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serfs, and they were selected by the landowners. The result was an infantry filled primarily with poorly qualified, poorly motivated and incompetent soldiers. The new reforms included universal conscription, introduced for all social classes starting in 1874. Other military reforms included extending the reserve forces and the military district system, which split the
Russian states into 15 military districts. Railway planning emphasized strategic lines connecting population centers to likely battlefields. Military education was dramatically improved for the officer corps. Corporal punishment in the military and branding of soldiers as punishment were banned. The first great task of the reconstituted army was defeating the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan wars of 1877. Whilst the war was won, serious failures were discovered at every level of the army from poorly trained companies, to outmoded tactics to dilatory maneuvers, to failures of overall strategy at the top command level.
467:(1862-1878), along with a regular national budget supervised by the finance minister. Reutern installed a uniform system of public accounting for government agencies. Tax collection was no longer handled by private farmers, but became a regular national bureaucratic issue. There was no income tax yet, in fact the poll tax was continued, but the much hated salt tax was abolished. He promoted private credit institutions and stabilised the rouble. Government revenues rose significantly, the chronic budget deficit was eliminated by 1867 and surpluses were achieved from 1873. On trade policy Reutern pragmatically supported reducing some tariffs and duties on manufacturing goods in 1863 and 1868. A balanced budget facilitated borrowing from Western Europe, using state guaranteed railway bonds. This made possible the rapid expansion of the railway system. The
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social, political, and legal roles of the service would be ended. The Tsar decided to abolish serfdom from above, setting up a new system whereby the state would be able to purchase farmland from the landowners and sell it to the freed serfs. The Tsar told Moscow nobles: “Better that the reform should come from above than wait until serfdom is abolished from below.” Historians have debated
Alexander's role. Soviet era historians downplayed him, as they believed social forces caused history not individuals. Non-Marxist critics say he did not go far enough, especially since he rejected any parliament or duma.
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University courses. Universities obtained more autonomy, but when small-scale student protests erupted, universities were returned to closer supervision. Private groups opened over 500 Sunday schools, without government funding or supervision, but the government distrusted innovations—such as teaching history—in place of rote language drills and closed them down. Although new funding was not made available, laws in 1864 reformed secondary schools along the lines typical in France and
Prussia. Elementary schools likewise were regulated to emphasize religious teaching by Orthodox priests.
452:
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Russia. This is the verdict of the reformers themselves and their opponents, people who lived at the time in Russia as well as beyond its borders, and many researchers. This theme remains crucial for historians. But in particular periods such as during the 1905 Revolution or
Gorbachev's perestroika, interest in the history of Alexander II's reforms has acquired a particular topicality and political colouring.
25:
430:. All owners of houses, tax-paying merchants and workmen were enrolled on lists in a descending order according to their assessed wealth. The total valuation is then divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of electors very unequal in number, each of which elects an equal number of delegates to the municipal duma. The executive is in the hands of an elective mayor and an
463:, and the military weakness caused by an ineffective railway system, made economic reforms a high priority. A state bank was founded in 1860, and municipal banks in 1862, as well as savings banks in 1869, all under national supervision. A systematic overhaul of national finances was achieved in 1862 by legislation that created a ministry of finance under Count
329:
1886. After the implementation of these reforms, plots of state peasants were reduced by 10% in the central provinces and 44% – in the northern. Payments were calculated for 49½ years, and in some cases had to be made before 1931, but were canceled on 1 January 1907 as part of the
Stolypin agrarian reform under the influence of the revolution in 1905.
384:. The jury trial included three professional judges and twelve jurors. A juror had to possess real estate of a certain value. Unlike in modern jury trials, jurors not only could decide whether the defendant was guilty or not guilty but also could decide that the defendant was guilty but not to be punished, as Alexander II believed that
224:
had never known the meaning of legality, to redesign the entire administration, to introduce freedom of the press in the context of untrammeled authority, to call new forces to life at every turn and set them on firm legal foundations, to put a repressed and humiliated society on its feet and to give it the chance to flex its muscles.
408:
his brother in charge of the Navy, and then playing his ministers against each other to save money. Consequently naval programs were poorly coordinated with other ministries. In any case most of the budget went to the Army and Russia was never able to catch up with even the second-tier
European naval powers.
136:, (1855-1881), especially the 1860s. By far the greatest and most unexpected was the abolition of serfdom, which affected 23 million of the Empire's population of 74 million. They belonged to the state, to monasteries and to 104,000 rich gentry landowners—it was the last group that was emancipated first.
379:
The judicial reforms started on 20 November 1864, when the tsar signed the decree which enforced four
Regulations (Establishment of Judicial Settlements, Regulations of Civil Proceedings, Regulations of Criminal Proceedings, and Regulations of Punishments Imposed by Justices of the Peace). One of the
271:
Besides liberating the serfs from tight control by the gentry, emancipation brought a supply of free labour to the cities—including both peasants and gentry. This stimulated industry by providing a working class and the middle class grew in number and influence. All the land and property turned over
540:
to the United States for $ 7.2 million (equivalent to roughly $ 200 million in current dollars), The
Russian administrators, soldiers, settlers, and some of the priests returned home. Others stayed to minister to their native parishioners, who remain members of the Russian Orthodox Church into the
508:
The diet or
Parliament of Finland had not met in 55 years, but in 1863 Alexander called it into session. It passed a language law that would make Finnish equal with Swedish in all public business. Mass protests erupted across Finland in 1898 when Tsar Nicholas II reversed the policy and made Russian
304:
While most of the landowning gentry were conservative, the strong liberal element was more articulate. They vigorously argued that serfdom was severely restricting the entrepreneurial opportunities of the gentry. They proposed that emancipation of the serfs, financed by the government, would provide
223:
called upon to execute one of the hardest tasks which can confront an autocratic ruler: to completely remodel the enormous state which had been entrusted to his care, to abolish an age-old order founded on slavery, to replace it with civic decency and freedom, to establish justice in a country which
488:
as chief minister in 1862. Wielopolski was conservative, pro-Russian, a proponent of regaining Poland's pre-1830 autonomy, and a champion of the emancipation of Jews. He adopted a series of liberal reforms in education, for Jews and peasants. He undertook educational reforms, increasing the number
309:
province. The plan was to use government loan so that freed serfs could purchase farms from the gentry. The gentry would then have the capital to begin entirely new enterprises not restricted by the low returns to farming in the cold
Russian climate. In late 1858 Alexander II set up a commission to
474:
The new favorable environment encouraged entrepreneurship. In 1860 there were 78 joint stock companies, with a capital of less than 8 million roubles each. Between 1861 and 1873, businessmen set up 357 joint stock companies with a capital of 1.1 billion roubles. They included 73 banks, 53 railways
407:
Naval reforms were also attempted, however inexperienced private Russian shipyards were used to build a modern steel fleet. The Russians tried to save money by inventing their own technology rather than purchasing the latest models from Western Europe. Alexander II also made the mistake of putting
328:
until they were emancipated in November 1866. The tsar promulgated a law "On the Land Device State Peasants", allowing the rural society to maintain land in their possession with the rights of "ownership". Redemption from the government of the property holdings was regulated by the law of 12 June
233:
In 1858 he removed most of the censorship restrictions on the media—newspapers, magazines, books and pamphlets, resulting in an explosion of new publications. Thus Alexander achieved a degree of "glasnost" or open discussion, as the new media were often filled with discussions of reforms that were
193:
was a national disgrace, and clearly demonstrated that despite its large size, the Russian army was no longer competitive to smaller industrial powers such as Britain and France. The demand for reform was widespread, but unorganized. There had been little consideration of how the complex economic,
499:
was installed as governor and he decided that the best response to the revolt was to make reforms regarding the peasants. Emancipation of the Polish peasantry from their serf-like status took place in 1863, on more generous terms than the Russian emancipation of 1861. However the constitutional's
442:
Before 1860 Russia had a scattershot educational program that featured a few good universities, but severe limitations in every other area. Planning began in 1858, and the main reforms came in 1863. They extended popular education, opened secondary schools to women and allowed some women to audit
588:
The abolition of serfdom in 1861, under Alexander II, and the reforms which followed (local government reforms, the judicial reform, the abolition of corporal punishment, the reform of the military, public education, censorship and others), were a ‘watershed’, ‘a turning point’ in the history of
574:
Had the liberal spirit of the 1860s continued to pervade the work of government, Russia might have become a Western-style society based upon individual property and liberty upheld by the rule of law. The revolution need not have occurred....There was at least, within the ruling elite, a growing
403:
as war minister, focused on rebuilding a very large, very poor army into one that could compete with modern western armies, as well as deal with ethnic groups on the fringes of the empire. In the old system conscription was compulsorily enforced only for the peasantry. It was for 25 years for
267:
that freed 23 million serfs was the single most important event in 19th-century Russian history, and the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. The decree ended the feudal obligations owed by serfs and allotted them land. The owners received Treasury bonds, which
593:
In Russia, the bulk of serious commentary on the emancipation of the serfs was highly favorable before 1917, With Alexander playing a central role. Soviet historians minimized Alexander and the other personalities , arguing that the crisis in feudalism forced the rulers to compromise. The key
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study emancipation and the liberal ideas proved attractive. However the government bureaucrats shut out the liberals from the actual planning, much to their dismay. A compromise was reached whereby the gentry was given extensive new roles in zemstvos created to operate local government.
562:
The first decade of the rule of Alexander II strongly promoted reforms in many areas. In sharp contrast, the remainder of his term after 1865 saw the growing strength of conservatives and reactionaries who reversed or limited many of the reforms. Reactionary elements grew strength from the
682:"The new volumes of the Encyclopædia Britannica: constituting, in combination with the existing volumes of the ninth edition, the tenth edition of that work, and also supplying a new, distinctive, and independent library of reference dealing with recent events and developments ..."
219:(1828-1904) was a political philosopher who believed that Russia needed a strong, authoritative government by Alexander to make possible all the important reforms that did take place. He praised Alexander for the range of his fundamental reforms, arguing that the tsar was:
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Leninist interpretation was that the concessions were merely a tactical response to a concerted attack on the status quo by rural masses and their urban allies. Western historians have generally agreed that fear of further upheaval played a minor role in the decision.
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Alexander firmly believed he had the God-given duty to rule as an autocrat, and that he alone understood the best interests of all of the people of Russia. Therefore he rejected any idea of a constitution that would limit his authority, and rejected any parliament or
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awareness of what was needed....The problem was, however, that the elite was increasingly divided over the desirability of this transformation, and as a result of these divisions it failed to develop a coherent strategy to deal with the challenges of modernization.
483:
Under Alexander II Polish nobles demanded greater autonomy. This demand was rejected by the Tsar's council. Instead there were new restrictions on internal mobility inside Poland, including requiring passports. In response to unrest the Tsar appointed a moderate
162:
also came into operation. Reorganisation of the judiciary occurred to include trial in open court, with judges appointed for life, a jury system and the creation of justices of the peace to deal with minor offences at local level. Legal historian Sir
528:, and became eligible for state employment. Large numbers of educated Jews moved as soon as possible to Moscow and other major cities. Jews were blamed for the assassination of Alexander II. The backlash was fierce and conditions grew much worse.
523:
Under Alexander's rules Jews could not hire Christian servants, could not own land, and were restricted in travel. However special taxes on Jews were eliminated and those who graduated from secondary school were permitted to live outside the
1604:
489:
of Polish-language schools and establishing in Warsaw the "Main School" (Szkola Glowna, today's University of Warsaw). He also enacted banking-system reforms and agricultural reform for peasants in the form of rents instead of serfdom.
139:
As soon as he became tsar Alexander set up numerous commissions that studied various proposals for reforms in practically every area. Experts debated in draft of the proposals, but Alexander made all the final decisions.
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The judicial reforms were among the most successful and consistent of all his reforms. A completely new court system and order of legal proceedings were established. The main results were the introduction of a unified
276:, the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Revolutionaries were not satisfied. They believed that the newly freed serfs were merely being sold into
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the gentry and the nobles with capital to invest in the sort of economic opportunities that were being demonstrated in Western Europe. These innovative schemes came especially from the liberal gentry in
364:, and a professional advocate that had never existed in Russia. However, there were also problems, as certain obsolete institutions were not covered by the reform. Also, the reform was hindered by
1601:
426:) for the rural districts (1864) and the large towns (1870), with elective assemblies possessing a restricted right of taxation, and a new rural and municipal police under the direction of the
147:
to carry out significant reforms in the Russian armed forces. Further important changes were made concerning industry and commerce, and the new freedom thus afforded produced a large number of
1747:
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amounted to liquid capital. The peasants who stayed on the land were obliged to make redemption payments to their obshchina (the village mir, or commune) over a 49-year period.
151:. Plans were formed for building a great network of railways, partly to develop the natural resources of the country, and partly to increase its power for defense and attack.
1737:(1989), pp 197–247. Includes 28 statements by the nobility, bureaucracy, Army, clergy, professionals, merchants, peasants, industrial workers, religious minorities and women.
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1530:
434:, which consists of several members elected by the duma. The gentry played the leading role in most localities, and indeed the new system was designed for them.
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in the 19th century was characterized by very conservative and reactionary policies issued by the autocratic tsars. The great exception came during the reign of
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independence of Poland was weakened and the Catholic Church lost its properties. In Warsaw, the official language of instruction was now to be Russian.
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and 163 factories. Foreign capital started arriving for the first time, although massive amounts had to wait for the alliance with France in the 1890s.
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While the emancipation of the serfs in 1861 was the most famous and dramatic reform, a host of new reforms affected diverse areas. The tsar appointed
77:
which freed the 23 million serfs from an inferior legal and social status, and helped them buy farmland. Many other reforms took place, including the:
205:. Minister of War Dmitry Milyutin (1861–81) was responsible for sweeping military reforms. He was also instrumental in creating the framework for the
1752:
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By 1865 reaction began, and some reforms were cut back. After the tsar's assassination in 1881, his successor Alexander III reversed many reforms.
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1478:
843:
345:
1767:
681:
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70:) by historians, were a series of major social, political, legal and governmental reforms in the Russian Empire carried out in the 1860s.
1294:
Zyzniewski, Stanley J. "The Russo-Polish Crucible of the 1860s: A Review of Some Recent Literature." The Polish Review (1966): 23-46.
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179:
1344:
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949:
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Stanley J. Zyzniewski, "The Futile Compromise Reconsidered: Wielopolski and Russian Policy in the Congress Kingdom,] 1861-1863."
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123:
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623:
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159:
84:
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Domar, Evsey. “Were Russian Serfs Overcharged for Their Land by the 1861 Emancipation? The History of One Historical Table.”
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1672:
McCaffray, Susan P. "Confronting Serfdom in the Age of Revolution: Projects for Serf Reform in the Time of Alexander I",
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1527:
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264:
74:
710:
An Introduction to Russian History (1976), edited by Robert Auty and Dimitri Obolensky, chapter by John Keep, p. 238
536:
The Alaska colony was losing money, and would be impossible to defend in wartime against Britain, so in 1867 Russia
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educational innovations including the expansion and reform of universities, elementary schools and secondary schools
1772:
1777:
495:. It was brutally crushed by the Russian army, despite frequent demands across Europe for leniency and reforms.
148:
1123:
John S. Bushnell, "Miliutin and the Balkan War: military reform vs. military performance," in Ben Eklof et al.,
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courts, and fundamental changes in criminal trials. The latter included the establishment of the principle of
18:"Great Reform" and "Great Reforms" redirect here. For British reform sometimes called the "Great Reform", see
1278:
W. Bruce Lincoln, "The Makings of a New Polish Policy: N. A. Milyutin And The Polish Question, 1861-1863."
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60:
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133:
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Richard Wortman, "Russian monarchy and the rule of law: New considerations of the court reform of 1864."
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A new judicial administration (1864), based on the French model, introduced security of tenure. A new
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811:
286:(the People's Will) made multiple attempts to assassinate Alexander II, and they succeeded in 1881.
1152:
Jacob W. Kipp,, "The Russian Navy and the Problem of Technological Transfer," in Ben Eklof et al.,
468:
464:
206:
197:
His top advisors included Count Michael von Reutern, Finance Minister, 1862-1878, and the brothers
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1643:
The emancipation of the serfs in Russia: Peace arbitrators and the development of civil society
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Quoted in David Saunders, ‘’Russia in the age of reaction and reform: 1801–1881’’ (1992) p. 213
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978:
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839:
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1334:
939:
833:
1692:
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1562:
1436:
N. G. O. Pereira, "Alexander II and the Decision to Emancipate the Russian Serfs, 1855-61."
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492:
198:
51:
29:
451:
189:
When Alexander II ascended the throne in 1855, the largely peasant conscripted army in the
1608:
1534:
835:
The politics of autocracy: Letters of Alexander II to Prince A. I. Bariatinskii. 1857–1864
732:
International Law: A Series of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge, 1887
618:
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537:
400:
282:
247:
216:
202:
144:
19:
974:
1496:
The Great Reforms: Autocracy, Bureaucracy, and the Politics of Change in Imperial Russia
1414:
Orlando Figes, ‘’A People's Tragedy: A history of the Russian Revolution’’ (1996) p. 40.
871:
W. Bruce Lincoln, "The Problem of Glasnost'in Mid-Nineteenth Century Russian Politics."
656:
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1620:
Zakharova, Larisa. "The reign of Alexander II: a watershed?" in Dominic Lieven, ed.,
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567:
357:
1687:
1541:
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1423:
Larisa Zakharova, "The reign of Alexander II: a watershed?" in Dominic Lieven, ed.,
1702:
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427:
277:
1556:
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967:
422:
Alexander's bureaucracy instituted an elaborate scheme of local self-government (
1735:
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460:
190:
164:
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that would take over some of the responsibilities that he alone could perform.
1615:
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361:
325:
319:
155:
1049:
Samuel Kucherov, "The Jury as Part of the Russian Judicial Reform of 1864."
210:
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368:, introduced on a widespread scale during the reigns of his successors –
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economic modernization impacting banking, railways, mining, manufacturing
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1209:
1141:
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92:
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1225:
1220:
Valentine Tschebotarioff Bill, "The Early Days of Russian Railroads."
1596:
Watts, Carl Peter. "Alexander II's Reforms: Causes and Consequences"
167:
credited Alexander II with the first great attempt since the time of
1622:
The Cambridge History of Russia Volume 2: Imperial Russia, 1689-1917
1425:
The Cambridge History of Russia Volume 2: Imperial Russia, 1689-1917
1062:
W. Bruce Lincoln, "General Dmitrii Milyutin and the Russian Army,"
254:
listening to the proclamation of the Emancipation Manifesto in 1861
1469:
Eklof, Ben; John Bushnell; L. Larisa Georgievna Zakharova (1994).
1023:
Ben Eklof, , John Bushnell, and Larisa Georgievna Zakharova, eds.
450:
241:
24:
1667:
The End of Serfdom: Nobility and Bureaucracy in Russia, 1855-1861
1652:(1970), 119pp. Short excerpts from primary and secondary sources.
667:
Ben Eklof, John Bushnell, and Larisa Georgievna Zakharova, eds.
551:
306:
563:
increasingly violent actions of the revolutionary underground.
1657:
The Russian Landed Gentry and the Peasant Emancipation of 1861
1010:
Roger Bartlett, "Serfdom and state power in imperial Russia."
999:
The Russian Landed Gentry and the Peasant Emancipation of 1861
380:
most important results of the reform was wide introduction of
1489:
The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government
1167:
The Zemstvo in Russia: An Experiment in Local Self-Government
684:
A. & C. Black. 29 December 2017 – via Google Books.
392:
is wrong. The sentence was rendered by professional judges.
1204:
Arthur Raffalovich, "Russian Financial Policy (1862-1914)"
160:
a greatly simplified system of civil and criminal procedure
1136:
E. Willis Brooks, "Reform in the Russian Army, 1856-1861"
280:
by the bourgeoisie. Revolutionaries calling themselves
1572:
Rieber, Alfred J. "Alexander II: A Revisionist View."
1550:, Newtonville, Mass: Oriental Research Partners, 1983.
455:
Count Michael von Reutern, Finance Minister, 1862-1878
1584:
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1038:
Kritika: Explorations in Russian and Eurasian History
65:
1548:
Tsar Emancipator: Alexander II of Russia, 1818–1881
1503:
Nikolai Miliutin, an enlightened Russian bureaucrat
914:
Assassin: Theory and Practice of Political Violence
782:
Nikolai Miliutin, an enlightened Russian Bureaucrat
1403:Russia in the Age of Reaction and Reform 1801-1881
1361:Czars: Russia's Rulers for Over One Thousand Years
1180:Russia in the Age of Reaction and Reform 1801-1881
966:
558:Ending the reform era and a return to conservatism
1372:James R. Gibson, "Why the Russians Sold Alaska."
969:Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States
324:The national government also owned serfs, called
1333:Sara E. Karesh and Mitchell M. Hurvitz (2005).
584:According to Russian scholar Larisa Zakharova:
1753:The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis
735:(1 ed.). London: John Murray. p. 128
272:to the peasants was owned collectively by the
1684:The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762-1907
1510:Dmitrii Miliutin and the Reform Era in Russia
1487:Emmons, Terence, and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds.
1112:Dmitrii Miliutin and the Reform Era in Russia
899:The Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762-1907
795:Dmitrii Miliutin and the Reform Era in Russia
8:
1524:Alexander II and the Modernization of Russia
719:Wallace, "Alexander II" (1910) pp. 559–61.
1456:Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)
1165:Terence Emmons and Wayne S. Vucinich, eds.
209:that led to the deaths of large numbers of
1636:Research in Economic History Supplement 5b
459:The extreme difficulties of financing the
171:to codify and humanise the usages of war.
1748:Serfdom: The Life of East Europe's Masses
471:ran up deficits and he resigned in 1878.
95:and other innovations in local government
1721:The Peasant in Nineteenth-Century Russia
1051:American Slavic and East European Review
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493:A major revolt broke out in January 1863
178:
810:(Rutgers UP, 2013), pp 70-71, 131-34.
634:
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1517:A history of Russia: volume I to 1917
757:The Enduring Vision, Volume I: To 1877
107:emancipation of the peasants in Poland
917:. Taylor & Francis. p. 118.
101:reform of the Russian Orthodox Church
81:relaxation of censorship of the media
7:
1088:Jonathon Bromley, "Russia 1848–1917"
973:. Rowman & Littlefield. p.
604:Government reform of Peter the Great
614:Reform movement § Russia 1860s
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1359:James P. Duffy, Vincent L. Ricci,
1154:Russia's rate reformers, 1855-1881
1125:Russia's rate reformers, 1855-1881
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73:By far the most important was the
14:
1714:Rural Russia under the Old Regime
1650:Emancipation of the Russian serfs
1567:Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar
1471:Russia's Great Reforms, 1855–1881
1099:Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar
1025:Russia's great reforms, 1855-1881
669:Russia's great reforms, 1855-1881
697:, "Alexander II (1818–1881)".
609:Government reform of Alexander I
354:equality of the parties involved
624:Judicial reform of Alexander II
348:instead of a cumbersome set of
339:Judicial reform of Alexander II
201:(1818-1872). and Field Marshal
85:Judicial reform of Alexander II
832:Alfred J. Rieber, ed. (2019).
259:Emancipation of the serfs 1861
1:
1593:(Oxford UP, 1967) pp 332–429.
1027:(Indiana UP, 1994) pp 214-46.
944:. Routledge. pp. 54–55.
519:History of the Jews in Russia
356:, the introduction of public
1591:The Russian Empire 1801-1917
1473:. Indiana University Press.
1390:The Russian Empire 1801–1917
1339:. Infobase. pp. 10–11.
1321:A Concise History of Finland
1238:The Russian Empire 1801-1917
1193:The Russian Empire 1801-1917
965:M. Wesley Shoemaker (2012).
860:The Russian Empire 1801-1917
699:The Encyclopaedia Britannica
658:(Northern Illinois UP, 1990.
110:improved the status of Jews.
1768:1860s in the Russian Empire
1554:Polunow, Alexander (2005).
300:Emancipation reform of 1861
265:emancipation reform of 1861
149:limited liability companies
124:History of Russia (1855–92)
75:Emancipation reform of 1861
66:
1799:
1558:. M E Sharpe Incorporated.
1453:
1264:American Historical Review
1208:(1916) 26#104 pp. 528-532
1012:European History Quarterly
838:. De Gruyter. p. 12.
754:Paul S. Boyer etc (2010).
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415:
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1613:Wcislo, Francis William.
1574:Journal of Modern History
1405:(1992) pp xi-xii, 263-72.
1182:(1992) pp 250-52, 257-58.
886:The politics of autocracy
580:Memory and historiography
545:Rejection of a parliament
175:Role of Tsar Alexander II
55:
1694:Canadian Slavonic Papers
1463:The Emperor Alexander II
1438:Canadian Slavonic Papers
760:. Cengage. p. 488.
695:Donald Mackenzie Wallace
428:Minister of the Interior
366:extrajudicial punishment
1733:Freeze, Gregory L. ed.
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1336:Encyclopedia of Judaism
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1140:43#1 (1984), pp. 63-82
911:J. Bowyer Bell (2017).
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509:the official language.
229:Censorship and glasnost
1783:Alexander II of Russia
1706:27.2 (1968): 199-214.
1266:70.2 (1965): 395-412.
938:Joseph Stalin (2017).
486:Aleksander Wielopolski
456:
255:
186:
43:Alexander II of Russia
33:
1719:Vucinich, Wayne, ed.
1696:22.1 (1980): 99-115.
1676:(2005) 64#1 pp 1–21
1648:Emmons, Terence, ed.
1629:Emancipation of serfs
1508:Miller, Forrest A.
1491:(Cambridge UP, 1982).
1440:22.1 (1980): 99-115.
1376:3.3 (1979): 179-188.
1169:(Cambridge UP, 1982).
1066:(1976) 26#1 pp 40-47.
875:11.2 (1981): 171-188.
729:Maine, Henry (1888).
517:Further information:
454:
416:Further information:
245:
182:
122:Further information:
28:
1589:Seton-Watson, Hugh.
1576:43.1 (1971): 42-58.
1539:Orlovsky, Daniel T.
1224:15.1 (1956): 14-28.
1040:6.1 (2005): 145-170.
941:Leninism: Volume One
793:Forrest A. Miller,
701:(1910). 1:pp. 559–61
641:Wayne Vucinich, ed.
350:estates of the realm
30:His Imperial Majesty
1543:(Harvard UP, 1981).
1519:( 1997), pp 413–35.
1501:Lincoln, W. Bruce.
1494:Lincoln, W. Bruce.
1240:(1967) pp 408-409.
1110:Forrest A. Miller,
1014:33.1 (2003): 29-64.
469:Russian-Turkish war
465:Michael von Reutern
246:A 1907 painting by
213:from 1861 to 1865.
211:Circassian refugees
207:Circassian genocide
46:, often called the
1712:Robinson, Geroid.
1645:(Routledge, 2008).
1617:(Princeton, 2014).
1607:2022-04-18 at the
1533:2017-08-13 at the
1461:Almendingen, E.M.
1323:(2006) pp 105-49.
1306:Jonathan Bromley,
1249:Jonathan Bromley,
1222:The Russian Review
1156:(1994) pp 115-138.
1127:(1994) pp 139-158.
1097:Edvard Radzinsky,
1075:W. Bruce Lincoln,
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780:W. Bruce Lincoln,
671:(Indiana UP, 1994.
654:W. Bruce Lincoln,
526:Pale of Settlement
457:
256:
187:
38:government reforms
34:
1773:1860s in politics
1655:Emmons, Terence.
1641:Easley, Roxanne.
1582:Saunders, David.
1563:Radzinsky, Edvard
1480:978-0-253-20861-3
1195:(1967) pp 357-61.
1077:The Great Reforms
997:Terrence Emmons,
845:978-3-11-158150-7
806:Walter Richmond,
296:Serfdom in Russia
234:urgently needed.
64:
1790:
1778:Reform in Russia
1638:(1989): 429-439.
1559:
1546:Pereira, N.G.O.,
1515:Moss, Walter G.
1484:
1444:
1434:
1428:
1421:
1415:
1412:
1406:
1399:
1393:
1386:
1380:
1374:Wilson Quarterly
1370:
1364:
1357:
1351:
1350:
1330:
1324:
1317:
1311:
1308:Russia 1848–1917
1304:
1298:
1292:
1286:
1276:
1270:
1260:
1254:
1253:(2002) pp 41-43.
1251:Russia 1848–1917
1247:
1241:
1234:
1228:
1218:
1212:
1206:Economic Journal
1202:
1196:
1189:
1183:
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989:
988:
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956:
955:
935:
929:
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908:
902:
901:(2001) pp 70-83.
895:
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849:
829:
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659:
652:
646:
639:
497:Nikolay Milyutin
412:Local government
199:Nikolay Milyutin
69:
59:
57:
40:imposed by Tsar
1798:
1797:
1793:
1792:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1787:
1758:
1757:
1744:
1730:
1728:Primary sources
1665:Field, Daniel.
1631:
1609:Wayback Machine
1553:
1535:Wayback Machine
1481:
1468:
1458:
1452:
1450:Further reading
1447:
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1282:(1970): 54-66.
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619:Stolypin reform
600:
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481:
449:
440:
420:
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401:Dmitry Milyutin
398:
346:judicial system
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294:Main articles:
292:
283:Narodnaya Volya
261:
248:Boris Kustodiev
240:
231:
217:Boris Chicherin
203:Dmitry Milyutin
177:
145:Dmitry Milyutin
126:
120:
67:Velikie reformy
56:Великие реформы
23:
20:Reform Act 1832
12:
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5:
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1786:
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1743:
1742:External links
1740:
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1704:Russian Review
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1319:David Kirby,
1316:
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1280:Polish Review
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1138:Slavic Review
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1101:, pp. 150–51.
1100:
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1064:History Today
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49:
48:Great Reforms
45:
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39:
32:Alexander II
31:
27:
21:
16:
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1119:
1111:
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1098:
1093:
1084:
1079:pp 143-160.
1076:
1071:
1063:
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1032:
1024:
1019:
1011:
1006:
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993:
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897:David Moon,
893:
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854:
834:
827:
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749:
739:29 September
737:. Retrieved
731:
724:
715:
706:
698:
690:
676:
668:
663:
655:
650:
645:(1968) p 41.
642:
637:
592:
583:
570:has argued:
565:
561:
548:
535:
522:
507:
491:
482:
473:
458:
441:
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342:
323:
303:
281:
278:wage slavery
273:
270:
262:
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215:
196:
188:
184:Alexander II
153:
142:
138:
134:Alexander II
127:
113:
72:
47:
41:
37:
35:
15:
884:Rieber ed.
538:sold Alaska
461:Crimean War
382:jury trials
374:Nicholas II
326:state serfs
314:State serfs
191:Crimean War
165:Henry Maine
1762:Categories
1454:See also:
1401:Saunders,
1178:Saunders,
630:References
566:Historian
362:jury trial
320:State serf
250:depicting
156:penal code
118:Background
1569:. (2005).
438:Education
333:Judiciary
61:romanized
1686:(2001).
1605:Archived
1531:Archived
1392:, p 333.
1363:, p. 324
598:See also
396:Military
390:morality
388:without
358:hearings
1659:(1968)
1586:(1992).
1526:(1958)
1001:(1968).
784:(1977).
504:Finland
447:Economy
424:zemstvo
418:zemstvo
386:justice
238:Serfdom
169:Grotius
93:zemstva
63::
52:Russian
1723:(1968)
1708:online
1698:online
1678:online
1669:(1976)
1661:review
1602:Online
1578:Online
1528:online
1512:(1968)
1505:(1977)
1498:(1990)
1477:
1465:(1962)
1442:online
1378:Online
1343:
1296:Online
1284:online
1268:online
1226:online
1210:Online
1142:Online
1114:(1968)
981:
948:
921:
862:p 358.
842:
812:online
797:(1968)
764:
532:Alaska
479:Poland
432:uprava
360:, the
1688:links
888:p 15.
1475:ISBN
1341:ISBN
979:ISBN
946:ISBN
919:ISBN
840:ISBN
762:ISBN
741:2015
552:Duma
513:Jews
372:and
307:Tver
298:and
263:The
158:and
128:The
36:The
274:mir
1764::
1565:,
977:.
975:27
376:.
58:,
54::
1483:.
1349:.
987:.
954:.
927:.
848:.
770:.
743:.
50:(
22:.
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