7523:OECD Government spending statistics 7318:Public Spending in the 20th Century 7141:from the original on 2 October 2021 6026:from the original on 28 June 2024. 5041:from the original on 26 August 2018 4662:In 2012, following a United States 554:philosophies. In the 20th century, 7479:from the original on 11 June 2021. 6448:from the original on 21 April 2018 6022:. Bloomberg NEF. 30 January 2024. 6001:from the original on 22 May 2023. 5836:from the original on 1 August 2020 5806:from the original on 26 March 2023 5118:from the original on 3 August 2021 4564:Informed and optimized allocations 1875:, such as evaluated relevances to 522:pay interest on the money borrowed 332:Trade / commerce ministry 25: 7287:Office of Management and Budget, 6266:American Journal of Public Health 5198:Muley, Ritika (29 January 2016). 4823:Sustainability and climate change 1779:Likewise, government spending on 836:subsidies for family and children 7412:"Defense and Security in the US" 7380:"Public spending on health care" 6834:10.1111/j.1468-0491.2011.01539.x 6687:International Budget Partnership 6419:from the original on 9 July 2021 6393:from the original on 17 May 2019 5387:Public Finance and Public Policy 5184:Cambridge University Libraries, 5144:from the original on 15 May 2012 5138:"Borrowing and the Federal Debt" 4883:Education and workforce training 4788:Future trends in public spending 4719:Second half of the 20th century. 4710:World War II and post-war period 4508: 4171: 3884: 3740: 3639:Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 3453: 3188: 3066: 3032: 3009: 2458: 2445:Democratic Republic of the Congo 1951:Public spending / GDP in Europe: 1808:This section is an excerpt from 1649: 1623: 1597: 1571: 1545: 1519: 1493: 1467: 1441: 1415: 1389: 1360: 1331: 1302: 1273: 1243: 1213: 1184: 1155: 1126: 954:Recreation, culture and religion 886:, financial and fiscal affairs, 884:executive and legislative organs 861:medical appliances and equipment 441: 5165:"Meaning of Public Expenditure" 4797:Healthcare and aging population 4668:Office of Management and Budget 4638:Free Software Foundation Europe 1851:Public research and development 1684:Healthcare and medical research 1028:also included in this category. 6093:10.1016/j.techfore.2017.05.021 3308:Federated States of Micronesia 1911:Government spending by country 978:Housing and community services 668:Maximum social sacrifice (MSS) 566:Theories of public expenditure 1: 7528:Canadian Governments Compared 6138:10.1016/S0140-6736(19)32596-6 5663:10.1080/10242694.2023.2221877 4903:Sustainable Development Goals 4642:free and open source software 1730:Gross fixed capital formation 1724:Gross fixed capital formation 36:Public Money & Management 6748:"Budget transparency - OECD" 5948:BMC Health Services Research 5087:University of College London 4728:Growth of public expenditure 4211:2015 Public social spending 1886:2020#Global goals and issues 1810:Sustainable energy § Finance 1698:National Institute of Health 663:Maximum social benefit (MSB) 7265:10.1007/978-3-319-66036-3_8 7101:"Public Money, Public Code" 6681:H, Deirdre (22 June 2020). 5650:Defence and Peace Economics 4666:Campaign to Cut Waste, the 4597: 4590:adjusting (or facilitating) 2027:Bureau of Economic Analysis 2023:System of National Accounts 1883: 1864: 1856: 1822:renewable energy transition 1768:of government liabilities. 1665: 1662: 1659: 1639: 1636: 1633: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1587: 1584: 1581: 1561: 1558: 1555: 1535: 1532: 1529: 1509: 1506: 1503: 1483: 1480: 1477: 1457: 1454: 1451: 1431: 1428: 1425: 1405: 1402: 1399: 1376: 1373: 1370: 1347: 1344: 1341: 1318: 1315: 1312: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1260: 1257: 1254: 1229: 1226: 1223: 1200: 1197: 1194: 1171: 1168: 1165: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1113: 1108: 1103: 1064:Russian invasion of Ukraine 682:Macroeconomic fiscal policy 7574: 7257:Governing Business Systems 6961:10.1038/s41560-022-01117-3 6865:10.1007/s40258-021-00648-2 6649:10.1016/j.erss.2019.101349 6206:10.1016/j.erss.2020.101685 5608:International Interactions 5557:Vuong, Quan-Hoang (2018). 4539: 4481: 4473: 4465: 4457: 4449: 4441: 4433: 4425: 4417: 4409: 4401: 4393: 4385: 4377: 4369: 4361: 4353: 4345: 4337: 4329: 4321: 4313: 4305: 4297: 4289: 4281: 4273: 4265: 4257: 4249: 4241: 4233: 4225: 1928: 1848: 1807: 1733: 1727: 1047: 991: 685: 569: 494:national income accounting 161:Deficit / surplus 29: 7018:10.1038/s41893-019-0266-6 6791:10.1177/00208523211027525 6561:10.1007/s11120-014-9985-8 5885:"Gross capital formation" 5752:crm.researchaustralia.org 5620:10.1080/03050629108434776 5576:10.1038/s41562-017-0281-4 4617:climate change mitigation 2044:Govt. expend. % GDP 2004:Index of Economic Freedom 1941:Index of Economic Freedom 1044:National defense spending 262:Monetary (currency) union 7388:"Digital Transformation" 6726:10.1177/0275074014565020 6278:10.2105/AJPH.2020.305645 5508:Acemoglu, Daron (2018). 5420:Macroeconomics for Today 5347:Gregory, Mankiw (2014). 5311:Taylor, Timothy (2017). 5063:, Ch. 15–16. Macmillan, 4896:Public spending and SDGs 4675:attendance and expense, 2379:Central African Republic 1827:Fossil fuel funding and 1785:preventative health care 1743:intermediate consumption 968:Environmental protection 896:public debt transactions 616:Three other canons are: 6541:Photosynthesis Research 6316:National Audit Office, 5457:SSRN Electronic Journal 5349:Principles of Economics 5204:EconomicsDiscussion.net 5112:datalab.usaspending.gov 5061:European Macroeconomics 2014:The Wall Street Journal 2009:The Heritage Foundation 1773:physical infrastructure 949:, foreign military aid. 877:General Public Services 786:. The downward sloping 717:automatic stabilization 502:gross capital formation 18:Government expenditures 7404:"Defense and Security" 5961:10.1186/1472-6963-5-20 5563:Nature Human Behaviour 5418:Irvin, Tucker (2012). 5188:, accessed 4 June 2023 4872: 4844: 4814:Digital transformation 4810: 4605:global decarbonization 4219:Public social spending 4203: 4194:Public social spending 2258:Bosnia and Herzegovina 1997: 1989: 1944: 1825: 1672:Some sources say that 1008:collective consumption 1004:individual consumption 853:public health services 840:unemployment subsidies 726:unemployment insurance 698: 640: 373:Discretionary spending 7294:17 March 2023 at the 6998:Nature Sustainability 6464:21 April 2018 at the 5890:14 March 2010 at the 5802:. 24 September 2012. 5782:11 April 2019 at the 4990:Expenditure incidence 4955:Sovereign wealth fund 4925:Government operations 4871: 4843: 4808: 4611:Principles and ethics 4586:research, development 4201: 3661:Sao Tome and Principe 2041:Tax burden % GDP 1995: 1950: 1938: 1905:National Audit Office 1890:or national goals or 1863:and defense research 1819: 1803:Energy infrastructure 1781:social infrastructure 1734:Further information: 1092:% of global spending 869:R&D on healthcare 695: 638: 7069:Tonekaboni, Keywan. 6323:26 June 2023 at the 6132:(10211): 1836–1878. 5895:Statistics Explained 5748:"Research Australia" 5724:. 16 December 2019. 4832:Defense and security 4656:Public sector ethics 4629:that deliver on the 4037:United Arab Emirates 892:foreign economic aid 761:economic contraction 757:Classical economists 741:economic contraction 722:automatic stabilizer 578:theories of taxation 510:government borrowing 7553:Government finances 7548:Government spending 7197:www.coalition-s.org 7010:2019NatSu...2..253E 6952:2022NatEn...7..876M 6553:2015PhoRe.123..305T 6389:. 18 October 2011. 4212: 3971:Trinidad and Tobago 3319:Republic of Moldova 2034: 1916:Per capita spending 1881:international goals 745:Keynesian economics 733:John Maynard Keynes 556:John Maynard Keynes 548:education subsidies 486:Government spending 6521:10.3390/SU13158232 5866:on 20 January 2020 4960:Mandatory spending 4873: 4845: 4811: 4692:Before World War I 4546:Strategic planning 4520:. You can help by 4210: 4204: 2578:Dominican Republic 2032: 1998: 1990: 1945: 1894:(health impacts). 1826: 945:Military defence, 699: 641: 572:Theory of taxation 536:Public expenditure 378:Mandatory spending 302:Non-tariff barrier 240:Monetary authority 7501:978-92-1-126442-5 7469:978-92-9260-334-2 7436:"Spending Review" 7420:"Debt Management" 7274:978-3-319-66034-9 6272:(S2): S181–S185. 5521:978-0-13-449205-6 5459:– via SSRN. 4935:Government budget 4582:public investment 4538: 4537: 4489: 4488: 4191: 4190: 2622:Equatorial Guinea 1925:Percentage of GDP 1834:COVID-19 pandemic 1766:net present value 1670: 1669: 1012:capital formation 988:Final consumption 961:cultural services 865:hospital services 825:Social protection 483: 482: 424:Fiscal adjustment 16:(Redirected from 7565: 7512: 7510: 7493: 7480: 7478: 7461: 7439: 7431: 7423: 7415: 7407: 7399: 7391: 7383: 7375: 7358: 7357: 7355: 7353: 7348:on 13 March 2012 7344:. Archived from 7338: 7332: 7331: 7314: 7299: 7285: 7279: 7278: 7252: 7246: 7245: 7243: 7241: 7235: 7228: 7219: 7213: 7212: 7210: 7208: 7189: 7183: 7182: 7180: 7178: 7172: 7165: 7157: 7151: 7150: 7148: 7146: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7118: 7116: 7097: 7091: 7090: 7088: 7086: 7066: 7060: 7059: 7057: 7055: 7029: 6988: 6982: 6981: 6963: 6931: 6925: 6924: 6922: 6920: 6901: 6895: 6894: 6884: 6844: 6838: 6837: 6817: 6811: 6810: 6774: 6768: 6767: 6765: 6763: 6744: 6738: 6737: 6709: 6703: 6702: 6700: 6698: 6678: 6672: 6671: 6661: 6651: 6627: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6616: 6607:. 29 July 2021. 6597: 6591: 6590: 6580: 6532: 6526: 6525: 6523: 6499: 6493: 6492: 6490: 6488: 6474: 6468: 6457: 6455: 6453: 6438: 6429: 6428: 6426: 6424: 6409: 6403: 6402: 6400: 6398: 6379: 6373: 6372: 6370: 6368: 6357:www.heritage.org 6349: 6338: 6334: 6328: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6297: 6257: 6248: 6242: 6236: 6235: 6225: 6183: 6177: 6171: 6165: 6164: 6162: 6160: 6121: 6112: 6106: 6105: 6095: 6075: 6066: 6060: 6059: 6057: 6046: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6012: 6006: 6005: 5990: 5984: 5983: 5973: 5963: 5939: 5933: 5932: 5930: 5928: 5922: 5915: 5904: 5898: 5882: 5876: 5875: 5873: 5871: 5862:. Archived from 5852: 5846: 5845: 5843: 5841: 5822: 5816: 5815: 5813: 5811: 5792: 5786: 5774: 5768: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5735: 5733: 5722:War on the Rocks 5714: 5708: 5707: 5705: 5703: 5693: 5685: 5676: 5675: 5665: 5641: 5632: 5631: 5603: 5597: 5596: 5578: 5554: 5548: 5547: 5541: 5533: 5505: 5499: 5496: 5490: 5489: 5487: 5479: 5470: 5467: 5461: 5460: 5448: 5442: 5441: 5415: 5409: 5408: 5382: 5371: 5370: 5344: 5335: 5334: 5308: 5293: 5292: 5274: 5268: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5254: 5252: 5242: 5236: 5235: 5233: 5231: 5221: 5215: 5214: 5212: 5210: 5195: 5189: 5182: 5176: 5175: 5173: 5171: 5163:Akrani, Gaurav. 5160: 5154: 5153: 5151: 5149: 5134: 5128: 5127: 5125: 5123: 5104: 5098: 5097: 5095: 5093: 5078: 5072: 5057: 5051: 5050: 5048: 5046: 5031: 5009: 5006: 4965:Taxpayers unions 4940:Government waste 4763:reconstruction. 4681:fleet management 4602: 4533: 4530: 4512: 4505: 4213: 4181: 4177: 4175: 4174: 3894: 3890: 3888: 3887: 3750: 3746: 3744: 3743: 3518:Papua New Guinea 3463: 3459: 3457: 3456: 3198: 3194: 3192: 3191: 3076: 3072: 3070: 3069: 3042: 3038: 3036: 3035: 3019: 3015: 3013: 3012: 2468: 2464: 2462: 2461: 2035: 1988: 1986: 1982: 1980: 1976: 1974: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1962: 1958: 1956: 1889: 1870: 1862: 1654: 1653: 1628: 1627: 1602: 1601: 1576: 1575: 1550: 1549: 1524: 1523: 1498: 1497: 1472: 1471: 1446: 1445: 1420: 1419: 1394: 1393: 1385: 1365: 1364: 1355: 1336: 1335: 1326: 1307: 1306: 1297: 1278: 1277: 1268: 1252: 1248: 1247: 1237: 1218: 1217: 1208: 1189: 1188: 1179: 1160: 1159: 1150: 1131: 1130: 1121: 1072: 916:Economic Affairs 888:external affairs 857:medical products 797:deficit spending 776:deficit spending 749:aggregate demand 737:deficit spending 656:marginal utility 589:who will benefit 582:public economics 475: 468: 461: 445: 297:Gains from trade 287:Balance of trade 166:Finance ministry 57: 43: 21: 7573: 7572: 7568: 7567: 7566: 7564: 7563: 7562: 7538: 7537: 7519: 7508: 7502: 7491: 7483: 7476: 7470: 7459: 7449: 7446: 7434: 7426: 7418: 7410: 7402: 7394: 7386: 7378: 7370: 7362: 7361: 7351: 7349: 7340: 7339: 7335: 7328: 7316: 7315: 7302: 7296:Wayback Machine 7286: 7282: 7275: 7254: 7253: 7249: 7239: 7237: 7233: 7226: 7221: 7220: 7216: 7206: 7204: 7191: 7190: 7186: 7176: 7174: 7170: 7163: 7159: 7158: 7154: 7144: 7142: 7129: 7128: 7124: 7114: 7112: 7099: 7098: 7094: 7084: 7082: 7068: 7067: 7063: 7053: 7051: 6990: 6989: 6985: 6933: 6932: 6928: 6918: 6916: 6903: 6902: 6898: 6846: 6845: 6841: 6819: 6818: 6814: 6776: 6775: 6771: 6761: 6759: 6746: 6745: 6741: 6711: 6710: 6706: 6696: 6694: 6680: 6679: 6675: 6629: 6628: 6624: 6614: 6612: 6599: 6598: 6594: 6534: 6533: 6529: 6501: 6500: 6496: 6486: 6484: 6476: 6475: 6471: 6466:Wayback Machine 6451: 6449: 6440: 6439: 6432: 6422: 6420: 6411: 6410: 6406: 6396: 6394: 6381: 6380: 6376: 6366: 6364: 6351: 6350: 6341: 6335: 6331: 6325:Wayback Machine 6315: 6311: 6259: 6258: 6251: 6243: 6239: 6185: 6184: 6180: 6172: 6168: 6158: 6156: 6119: 6114: 6113: 6109: 6073: 6068: 6067: 6063: 6055: 6044: 6039: 6038: 6034: 6014: 6013: 6009: 5992: 5991: 5987: 5941: 5940: 5936: 5926: 5924: 5920: 5913: 5906: 5905: 5901: 5892:Wayback Machine 5883: 5879: 5869: 5867: 5854: 5853: 5849: 5839: 5837: 5824: 5823: 5819: 5809: 5807: 5794: 5793: 5789: 5784:Wayback Machine 5775: 5771: 5761: 5759: 5746: 5745: 5741: 5731: 5729: 5716: 5715: 5711: 5701: 5699: 5691: 5687: 5686: 5679: 5643: 5642: 5635: 5605: 5604: 5600: 5556: 5555: 5551: 5534: 5522: 5507: 5506: 5502: 5497: 5493: 5485: 5481: 5480: 5473: 5468: 5464: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5430: 5417: 5416: 5412: 5397: 5384: 5383: 5374: 5359: 5346: 5345: 5338: 5323: 5310: 5309: 5296: 5289: 5276: 5275: 5271: 5264: 5260: 5250: 5248: 5244: 5243: 5239: 5229: 5227: 5223: 5222: 5218: 5208: 5206: 5197: 5196: 5192: 5183: 5179: 5169: 5167: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5147: 5145: 5136: 5135: 5131: 5121: 5119: 5106: 5105: 5101: 5091: 5089: 5080: 5079: 5075: 5058: 5054: 5044: 5042: 5033: 5032: 5028: 5018: 5013: 5012: 5007: 5003: 4998: 4920:Open government 4911: 4898: 4885: 4862: 4859:Spending Review 4850: 4848:Debt management 4834: 4825: 4816: 4799: 4790: 4781: 4730: 4721: 4715:of their GDPs. 4712: 4703: 4694: 4689: 4613: 4592:"investment in 4578: 4566: 4548: 4542:Good governance 4534: 4528: 4525: 4518:needs expansion 4503: 4494: 4220: 4196: 4172: 4170: 4169: 3885: 3883: 3882: 3772:Solomon Islands 3741: 3739: 3738: 3461:North Macedonia 3454: 3452: 3451: 3189: 3187: 3186: 3067: 3065: 3064: 3033: 3031: 3030: 3010: 3008: 3007: 2459: 2457: 2456: 1984: 1983: 1978: 1977: 1972: 1971: 1966: 1965: 1960: 1959: 1954: 1953: 1952: 1933: 1927: 1918: 1913: 1900: 1853: 1847: 1845:Science funding 1842: 1841: 1813: 1805: 1795:or later in an 1747:economic theory 1738: 1732: 1726: 1686: 1648: 1622: 1596: 1570: 1544: 1518: 1492: 1466: 1440: 1414: 1388: 1383: 1359: 1353: 1330: 1324: 1301: 1295: 1272: 1266: 1242: 1241: 1235: 1212: 1206: 1183: 1177: 1154: 1148: 1125: 1119: 1082: 1056: 1050:Military budget 1046: 996: 990: 818: 743:. According to 690: 684: 633: 574: 568: 544:public services 479: 434: 433: 429:Monetary reform 419: 411: 410: 406:Price stability 401:Economic growth 396:Balanced budget 391: 383: 382: 363:Non-tax revenue 358: 357: 337: 336: 327:Trade diversion 282: 272: 271: 225:Discount window 208: 206:Monetary policy 198: 197: 132: 122: 121: 67: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 7571: 7569: 7561: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7540: 7539: 7536: 7535: 7530: 7525: 7518: 7517:External links 7515: 7514: 7513: 7500: 7481: 7468: 7445: 7442: 7441: 7440: 7432: 7424: 7416: 7408: 7400: 7392: 7384: 7376: 7367: 7366: 7360: 7359: 7333: 7326: 7300: 7280: 7273: 7247: 7222:Premchand, A. 7214: 7184: 7152: 7122: 7092: 7061: 7004:(4): 253–255. 6983: 6946:(9): 876–885. 6926: 6896: 6859:(5): 635–644. 6839: 6828:(3): 607–616. 6812: 6769: 6739: 6720:(5): 546–568. 6704: 6673: 6622: 6592: 6547:(3): 305–315. 6527: 6508:Sustainability 6494: 6469: 6430: 6404: 6374: 6339: 6329: 6309: 6249: 6237: 6178: 6166: 6107: 6061: 6051:. p. iv. 6032: 6007: 5985: 5934: 5899: 5877: 5847: 5817: 5787: 5769: 5739: 5709: 5677: 5656:(5): 547–562. 5633: 5614:(2): 157–169. 5598: 5549: 5520: 5511:Macroeconomics 5500: 5491: 5471: 5462: 5443: 5428: 5410: 5395: 5372: 5357: 5336: 5321: 5294: 5287: 5269: 5258: 5237: 5216: 5190: 5177: 5155: 5129: 5099: 5073: 5052: 5025: 5024: 5023: 5022: 5017: 5014: 5011: 5010: 5008:SIPRI estimate 5000: 4999: 4997: 4994: 4993: 4992: 4987: 4982: 4977: 4972: 4967: 4962: 4957: 4952: 4950:Fiscal council 4947: 4942: 4937: 4932: 4930:Public finance 4927: 4922: 4917: 4910: 4907: 4897: 4894: 4884: 4881: 4861: 4855: 4849: 4846: 4833: 4830: 4824: 4821: 4815: 4812: 4798: 4795: 4789: 4786: 4780: 4777: 4760: 4759: 4756: 4753: 4750: 4747: 4729: 4726: 4720: 4717: 4711: 4708: 4702: 4699: 4693: 4690: 4688: 4685: 4612: 4609: 4577: 4574: 4565: 4562: 4558:reward systems 4536: 4535: 4515: 4513: 4502: 4499: 4493: 4492:European Union 4490: 4487: 4486: 4483: 4479: 4478: 4475: 4471: 4470: 4467: 4463: 4462: 4459: 4455: 4454: 4451: 4447: 4446: 4443: 4439: 4438: 4435: 4431: 4430: 4427: 4423: 4422: 4419: 4415: 4414: 4411: 4407: 4406: 4403: 4399: 4398: 4395: 4391: 4390: 4387: 4386:Czech Republic 4383: 4382: 4379: 4375: 4374: 4371: 4367: 4366: 4363: 4359: 4358: 4355: 4351: 4350: 4347: 4346:United Kingdom 4343: 4342: 4339: 4335: 4334: 4331: 4327: 4326: 4323: 4319: 4318: 4315: 4311: 4310: 4307: 4303: 4302: 4299: 4295: 4294: 4291: 4287: 4286: 4283: 4279: 4278: 4275: 4271: 4270: 4267: 4263: 4262: 4259: 4255: 4254: 4251: 4247: 4246: 4243: 4239: 4238: 4235: 4231: 4230: 4227: 4223: 4222: 4217: 4195: 4192: 4189: 4188: 4185: 4182: 4166: 4165: 4162: 4159: 4155: 4154: 4151: 4148: 4144: 4143: 4140: 4137: 4133: 4132: 4129: 4126: 4122: 4121: 4118: 4115: 4111: 4110: 4107: 4104: 4100: 4099: 4096: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4085: 4082: 4078: 4077: 4074: 4071: 4067: 4066: 4063: 4060: 4056: 4055: 4052: 4049: 4048:United Kingdom 4045: 4044: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4033: 4030: 4027: 4023: 4022: 4019: 4016: 4012: 4011: 4008: 4005: 4001: 4000: 3997: 3994: 3990: 3989: 3986: 3983: 3979: 3978: 3975: 3972: 3968: 3967: 3964: 3961: 3957: 3956: 3953: 3950: 3946: 3945: 3942: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3931: 3928: 3924: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3913: 3912: 3909: 3906: 3902: 3901: 3898: 3895: 3879: 3878: 3875: 3872: 3868: 3867: 3864: 3861: 3857: 3856: 3853: 3850: 3846: 3845: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3834: 3831: 3828: 3824: 3823: 3820: 3817: 3813: 3812: 3809: 3806: 3802: 3801: 3798: 3795: 3791: 3790: 3787: 3784: 3780: 3779: 3776: 3773: 3769: 3768: 3765: 3762: 3758: 3757: 3754: 3751: 3735: 3734: 3731: 3728: 3724: 3723: 3720: 3717: 3713: 3712: 3709: 3706: 3702: 3701: 3698: 3695: 3691: 3690: 3687: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3676: 3673: 3669: 3668: 3665: 3662: 3658: 3657: 3654: 3651: 3647: 3646: 3643: 3640: 3636: 3635: 3632: 3629: 3625: 3624: 3621: 3618: 3614: 3613: 3610: 3607: 3603: 3602: 3599: 3596: 3592: 3591: 3588: 3585: 3581: 3580: 3577: 3574: 3570: 3569: 3566: 3563: 3559: 3558: 3555: 3552: 3548: 3547: 3544: 3541: 3537: 3536: 3533: 3530: 3526: 3525: 3522: 3519: 3515: 3514: 3511: 3508: 3504: 3503: 3500: 3497: 3493: 3492: 3489: 3486: 3482: 3481: 3478: 3475: 3471: 3470: 3467: 3464: 3448: 3447: 3444: 3441: 3437: 3436: 3433: 3430: 3426: 3425: 3422: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3411: 3408: 3404: 3403: 3400: 3397: 3393: 3392: 3389: 3386: 3382: 3381: 3378: 3375: 3371: 3370: 3367: 3364: 3360: 3359: 3356: 3353: 3349: 3348: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3337: 3334: 3331: 3327: 3326: 3323: 3320: 3316: 3315: 3312: 3309: 3305: 3304: 3301: 3298: 3294: 3293: 3290: 3287: 3283: 3282: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3271: 3268: 3265: 3261: 3260: 3257: 3254: 3250: 3249: 3246: 3243: 3239: 3238: 3235: 3232: 3228: 3227: 3224: 3221: 3217: 3216: 3213: 3210: 3206: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3183: 3182: 3179: 3176: 3172: 3171: 3168: 3165: 3161: 3160: 3157: 3154: 3150: 3149: 3146: 3143: 3139: 3138: 3135: 3132: 3128: 3127: 3124: 3121: 3117: 3116: 3113: 3110: 3106: 3105: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3094: 3091: 3088: 3084: 3083: 3080: 3077: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3054: 3050: 3049: 3046: 3043: 3027: 3026: 3023: 3020: 3004: 3003: 3000: 2997: 2993: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2982: 2981: 2978: 2975: 2971: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2960: 2959: 2956: 2953: 2949: 2948: 2945: 2942: 2938: 2937: 2934: 2931: 2927: 2926: 2923: 2920: 2916: 2915: 2912: 2909: 2905: 2904: 2901: 2898: 2894: 2893: 2890: 2887: 2883: 2882: 2879: 2876: 2872: 2871: 2868: 2865: 2861: 2860: 2857: 2854: 2850: 2849: 2846: 2843: 2839: 2838: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2827: 2824: 2821: 2817: 2816: 2813: 2810: 2806: 2805: 2802: 2799: 2795: 2794: 2791: 2788: 2784: 2783: 2780: 2777: 2773: 2772: 2769: 2766: 2762: 2761: 2758: 2755: 2751: 2750: 2747: 2744: 2740: 2739: 2736: 2733: 2729: 2728: 2725: 2722: 2718: 2717: 2714: 2711: 2707: 2706: 2703: 2700: 2696: 2695: 2692: 2689: 2685: 2684: 2681: 2678: 2674: 2673: 2670: 2667: 2663: 2662: 2659: 2656: 2652: 2651: 2648: 2645: 2641: 2640: 2637: 2634: 2630: 2629: 2626: 2623: 2619: 2618: 2615: 2612: 2608: 2607: 2604: 2601: 2597: 2596: 2593: 2590: 2586: 2585: 2582: 2579: 2575: 2574: 2571: 2568: 2564: 2563: 2560: 2557: 2553: 2552: 2549: 2546: 2542: 2541: 2538: 2535: 2534:Czech Republic 2531: 2530: 2527: 2524: 2520: 2519: 2516: 2513: 2509: 2508: 2505: 2502: 2498: 2497: 2494: 2491: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2480: 2476: 2475: 2472: 2469: 2453: 2452: 2449: 2446: 2442: 2441: 2438: 2435: 2431: 2430: 2427: 2424: 2420: 2419: 2416: 2413: 2409: 2408: 2405: 2402: 2398: 2397: 2394: 2391: 2387: 2386: 2383: 2380: 2376: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2365: 2364: 2361: 2358: 2354: 2353: 2350: 2347: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2336: 2332: 2331: 2328: 2325: 2321: 2320: 2317: 2314: 2310: 2309: 2306: 2303: 2299: 2298: 2295: 2292: 2288: 2287: 2284: 2281: 2277: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2266: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2255: 2254: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2233: 2232: 2229: 2226: 2222: 2221: 2218: 2215: 2211: 2210: 2207: 2204: 2200: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2189: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2178: 2177: 2174: 2171: 2167: 2166: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2155: 2152: 2149: 2145: 2144: 2141: 2138: 2134: 2133: 2130: 2127: 2123: 2122: 2119: 2116: 2112: 2111: 2108: 2105: 2101: 2100: 2097: 2094: 2090: 2089: 2086: 2083: 2079: 2078: 2075: 2072: 2068: 2067: 2064: 2061: 2057: 2056: 2053: 2050: 2046: 2045: 2042: 2039: 1926: 1923: 1917: 1914: 1912: 1909: 1899: 1896: 1849:Main article: 1846: 1843: 1838:green recovery 1814: 1806: 1804: 1801: 1797:emergency room 1751:macroeconomics 1728:Main article: 1725: 1722: 1685: 1682: 1668: 1667: 1664: 1661: 1658: 1646: 1642: 1641: 1638: 1635: 1632: 1620: 1616: 1615: 1612: 1609: 1606: 1594: 1590: 1589: 1586: 1583: 1580: 1568: 1564: 1563: 1560: 1557: 1554: 1542: 1538: 1537: 1534: 1531: 1528: 1516: 1512: 1511: 1508: 1505: 1502: 1490: 1486: 1485: 1482: 1479: 1476: 1464: 1460: 1459: 1456: 1453: 1450: 1438: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1427: 1424: 1412: 1408: 1407: 1404: 1401: 1398: 1386: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1372: 1369: 1357: 1350: 1349: 1346: 1343: 1340: 1328: 1321: 1320: 1317: 1314: 1311: 1299: 1292: 1291: 1288: 1285: 1282: 1280:United Kingdom 1270: 1263: 1262: 1259: 1256: 1253: 1239: 1232: 1231: 1228: 1225: 1222: 1210: 1203: 1202: 1199: 1196: 1193: 1181: 1174: 1173: 1170: 1167: 1164: 1152: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1123: 1116: 1115: 1112: 1107: 1102: 1097: 1094: 1093: 1090: 1084: 1079: 1076: 1045: 1042: 1041: 1040: 1037:treasury bills 1029: 1025: 1022: 992:Main article: 989: 986: 985: 984: 980: 979: 975: 974: 970: 969: 965: 964: 956: 955: 951: 950: 942: 941: 937: 936: 932: 931: 927: 926: 923:labour affairs 918: 917: 913: 912: 905: 904: 900: 899: 880: 879: 873: 872: 849: 848: 844: 843: 828: 827: 817: 814: 801:capital market 784:loanable funds 768:private sector 751:and increases 686:Main article: 683: 680: 671: 670: 665: 632: 629: 628: 627: 624: 621: 614: 613: 606: 603: 600: 570:Main article: 567: 564: 530:business cycle 481: 480: 478: 477: 470: 463: 455: 452: 451: 450: 449: 436: 435: 432: 431: 426: 420: 417: 416: 413: 412: 409: 408: 403: 398: 392: 389: 388: 385: 384: 381: 380: 375: 370: 365: 359: 356: 355: 350: 344: 343: 342: 339: 338: 335: 334: 329: 324: 322:Trade creation 319: 314: 309: 304: 299: 294: 289: 283: 278: 277: 274: 273: 270: 269: 264: 259: 254: 253: 252: 250:currency board 247: 237: 232: 227: 222: 221: 220: 209: 204: 203: 200: 199: 196: 195: 190: 189: 188: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 157: 156: 146: 145: 144: 133: 128: 127: 124: 123: 120: 119: 114: 109: 104: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 68: 63: 62: 59: 58: 50: 49: 47:Public finance 26: 24: 14: 13: 10: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7570: 7559: 7558:Fiscal policy 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7545: 7543: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7524: 7521: 7520: 7516: 7507: 7503: 7497: 7490: 7486: 7482: 7475: 7471: 7465: 7458: 7457: 7452: 7448: 7447: 7443: 7437: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7385: 7381: 7377: 7373: 7369: 7368: 7364: 7363: 7347: 7343: 7337: 7334: 7329: 7323: 7319: 7313: 7311: 7309: 7307: 7305: 7301: 7297: 7293: 7290: 7284: 7281: 7276: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7251: 7248: 7232: 7225: 7218: 7215: 7202: 7198: 7194: 7188: 7185: 7169: 7162: 7156: 7153: 7140: 7136: 7135:The Economist 7132: 7126: 7123: 7110: 7106: 7105:publiccode.eu 7102: 7096: 7093: 7080: 7077:(in German). 7076: 7072: 7065: 7062: 7049: 7045: 7041: 7037: 7033: 7028: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7011: 7007: 7003: 6999: 6995: 6987: 6984: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6962: 6957: 6953: 6949: 6945: 6941: 6940:Nature Energy 6937: 6930: 6927: 6914: 6910: 6906: 6900: 6897: 6892: 6888: 6883: 6878: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6843: 6840: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6816: 6813: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6788: 6784: 6780: 6773: 6770: 6757: 6753: 6749: 6743: 6740: 6735: 6731: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6715: 6708: 6705: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6677: 6674: 6669: 6665: 6660: 6659:11250/2647605 6655: 6650: 6645: 6641: 6637: 6633: 6626: 6623: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6596: 6593: 6588: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6570: 6566: 6562: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6531: 6528: 6522: 6517: 6513: 6509: 6505: 6498: 6495: 6483: 6479: 6473: 6470: 6467: 6463: 6460: 6447: 6443: 6437: 6435: 6431: 6418: 6414: 6408: 6405: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6378: 6375: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6348: 6346: 6344: 6340: 6333: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6319: 6313: 6310: 6305: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6279: 6275: 6271: 6267: 6263: 6256: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6241: 6238: 6233: 6229: 6224: 6219: 6215: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6195: 6194: 6189: 6182: 6179: 6176:, p. 10. 6175: 6170: 6167: 6155: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6127: 6126: 6118: 6111: 6108: 6103: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6080: 6072: 6065: 6062: 6054: 6050: 6043: 6036: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6011: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5989: 5986: 5981: 5977: 5972: 5967: 5962: 5957: 5953: 5949: 5945: 5938: 5935: 5923:on 3 May 2012 5919: 5912: 5911: 5903: 5900: 5896: 5893: 5889: 5886: 5881: 5878: 5865: 5861: 5857: 5851: 5848: 5835: 5831: 5827: 5821: 5818: 5805: 5801: 5800:robwiblin.com 5797: 5791: 5788: 5785: 5781: 5778: 5773: 5770: 5757: 5753: 5749: 5743: 5740: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5713: 5710: 5697: 5690: 5684: 5682: 5678: 5673: 5669: 5664: 5659: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5640: 5638: 5634: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5613: 5609: 5602: 5599: 5594: 5590: 5586: 5582: 5577: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5553: 5550: 5545: 5539: 5531: 5527: 5523: 5517: 5513: 5512: 5504: 5501: 5495: 5492: 5484: 5478: 5476: 5472: 5466: 5463: 5458: 5454: 5447: 5444: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5429:9781133435051 5425: 5421: 5414: 5411: 5406: 5402: 5398: 5396:9781464143335 5392: 5388: 5381: 5379: 5377: 5373: 5368: 5364: 5360: 5358:9781285165875 5354: 5350: 5343: 5341: 5337: 5332: 5328: 5324: 5322:9780996996334 5318: 5314: 5307: 5305: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5295: 5290: 5288:81-219-1091-9 5284: 5280: 5273: 5270: 5267: 5262: 5259: 5247: 5241: 5238: 5226: 5220: 5217: 5205: 5201: 5194: 5191: 5187: 5181: 5178: 5166: 5159: 5156: 5143: 5139: 5133: 5130: 5117: 5113: 5109: 5103: 5100: 5088: 5084: 5077: 5074: 5070: 5069:0-333-57764-7 5066: 5062: 5056: 5053: 5040: 5036: 5030: 5027: 5020: 5019: 5015: 5005: 5002: 4995: 4991: 4988: 4986: 4983: 4981: 4978: 4976: 4973: 4971: 4968: 4966: 4963: 4961: 4958: 4956: 4953: 4951: 4948: 4946: 4945:Fiscal policy 4943: 4941: 4938: 4936: 4933: 4931: 4928: 4926: 4923: 4921: 4918: 4916: 4913: 4912: 4908: 4906: 4904: 4895: 4893: 4890: 4882: 4880: 4876: 4870: 4866: 4860: 4856: 4854: 4847: 4842: 4838: 4831: 4829: 4822: 4820: 4813: 4807: 4803: 4796: 4794: 4787: 4785: 4778: 4776: 4772: 4768: 4764: 4757: 4754: 4751: 4748: 4745: 4744: 4743: 4740: 4736: 4733: 4727: 4725: 4718: 4716: 4709: 4707: 4700: 4698: 4691: 4686: 4684: 4682: 4678: 4677:real property 4674: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4657: 4653: 4651: 4647: 4643: 4639: 4634: 4632: 4628: 4624: 4623: 4618: 4610: 4608: 4606: 4601: 4595: 4591: 4587: 4583: 4575: 4573: 4571: 4563: 4561: 4559: 4554: 4547: 4543: 4532: 4529:November 2022 4523: 4519: 4516:This section 4514: 4511: 4507: 4506: 4500: 4498: 4491: 4484: 4480: 4476: 4472: 4468: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4448: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4412: 4410:United States 4408: 4404: 4400: 4396: 4392: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4376: 4372: 4368: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4344: 4340: 4336: 4332: 4328: 4324: 4320: 4316: 4312: 4308: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4218: 4215: 4214: 4208: 4200: 4193: 4186: 4183: 4180: 4168: 4167: 4163: 4160: 4157: 4156: 4152: 4149: 4146: 4145: 4141: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4127: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4108: 4105: 4102: 4101: 4097: 4094: 4091: 4090: 4086: 4083: 4080: 4079: 4075: 4072: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4061: 4059:United States 4058: 4057: 4053: 4050: 4047: 4046: 4042: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4031: 4028: 4025: 4024: 4020: 4017: 4014: 4013: 4009: 4006: 4003: 4002: 3998: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3987: 3984: 3981: 3980: 3976: 3973: 3970: 3969: 3965: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3954: 3951: 3948: 3947: 3943: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3932: 3929: 3926: 3925: 3921: 3918: 3915: 3914: 3910: 3907: 3904: 3903: 3899: 3896: 3893: 3881: 3880: 3876: 3873: 3870: 3869: 3865: 3862: 3859: 3858: 3854: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3843: 3840: 3837: 3836: 3832: 3829: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3818: 3815: 3814: 3810: 3807: 3804: 3803: 3799: 3796: 3793: 3792: 3788: 3785: 3782: 3781: 3777: 3774: 3771: 3770: 3766: 3763: 3760: 3759: 3755: 3752: 3749: 3737: 3736: 3732: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3721: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3699: 3696: 3693: 3692: 3688: 3685: 3682: 3681: 3677: 3674: 3671: 3670: 3666: 3663: 3660: 3659: 3655: 3652: 3649: 3648: 3644: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3633: 3630: 3627: 3626: 3622: 3619: 3616: 3615: 3611: 3608: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3597: 3594: 3593: 3589: 3586: 3583: 3582: 3578: 3575: 3572: 3571: 3567: 3564: 3561: 3560: 3556: 3553: 3550: 3549: 3545: 3542: 3539: 3538: 3534: 3531: 3528: 3527: 3523: 3520: 3517: 3516: 3512: 3509: 3506: 3505: 3501: 3498: 3495: 3494: 3490: 3487: 3484: 3483: 3479: 3476: 3473: 3472: 3468: 3465: 3462: 3450: 3449: 3445: 3442: 3439: 3438: 3434: 3431: 3428: 3427: 3423: 3420: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3409: 3406: 3405: 3401: 3398: 3395: 3394: 3390: 3387: 3384: 3383: 3379: 3376: 3373: 3372: 3368: 3365: 3362: 3361: 3357: 3354: 3351: 3350: 3346: 3343: 3340: 3339: 3335: 3332: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3321: 3318: 3317: 3313: 3310: 3307: 3306: 3302: 3299: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3288: 3285: 3284: 3280: 3277: 3274: 3273: 3269: 3266: 3263: 3262: 3258: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3247: 3244: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3230: 3229: 3225: 3222: 3219: 3218: 3214: 3211: 3208: 3207: 3203: 3200: 3197: 3185: 3184: 3180: 3177: 3174: 3173: 3169: 3166: 3163: 3162: 3158: 3155: 3153:Liechtenstein 3152: 3151: 3147: 3144: 3141: 3140: 3136: 3133: 3130: 3129: 3125: 3122: 3119: 3118: 3114: 3111: 3108: 3107: 3103: 3100: 3097: 3096: 3092: 3089: 3086: 3085: 3081: 3078: 3075: 3063: 3062: 3058: 3055: 3052: 3051: 3047: 3044: 3041: 3029: 3028: 3024: 3021: 3018: 3006: 3005: 3001: 2998: 2995: 2994: 2990: 2987: 2984: 2983: 2979: 2976: 2973: 2972: 2968: 2965: 2962: 2961: 2957: 2954: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2943: 2940: 2939: 2935: 2932: 2929: 2928: 2924: 2921: 2918: 2917: 2913: 2910: 2907: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2896: 2895: 2891: 2888: 2885: 2884: 2880: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2869: 2866: 2863: 2862: 2858: 2855: 2852: 2851: 2847: 2844: 2841: 2840: 2836: 2833: 2830: 2829: 2825: 2822: 2819: 2818: 2814: 2811: 2808: 2807: 2803: 2800: 2797: 2796: 2792: 2789: 2787:Guinea-Bissau 2786: 2785: 2781: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2770: 2767: 2764: 2763: 2759: 2756: 2753: 2752: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2741: 2737: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2726: 2723: 2720: 2719: 2715: 2712: 2709: 2708: 2704: 2701: 2698: 2697: 2693: 2690: 2687: 2686: 2682: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2671: 2668: 2665: 2664: 2660: 2657: 2654: 2653: 2649: 2646: 2643: 2642: 2638: 2635: 2632: 2631: 2627: 2624: 2621: 2620: 2616: 2613: 2610: 2609: 2605: 2602: 2599: 2598: 2594: 2591: 2588: 2587: 2583: 2580: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2561: 2558: 2555: 2554: 2550: 2547: 2544: 2543: 2539: 2536: 2533: 2532: 2528: 2525: 2522: 2521: 2517: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2506: 2503: 2500: 2499: 2495: 2492: 2490:Côte d'Ivoire 2489: 2488: 2484: 2481: 2478: 2477: 2473: 2470: 2467: 2455: 2454: 2450: 2447: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2436: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2417: 2414: 2411: 2410: 2406: 2403: 2400: 2399: 2395: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2384: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2362: 2359: 2356: 2355: 2351: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2340: 2337: 2334: 2333: 2329: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2307: 2304: 2301: 2300: 2296: 2293: 2290: 2289: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2268: 2267: 2263: 2260: 2257: 2256: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2234: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2223: 2219: 2216: 2213: 2212: 2208: 2205: 2202: 2201: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2190: 2186: 2183: 2180: 2179: 2175: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2164: 2161: 2158: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2142: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2125: 2124: 2120: 2117: 2114: 2113: 2109: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2098: 2095: 2092: 2091: 2087: 2084: 2081: 2080: 2076: 2073: 2070: 2069: 2065: 2062: 2059: 2058: 2054: 2051: 2048: 2047: 2043: 2040: 2037: 2036: 2030: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2015: 2010: 2006: 2005: 1994: 1957: >55% 1949: 1942: 1937: 1932: 1924: 1922: 1915: 1910: 1908: 1906: 1897: 1895: 1893: 1887: 1882: 1878: 1877:global issues 1874: 1868: 1860: 1852: 1844: 1839: 1835: 1830: 1823: 1818: 1811: 1802: 1800: 1798: 1794: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1777: 1774: 1769: 1767: 1762: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1737: 1731: 1723: 1721: 1717: 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1699: 1693: 1689: 1683: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1657: 1652: 1647: 1644: 1643: 1631: 1626: 1621: 1618: 1617: 1605: 1600: 1595: 1592: 1591: 1579: 1574: 1569: 1566: 1565: 1553: 1548: 1543: 1540: 1539: 1527: 1522: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1501: 1496: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1475: 1470: 1465: 1462: 1461: 1449: 1444: 1439: 1436: 1435: 1423: 1418: 1413: 1410: 1409: 1397: 1392: 1387: 1381: 1380: 1368: 1363: 1358: 1352: 1351: 1339: 1334: 1329: 1323: 1322: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1294: 1293: 1281: 1276: 1271: 1265: 1264: 1251: 1246: 1240: 1234: 1233: 1221: 1216: 1211: 1205: 1204: 1192: 1187: 1182: 1176: 1175: 1163: 1158: 1153: 1147: 1146: 1134: 1133:United States 1129: 1124: 1118: 1117: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1098: 1096: 1095: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1080: 1077: 1074: 1073: 1070: 1069: 1065: 1061: 1055: 1051: 1043: 1038: 1034: 1030: 1026: 1023: 1020: 1019: 1018: 1015: 1013: 1009: 1005: 1001: 995: 987: 982: 981: 977: 976: 972: 971: 967: 966: 962: 958: 957: 953: 952: 948: 947:civil defence 944: 943: 939: 938: 934: 933: 929: 928: 924: 920: 919: 915: 914: 910: 907: 906: 902: 901: 897: 893: 889: 885: 882: 881: 878: 875: 874: 870: 866: 862: 858: 854: 851: 850: 846: 845: 841: 837: 833: 830: 829: 826: 823: 822: 821: 815: 813: 810: 805: 802: 798: 793: 789: 785: 781: 777: 773: 772:public sector 769: 764: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 730: 727: 723: 718: 713: 709: 704: 703:Fiscal policy 694: 689: 688:Fiscal policy 681: 679: 676: 669: 666: 664: 661: 660: 659: 657: 653: 649: 647: 637: 630: 625: 622: 619: 618: 617: 611: 607: 604: 601: 598: 597: 596: 592: 590: 585: 583: 579: 573: 565: 563: 561: 557: 553: 552:laissez faire 549: 545: 541: 537: 533: 531: 527: 526:fiscal policy 523: 519: 518:custom duties 515: 511: 505: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 476: 471: 469: 464: 462: 457: 456: 454: 453: 448: 444: 440: 439: 438: 437: 430: 427: 425: 422: 421: 415: 414: 407: 404: 402: 399: 397: 394: 393: 387: 386: 379: 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 360: 354: 351: 349: 346: 345: 341: 340: 333: 330: 328: 325: 323: 320: 318: 315: 313: 310: 308: 307:Protectionism 305: 303: 300: 298: 295: 293: 290: 288: 285: 284: 281: 276: 275: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 257:Monetary base 255: 251: 248: 246: 243: 242: 241: 238: 236: 235:Interest rate 233: 231: 230:Gold reserves 228: 226: 223: 219: 216: 215: 214: 213:Bank reserves 211: 210: 207: 202: 201: 194: 191: 187: 184: 183: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 155: 152: 151: 150: 147: 143: 140: 139: 138: 135: 134: 131: 130:Fiscal policy 126: 125: 118: 115: 113: 110: 108: 105: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 83: 80: 78: 75: 73: 70: 69: 66: 61: 60: 56: 52: 51: 48: 44: 41: 37: 33: 19: 7455: 7350:. Retrieved 7346:the original 7336: 7317: 7283: 7256: 7250: 7238:. Retrieved 7217: 7205:. Retrieved 7196: 7187: 7175:. Retrieved 7155: 7143:. Retrieved 7134: 7125: 7113:. Retrieved 7104: 7095: 7083:. Retrieved 7074: 7064: 7052:. Retrieved 7001: 6997: 6986: 6943: 6939: 6929: 6917:. Retrieved 6908: 6899: 6856: 6852: 6842: 6825: 6821: 6815: 6782: 6778: 6772: 6760:. Retrieved 6752:www.oecd.org 6751: 6742: 6717: 6713: 6707: 6695:. Retrieved 6686: 6676: 6639: 6635: 6625: 6613:. Retrieved 6605:The Guardian 6604: 6595: 6544: 6540: 6530: 6514:(15): 8232. 6511: 6507: 6497: 6485:. Retrieved 6482:ec.europa.eu 6481: 6472: 6450:. Retrieved 6421:. Retrieved 6407: 6395:. Retrieved 6386: 6377: 6365:. Retrieved 6356: 6332: 6312: 6269: 6265: 6247:, p. 5. 6240: 6197: 6191: 6181: 6169: 6157:. Retrieved 6129: 6123: 6110: 6083: 6077: 6064: 6035: 6027: 6019: 6010: 6002: 5988: 5951: 5947: 5937: 5925:. Retrieved 5918:the original 5909: 5902: 5894: 5880: 5868:. Retrieved 5864:the original 5859: 5850: 5838:. Retrieved 5829: 5820: 5808:. Retrieved 5799: 5790: 5772: 5760:. Retrieved 5751: 5742: 5730:. Retrieved 5721: 5712: 5700:. Retrieved 5698:. April 2024 5653: 5649: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5566: 5562: 5552: 5510: 5503: 5494: 5465: 5456: 5446: 5419: 5413: 5386: 5348: 5312: 5278: 5272: 5261: 5249:. Retrieved 5240: 5228:. Retrieved 5219: 5207:. Retrieved 5203: 5193: 5180: 5168:. Retrieved 5158: 5146:. Retrieved 5132: 5120:. Retrieved 5111: 5102: 5090:. Retrieved 5086: 5076: 5060: 5055: 5043:. Retrieved 5029: 5004: 4899: 4886: 4877: 4874: 4863: 4851: 4835: 4826: 4817: 4800: 4791: 4782: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4761: 4741: 4737: 4734: 4731: 4722: 4713: 4704: 4695: 4664:presidential 4661: 4654: 4635: 4627:food systems 4620: 4614: 4594:clean energy 4579: 4567: 4549: 4526: 4522:adding to it 4517: 4495: 4205: 4004:Turkmenistan 3783:South Africa 3716:Sierra Leone 3672:Saudi Arabia 2302:Burkina Faso 2012: 2001: 1999: 1987: 30–35% 1981: 35–40% 1975: 40–45% 1969: 45–50% 1963: 50–55% 1919: 1901: 1854: 1778: 1771:Spending on 1770: 1763: 1739: 1718: 1714: 1710: 1706: 1702: 1694: 1690: 1687: 1671: 1250:Saudi Arabia 1109: 1104: 1100:World total 1099: 1068: 1057: 1033:saving bonds 1016: 1007: 1003: 997: 819: 808: 806: 792:supply curve 788:demand curve 780:crowding out 765: 731: 700: 678:capacities. 675:Erik Lindahl 672: 667: 662: 651: 650: 642: 615: 593: 586: 577: 575: 560:distribution 540:public goods 535: 534: 506: 489: 485: 484: 352: 280:Trade policy 267:Money supply 245:central bank 218:requirements 180: 171:Fiscal union 72:Agricultural 40: 7444:Works cited 7428:"Education" 7352:20 February 7240:28 November 7207:28 November 7177:28 November 7145:28 November 7115:28 November 7085:28 November 7075:c't Magazin 7054:28 November 6785:: 239–256. 6762:28 November 6697:28 November 6615:28 November 5830:EurekAlert! 5732:12 December 5277:Singh, SK. 5266:Lindahl tax 5251:20 February 5230:20 February 5170:15 February 4857:Government 4650:open access 4378:Switzerland 4370:New Zealand 4330:Netherlands 3860:Switzerland 3628:Saint Lucia 3551:Philippines 3407:New Zealand 3396:Netherlands 3040:South Korea 3017:North Korea 2611:El Salvador 2049:Afghanistan 2019:Tax revenue 1656:Netherlands 1422:South Korea 909:pre-primary 816:Composition 753:consumption 490:expenditure 368:Tax revenue 32:Privy Purse 7542:Categories 7494:(Report). 7327:0521662915 7027:2164/13082 6919:19 October 6822:Governance 6642:: 101349. 6245:IRENA 2021 6200:: 101685. 6159:3 November 6125:The Lancet 5331:1001342630 5148:8 November 5045:9 November 5016:References 4915:Rahn curve 4673:conference 4584:in energy 4570:allocation 4540:See also: 4338:Luxembourg 4081:Uzbekistan 3938:East Timor 3905:Tajikistan 3705:Seychelles 3363:Mozambique 3341:Montenegro 3275:Mauritania 3209:Madagascar 3175:Luxembourg 3074:Kyrgyzstan 2974:Kazakhstan 2479:Costa Rica 2368:Cape Verde 2170:Bangladesh 2137:Azerbaijan 1929:See also: 1884:(see also 1783:, such as 1060:deterrence 1048:See also: 778:is called 317:Trade bloc 292:Free trade 117:Policy mix 92:Investment 87:Industrial 7044:169223744 7036:2398-9629 6978:252272866 6970:2058-7546 6873:1179-1896 6807:238764992 6799:0020-8523 6734:156789855 6668:2214-6296 6569:1573-5079 6459:OECD data 6286:0090-0036 6214:2214-6296 6154:207976337 6102:0040-1625 5954:(1): 20. 5927:1 October 5672:1024-2694 5628:0305-0629 5538:cite book 5530:956396690 5438:830731890 5405:914290290 5367:884664951 5021:Citations 4418:Australia 4221:% of GDP 4103:Venezuela 3838:Swaziland 3805:Sri Lanka 3727:Singapore 3418:Nicaragua 3286:Mauritius 3164:Lithuania 2875:Indonesia 2831:Hong Kong 2765:Guatemala 2115:Australia 2093:Argentina 1829:subsidies 1793:Stage III 1474:Australia 1083:(US$ bn) 1081:Spending 903:Education 809:increases 708:recession 580:exist in 7506:Archived 7487:(2020). 7474:Archived 7453:(2021). 7320:. 2000. 7292:Archived 7231:Archived 7201:Archived 7168:Archived 7139:Archived 7109:Archived 7079:Archived 7048:Archived 6913:Archived 6891:34105080 6756:Archived 6691:Archived 6609:Archived 6587:24599393 6487:25 April 6462:Archived 6446:Archived 6444:. OECD. 6417:Archived 6391:Archived 6367:27 March 6361:Archived 6321:Archived 6304:32663078 6232:32839704 6146:31733928 6086:: 8–22. 6053:Archived 6024:Archived 6020:BNEF.com 5999:Archived 5980:15755330 5888:Archived 5870:27 April 5840:27 April 5834:Archived 5810:25 April 5804:Archived 5780:Archived 5762:25 April 5756:Archived 5726:Archived 5702:22 April 5593:46878093 5585:30980055 5569:(1): 5. 5209:25 April 5142:Archived 5122:3 August 5116:Archived 5092:22 April 5039:Archived 4970:Eurostat 4909:See also 4402:Slovakia 4322:Slovenia 4306:Portugal 4147:Zimbabwe 3927:Thailand 3916:Tanzania 3827:Suriname 3761:Slovenia 3748:Slovakia 3573:Portugal 3529:Paraguay 3496:Pakistan 3330:Mongolia 3242:Maldives 3231:Malaysia 2996:Kiribati 2820:Honduras 2655:Ethiopia 2567:Dominica 2556:Djibouti 2423:Colombia 2346:Cameroon 2335:Cambodia 2291:Bulgaria 2269:Botswana 2181:Barbados 832:pensions 576:Several 353:Spending 181:Spending 154:internal 112:Monetary 77:Economic 65:Policies 7365:General 7006:Bibcode 6948:Bibcode 6882:8187139 6578:4331613 6549:Bibcode 6452:17 July 6295:7362694 6223:7330551 5971:1079830 4779:Present 4687:History 4458:Iceland 4442:Ireland 4434:Estonia 4362:Hungary 4298:Germany 4266:Austria 4258:Denmark 4242:Belgium 4234:Finland 4216:Country 4158:Somalia 4114:Vietnam 4092:Vanuatu 4070:Uruguay 4026:Ukraine 3982:Tunisia 3683:Senegal 3595:Romania 3440:Nigeria 3374:Namibia 3352:Morocco 3131:Liberia 3120:Lesotho 3109:Lebanon 2941:Jamaica 2908:Ireland 2853:Iceland 2842:Hungary 2732:Germany 2721:Georgia 2677:Finland 2644:Estonia 2633:Eritrea 2589:Ecuador 2545:Denmark 2501:Croatia 2434:Comoros 2324:Burundi 2247:Bolivia 2203:Belgium 2192:Belarus 2159:Bahrain 2148:Bahamas 2126:Austria 2104:Armenia 2071:Algeria 2060:Albania 2038:Country 1789:Stage I 1759:capital 1678:Chinese 1674:Russian 1630:Algeria 1338:Ukraine 1309:Germany 1078:Country 940:Defence 770:to the 610:deficit 390:Optimum 348:Revenue 186:deficit 176:Revenue 7498: 7466: 7324: 7271: 7042: 7034: 6976: 6968: 6889: 6879: 6871: 6805: 6797: 6732: 6666: 6585: 6575: 6567: 6423:6 July 6397:17 May 6337:16,755 6302: 6292: 6284: 6230: 6220: 6212: 6152: 6144: 6100: 5978: 5968: 5670: 5626: 5591: 5583: 5528: 5518: 5436: 5426: 5403: 5393: 5365: 5355: 5329: 5319: 5285: 5067: 4646:Plan S 4644:, and 4622:Nature 4466:Latvia 4450:Israel 4426:Canada 4394:Poland 4314:Norway 4282:Greece 4274:Sweden 4226:France 4179:Brunei 4176: 4136:Zambia 4015:Uganda 3993:Turkey 3892:Taiwan 3889: 3849:Sweden 3745: 3694:Serbia 3617:Rwanda 3606:Russia 3562:Poland 3507:Panama 3474:Norway 3458: 3297:Mexico 3220:Malawi 3193: 3098:Latvia 3071: 3053:Kuwait 3037: 3014: 2963:Jordan 2919:Israel 2798:Guyana 2776:Guinea 2754:Greece 2710:Gambia 2688:France 2523:Cyprus 2463: 2357:Canada 2280:Brazil 2236:Bhutan 2214:Belize 2082:Angola 1985: 1979: 1973: 1967: 1961: 1955: 1898:Travel 1749:or in 1604:Brazil 1552:Canada 1526:Israel 1500:Poland 1367:France 1191:Russia 847:Health 712:output 447:Portal 418:Reform 312:Tariff 142:policy 137:Budget 107:Fiscal 97:Social 82:Energy 7509:(PDF) 7492:(PDF) 7477:(PDF) 7460:(PDF) 7451:IRENA 7234:(PDF) 7227:(PDF) 7171:(PDF) 7164:(PDF) 7040:S2CID 6974:S2CID 6803:S2CID 6730:S2CID 6150:S2CID 6120:(PDF) 6074:(PDF) 6056:(PDF) 6045:(PDF) 5921:(PDF) 5914:(PDF) 5692:(PDF) 5589:S2CID 5486:(PDF) 4996:Notes 4600:below 4485:10.1 4482:Korea 4477:11.2 4474:Chile 4469:14.4 4461:15.7 4453:16.0 4445:17.0 4437:17.0 4429:17.2 4421:18.8 4413:19.0 4405:19.4 4397:19.4 4389:19.5 4381:19.6 4373:19.7 4365:20.7 4357:21.0 4349:21.5 4341:22.2 4333:22.3 4325:22.4 4317:23.9 4309:24.1 4301:25.0 4293:25.4 4290:Spain 4285:26.4 4277:26.7 4269:28.0 4261:28.8 4253:28.9 4250:Italy 4245:29.2 4237:30.6 4229:31.7 4125:Yemen 4065:41.6 3960:Tonga 3944:51.2 3871:Syria 3816:Sudan 3794:Spain 3650:Samoa 3584:Qatar 3429:Niger 3385:Nepal 3264:Malta 3196:Macau 3142:Libya 2985:Kenya 2952:Japan 2930:Italy 2864:India 2809:Haiti 2743:Ghana 2699:Gabon 2600:Egypt 2466:Congo 2412:China 2401:Chile 2313:Burma 2225:Benin 2002:2014 1867:above 1865:(see 1859:above 1857:(see 1755:goods 1634:18.3 1578:Spain 1448:Italy 1396:Japan 1220:India 1195:109.0 1166:296.0 1162:China 1137:916.0 1105:2,443 1086:% of 646:Pigou 514:taxes 102:Trade 7496:ISBN 7464:ISBN 7354:2012 7322:ISBN 7269:ISBN 7242:2022 7209:2022 7179:2022 7147:2022 7117:2022 7087:2022 7056:2022 7032:ISSN 6966:ISSN 6921:2022 6887:PMID 6869:ISSN 6795:ISSN 6764:2022 6699:2022 6664:ISSN 6617:2022 6583:PMID 6565:ISSN 6489:2021 6454:2017 6425:2021 6399:2019 6369:2011 6300:PMID 6282:ISSN 6228:PMID 6210:ISSN 6161:2021 6142:PMID 6098:ISSN 5976:PMID 5929:2012 5872:2020 5842:2020 5812:2018 5764:2018 5734:2021 5704:2024 5668:ISSN 5624:ISSN 5581:PMID 5544:link 5526:OCLC 5516:ISBN 5434:OCLC 5424:ISBN 5401:OCLC 5391:ISBN 5363:OCLC 5353:ISBN 5327:OCLC 5317:ISBN 5283:ISBN 5253:2012 5232:2012 5211:2021 5172:2012 5150:2020 5124:2021 5094:2024 5065:ISBN 5047:2020 4889:STEM 4679:and 4631:SDGs 4598:see 4544:and 4354:OECD 4164:N/A 4062:25.1 3949:Togo 3941:61.5 3877:N/A 3540:Peru 3485:Oman 3253:Mali 3159:N/A 3087:Laos 3025:N/A 2897:Iraq 2886:Iran 2666:Fiji 2512:Cuba 2390:Chad 2011:and 1676:and 1666:0.7 1660:16.6 1640:0.7 1637:8.2 1614:0.9 1608:22.9 1588:1.0 1582:23.7 1562:1.1 1556:27.2 1536:1.1 1530:27.5 1510:1.3 1504:31.6 1484:1.3 1478:32.3 1458:1.5 1452:35.5 1432:2.0 1426:47.9 1406:2.1 1400:50.2 1377:2.5 1371:61.3 1348:2.7 1345:37.0 1342:64.8 1319:2.7 1313:66.8 1290:3.1 1284:74.9 1261:3.1 1255:75.8 1230:3.4 1224:83.6 1201:4.5 1114:100 1075:Rank 1052:and 1035:and 542:and 149:Debt 7261:doi 7022:hdl 7014:doi 6956:doi 6877:PMC 6861:doi 6830:doi 6787:doi 6722:doi 6654:hdl 6644:doi 6573:PMC 6557:doi 6545:123 6516:doi 6290:PMC 6274:doi 6270:110 6218:PMC 6202:doi 6134:doi 6130:394 6088:doi 6084:127 5966:PMC 5956:doi 5860:WHO 5658:doi 5616:doi 5571:doi 4596:" ( 4524:. 4187:34 4161:N/A 4153:35 4142:24 4131:29 4120:31 4109:40 4098:25 4087:31 4076:33 4054:49 4043:24 4032:46 4021:21 4010:15 3999:35 3988:35 3977:35 3966:29 3955:24 3933:23 3922:27 3911:27 3900:23 3866:34 3855:51 3844:31 3833:27 3822:18 3811:21 3800:45 3789:32 3778:51 3767:51 3756:38 3733:17 3722:22 3711:36 3700:45 3689:29 3678:35 3667:49 3656:44 3645:30 3634:35 3623:27 3612:36 3601:37 3590:31 3579:49 3568:44 3557:16 3546:19 3535:19 3524:29 3513:27 3502:20 3491:38 3480:44 3469:31 3446:29 3435:20 3424:26 3413:48 3402:50 3391:19 3380:37 3369:34 3358:35 3347:44 3336:45 3325:39 3314:65 3303:27 3292:25 3281:28 3270:42 3259:25 3248:43 3237:29 3226:35 3215:16 3204:17 3181:42 3170:38 3156:N/A 3148:67 3137:31 3126:63 3115:30 3104:39 3093:21 3082:36 3059:39 3048:30 3022:N/A 3002:92 2991:29 2980:22 2969:33 2958:42 2947:32 2936:50 2925:45 2914:48 2903:45 2892:22 2881:19 2870:29 2859:47 2848:49 2837:19 2826:26 2815:34 2804:31 2793:21 2782:22 2771:15 2760:52 2749:24 2738:45 2727:32 2716:26 2705:25 2694:56 2683:55 2672:28 2661:18 2650:38 2639:34 2628:35 2617:22 2606:32 2595:44 2584:16 2573:36 2562:35 2551:58 2540:43 2529:46 2518:67 2507:43 2496:26 2485:18 2474:26 2451:29 2440:22 2429:29 2418:24 2407:23 2396:26 2385:16 2374:32 2363:42 2352:22 2341:20 2330:40 2319:19 2308:24 2297:34 2286:39 2275:32 2264:49 2253:35 2242:38 2231:22 2220:29 2209:53 2198:36 2187:41 2176:16 2165:31 2154:23 2143:34 2132:51 2121:35 2110:25 2099:41 2088:39 2077:40 2066:28 2055:23 2007:by 1879:or 1663:1.5 1619:19 1611:1.1 1585:1.5 1559:1.3 1533:5.3 1507:3.8 1481:1.9 1455:1.6 1429:2.8 1403:1.2 1374:2.1 1316:1.5 1287:2.3 1258:7.1 1227:2.4 1198:5.9 1172:12 1169:1.7 1143:37 1140:3.4 1110:2.3 1088:GDP 724:is 488:or 193:Tax 7544:: 7504:. 7472:. 7462:. 7303:^ 7267:. 7229:. 7199:. 7195:. 7166:. 7137:. 7133:. 7103:. 7073:. 7046:. 7038:. 7030:. 7020:. 7012:. 7000:. 6996:. 6972:. 6964:. 6954:. 6942:. 6938:. 6911:. 6907:. 6885:. 6875:. 6867:. 6857:19 6855:. 6851:. 6826:24 6824:. 6801:. 6793:. 6783:89 6781:. 6754:. 6750:. 6728:. 6718:46 6716:. 6689:. 6685:. 6662:. 6652:. 6640:62 6638:. 6634:. 6603:. 6581:. 6571:. 6563:. 6555:. 6543:. 6539:. 6512:13 6510:. 6506:. 6480:. 6433:^ 6415:. 6385:. 6359:. 6355:. 6342:^ 6298:. 6288:. 6280:. 6268:. 6264:. 6252:^ 6226:. 6216:. 6208:. 6198:68 6196:. 6190:. 6148:. 6140:. 6128:. 6122:. 6096:. 6082:. 6076:. 6047:. 6018:. 5974:. 5964:. 5950:. 5946:. 5858:. 5832:. 5828:. 5798:. 5754:. 5750:. 5720:. 5694:. 5680:^ 5666:. 5654:34 5652:. 5648:. 5636:^ 5622:. 5612:17 5610:. 5587:. 5579:. 5565:. 5561:. 5540:}} 5536:{{ 5524:. 5474:^ 5455:. 5432:. 5399:. 5375:^ 5361:. 5339:^ 5325:. 5297:^ 5202:. 5140:. 5114:. 5110:. 5085:. 5037:. 4683:. 4652:. 4184:24 4150:30 4139:19 4117:21 4106:13 4095:16 4084:20 4073:27 4051:36 4029:38 4018:17 4007:18 3996:25 3985:21 3974:17 3963:18 3952:17 3930:16 3919:15 3908:20 3874:10 3863:29 3852:45 3841:23 3830:19 3808:12 3797:32 3786:27 3775:37 3764:37 3753:29 3730:14 3719:12 3708:32 3697:35 3686:19 3664:17 3653:23 3642:22 3631:25 3620:13 3609:30 3598:28 3576:31 3565:32 3554:12 3543:17 3532:13 3521:26 3510:18 3477:43 3466:26 3432:14 3421:18 3410:32 3399:39 3388:13 3377:28 3366:20 3355:23 3344:24 3333:33 3322:31 3311:12 3300:11 3289:18 3278:18 3267:34 3256:14 3245:16 3234:15 3223:20 3212:11 3201:35 3178:37 3167:16 3134:20 3123:38 3112:17 3101:27 3090:14 3079:19 3045:26 2999:20 2988:20 2977:15 2966:14 2955:28 2944:23 2933:43 2922:33 2911:28 2878:12 2867:19 2856:36 2845:36 2834:14 2823:16 2812:13 2801:21 2779:16 2768:11 2757:31 2746:15 2735:37 2724:25 2713:13 2702:10 2691:44 2680:43 2669:23 2658:11 2647:33 2636:50 2614:15 2603:14 2592:18 2581:13 2570:24 2559:20 2548:48 2537:35 2526:27 2515:24 2504:33 2493:13 2482:22 2448:24 2437:12 2426:15 2415:19 2404:19 2371:20 2360:31 2349:11 2338:11 2327:14 2305:14 2294:26 2283:35 2272:28 2261:39 2250:22 2239:14 2228:16 2217:23 2206:44 2195:25 2184:27 2173:10 2151:16 2140:13 2129:42 2118:26 2107:17 2096:35 2074:10 2063:23 2017:. 1645:20 1593:18 1567:17 1541:16 1515:15 1489:14 1463:13 1437:12 1411:11 1382:10 894:, 890:, 867:, 863:, 859:, 855:, 838:, 834:, 532:. 516:, 512:, 7438:. 7430:. 7422:. 7414:. 7406:. 7398:. 7390:. 7382:. 7374:. 7356:. 7330:. 7277:. 7263:: 7244:. 7211:. 7181:. 7149:. 7119:. 7089:. 7058:. 7024:: 7016:: 7008:: 7002:2 6980:. 6958:: 6950:: 6944:7 6923:. 6893:. 6863:: 6836:. 6832:: 6809:. 6789:: 6766:. 6736:. 6724:: 6701:. 6670:. 6656:: 6646:: 6619:. 6589:. 6559:: 6551:: 6524:. 6518:: 6491:. 6456:. 6427:. 6401:. 6371:. 6306:. 6276:: 6234:. 6204:: 6163:. 6136:: 6104:. 6090:: 5982:. 5958:: 5952:5 5931:. 5874:. 5844:. 5814:. 5766:. 5736:. 5706:. 5674:. 5660:: 5630:. 5618:: 5595:. 5573:: 5567:2 5546:) 5532:. 5488:. 5440:. 5407:. 5369:. 5333:. 5291:. 5255:. 5234:. 5213:. 5174:. 5152:. 5126:. 5096:. 5071:. 5049:. 4531:) 4527:( 4128:5 4040:6 3897:9 3819:7 3675:4 3587:3 3499:9 3488:2 3443:5 3145:1 3056:1 2900:2 2889:9 2790:9 2625:2 2471:8 2393:5 2382:9 2316:4 2162:3 2085:6 2052:9 1943:) 1888:) 1869:) 1861:) 1840:. 1824:. 1812:. 1384:0 1356:9 1354:0 1327:8 1325:0 1298:7 1296:0 1269:6 1267:0 1238:5 1236:0 1209:4 1207:0 1180:3 1178:0 1151:2 1149:0 1122:1 1120:0 871:. 697:. 474:e 467:t 460:v 38:. 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.