2172:"We think the evidence is clear that when any one of these suppliers was approached, its attitude was that it would be interested in helping finance City Lines, provided it should receive a contract for the exclusive use of its products in all of the operating companies of the City Lines, so far as buses and tires were concerned, and, as to the oil companies, in the territory served by the respective petroleum companies. It may be of little importance, but it seems to be the fact, at least we think the jury was justified in inferring it to be the fact, that the proposal for financing came from City Lines but that proposal of exclusive contracts came from the suppliers. At any rate, it is clear that eventually each supplier entered into a written contract of long duration whereby City Lines, in consideration of suppliers' help in financing City Lines, agreed that all of their operating subsidiaries should use only the suppliers' products."
434:
3128:. "Snell’s report can also be misleading (apparently intentionally so). Snell says: 'In 1940, GM, Standard Oil and Firestone assumed an active control in Pacific (City Lines)... That year, PCL began to acquire and scrap portions of the $ 100 million Pacific Electric System (of Roger Rabbit fame).' This statement implied that PCL was getting control of Pacific Electric, when, in reality, all they did was acquire the local streetcar systems of Pacific Electric in Glendale and Pasadena and then convert them to buses. Many superficial readers jump on this statement as proof that GM moved in the Red Cars of the Pacific Electric. The ugly little fact is that PCL never acquired Pacific Electric (it was owned by Southern Pacific Railroad until 1953)."
2450:"Mayor Alioto, himself a nationally prominent antitrust attorney, congratulated Snell on the "excellence" of his "very fine monograph." Alioto testified that, "General Motors and the automobile industry generally exhibit a kind of monopoly evil" and that GM "has carried on a deliberate concerted action with the oil companies and tire companies...for the purpose of destroying a vital form of cotric rapid transit. ... Mayor Bradley also testified, in absentia, saying that General Motors, through its American City Lines and Pacific City Lines affiliates, "scrapped" the Pacific Electric and Los Angeles streetcar systems to "motorize" Los Angeles. After GM was through, the 'electric train system was totally destroyed.'"
300:
628:(which operated into New York State), published a 24-page "expose" on the ownership of National City Lines addressed to "The Mayors; The City Manager; The City Transit Engineer; The members of The Committee on Mass-Transportation and The Tax-Payers and The Riding Citizens of Your Community". It began, "This is an urgent warning to each and every one of you that there is a careful, deliberately planned campaign to swindle you out of your most important and valuable public utilities–your Electric Railway System". His activism may have led Federal authorities to prosecute GM and the other companies.
796:, a professor of economics at UCLA and noted transit scholar rejected Snell's view, stating, "I would argue that these interpretations are not correct, and, further, that they couldn't possibly be correct, because major conversions in society of this character—from rail to free wheel urban transportation, and from steam to diesel railroad propulsion—are the sort of conversions which could come about only as a result of public preferences, technological change, the relative abundance of natural resources, and other impersonal phenomena or influence, rather than the machinations of a monopolist."
558:(PCL), formed as a subsidiary of NCL in 1938, was to purchase streetcar systems in the western United States. PCL merged with NCL in 1948. American City Lines (ACL), which had been organized to acquire local transportation systems in the larger metropolitan areas in various parts of the country in 1943, was merged with NCL in 1946. The federal government investigated some aspects of NCL's financial arrangements in 1941 (which calls into question the conspiracy myths' centrality of Quinby's 1946 letter). By 1947, NCL owned or controlled 46 systems in 45 cities in 16 states.
3049:, owner of the New York State Railways, 600 miles of street railways and interurban lines in upstate New York; and NH, owner of 1,500 miles of trolley lines in New York, Connecticut, Rhode Island and Massachusetts. In each case, by threatening to divert lucrative automobile freight to rival carriers, they persuaded the railroad (according to GM's own files) to convert its electric street cars to motor buses – slow, cramped, foul-smelling vehicles whose inferior performance invariable led riders to purchase automobiles."
1842:
of
Oakland businessmen, headed by A. J. Lundberg, president, and William P. St. Sure, vice-president, it was announced tonight. St. Sure said control of the transit firm was acquired "to prevent its acquisition by outside interests." National City Lines, a Chicago corporation, had been reported interested in buying Railway Equipment & Realty for the last year. The Oakland group purchased a majority of the stock on the San Francisco stock exchange today. A block of 26,500 shares sold at $ 5 a share.
530:(NCL), which had been started in 1920 as a minor bus operation by E. Roy Fitzgerald and his brother, was reorganized "for the purpose of taking over the controlling interest in certain operating companies engaged in city bus transportation and overland bus transportation" with loans from the suppliers and manufacturers. In 1939, Roy Fitzgerald, president of NCL, approached Yellow Coach Manufacturing, requesting additional financing for expansion. In the 1940s, NCL raised funds for expansion from
42:
3890:
690: (equivalent to $ 59,000 in 2023) and GM treasurer H.C. Grossman was fined $ 1. The trial judge said "I am very frank to admit to counsel that after a very exhaustive review of the entire transcript in this case, and of the exhibits that were offered and received in evidence, that I might not have come to the same conclusion as the jury came to were I trying this case without a jury," explicitly noting that he might not himself have convicted in a
1080:
765:, prepared a controversial and disputed paper titled "American ground transport: a proposal for restructuring the automobile, truck, bus, and rail industries." The paper, which was funded by the Stern Fund, was later described as the centerpiece of the hearings. In it, Snell said that General Motors was "a sovereign economic state" and said that the company played a major role in the displacement of rail and bus transportation by buses and trucks.
1108:
309:
291:
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both types of businesses were forced to sell off one. Declining streetcar business was often somewhat less valuable than the growing consumer electric business, resulting in many streetcar systems being put up for sale. The independent lines, no longer associated with an electric utility holding company, had to purchase electricity at full price from their former parents, further shaving their already thin margins. The
2100:"Quinby’s charges would finally bestir the government to begin an investigation into National City Lines and its owners and subsidiaries and suddenly the opposition changed their tactics (in a clear admission of guilt)..." Thanks to Quinby’s warning, the Feds eventually took GM to trial and convicted them for controlling these companies to monopolize sales of its products, a violation of the Sherman Antitrust Act."
397:
4800:
2196:, p. 103 "The court imposed a sanction of $ 5,000 on GM. In addition, the jury convicted H.C. Grossman, who was then treasurer of GM. Grossman had played a key role in the motorization campaigns and had served as a director of Pacific City Lines when that company undertook the dismantlement of the $ 100 million Pacific Electric system. The court fined Grossman the magnanimous sum of $ 1"
4857:
4810:
1094:
2184:, para 33, "We have considered carefully all the evidence offered and excluded. We think that the court's rulings were fair, and that, having permitted great latitude in admitting testimony as to intent, purpose and reasons for the making of the contracts, the court, in its discretion, was entirely justified in excluding the additional testimony offered."
2648:"The issue is whether or not the buses that replaced the electric streetcars were economically superior. Without GM's interference would the United States today have a viable streetcar system? This article makes the case that under a less onerous regulatory environment, buses would have replaced streetcars even earlier than they actually did."
2258:. "By 1963 Haugh said he'd be out of business within two years if things didn't improve, and suggested a public takeover of the transit system. The City Council of San Diego presented a ballot proposition that provided for city ownership of San Diego Transit. Upon voter approval in 1966, the city paid Haugh $ 2 million for the bus company."
2142:, para 1, "On April 9, 1947, nine corporations and seven individuals, constituting officers and directors of certain of the corporate defendants, were indicted on two counts, the second of which charged them with conspiring to monopolize certain portions of interstate commerce, in violation of Section 2 of the Sherman Act, 15 U.S.C.A. § 2."
5319:
430:(which had been bankrupted and reorganized at least twice). In 1926, General Motors acquired a controlling share of the Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company and appointed Hertz as a main board director. Hertz's bus lines, however, were not in direct competition with any streetcars, and his core business was the higher-priced "motor coach".
2997:
Although the railway owned extensive private rights-of-way, usually between urban areas, much of the
Pacific Electric trackage in urban areas such as downtown Los Angeles west of the Los Angeles River was in streets shared with automobiles and trucks. Virtually all street crossings were at-grade, and
1841:
Control of Rail System: Acquired (By United Press) San
Francisco, Jan. 8. Control of the Railway Equipment & Realty Co., formerly the Key System, which operates interurban train service between San Francisco, Oakland and Alameda and local service in the latter cities, has been acquired by a group
1209:
Some put the number as high as 100, but reliable sources suggest that
National had already acquired 20 city systems and two interurbans by the end of 1937, and these should be subtracted from the 46 systems mentioned in the case, and adjusted to reflect the splitting of the Elgin-Aurora line into two
929:
prohibited regulated electric utilities from operating unregulated businesses, which included most streetcar lines. The act also placed restrictions on services operating across state lines. Many holding companies operated both streetcars and electric utilities across several states; those that owned
768:
This paper was distributed in Senate binding together with an accompanying statement in
February 1974, implying that the contents were the considered views of the Senate. The chair of the committee later apologized for this error. Adding to the confusion, Snell had already joined the Senate Judiciary
734:
with a remit to "conserve and enhance values in existing urban areas" noting that "our national welfare therefore requires the provision of good urban transportation, with the properly balanced use of private vehicles and modern mass transport to help shape as well as serve urban growth". Funding for
906:
Other factors have been cited as reasons for the general decline of streetcars and public transport in the United States. Robert Post notes that the ultimate reach of GM's alleged conspiracy extended to only about 10% of
American transit systems. Guy Span said that actions and inaction by government
365:
Streetcars paid ordinary business and property taxes, but also generally paid franchise fees, maintained at least the shared right-of-way, and provided street sweeping and snow clearance. They were also required to maintain minimal service levels. Many franchise fees were fixed or based on gross (v.
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He concludes that the downtown street area is insufficient for present traffic, street area is inefficiently used, outlets for traffic are insufficient, and that increasing efficiency is practically impossible due to the railway systems in operation at the time. He goes on to discuss the 2nd Street
2918:
Massive federal highway spending opening up rural land and kept residential land prices relatively low... The federal highway construction program, especially in the 1950s and 1960s, not only connected cities, but it also allowed commuters to travel the interstate highways into the cities from the
2826:
The annual federal highway allotment to the states, which stood for a number of years prior to 1931, at $ 75,000,000, was increased to $ 125,000,000 for the fiscal years 1931, 1932, and 1933. These sums were further augmented by emergency appropriations totaling $ 200,000,000, the large additional
788:
also testified, saying that GM, through its subsidiaries (namely PCL), "scrapped the
Pacific Electric and Los Angeles streetcar systems leaving the electric train system totally destroyed". Neither mayor, nor Snell himself, pointed out that the two cities were major parties to a lawsuit against GM
603:
In 1953, the remainder of
Pacific Electric's network was sold to Metropolitan City Lines, a subsidiary of PCL. Subsequently, the remaining assets of the original Pacific Electric system and the original Los Angeles Railway system were sold by Metropolitan City Lines and Los Angeles Transit Lines,
2975:
Traffic congestion, in the City of Los
Angeles, has increased rapidly in the past five years. Many complaints have been made by both the people and the public utilities which are directly affect by traffic congestion. Chief Engineer H.Z.Osborne, of the Los Angeles board of Public Utilities, in a
1016:
More recently it has been suggested that the provision of free parking facilities at destinations and in the center of cities loads all users with the cost of facilities enjoyed only by motorists, creating additional traffic congestion and significantly affects the viability of other transport
445:
compounded this. Yellow Coach tried to persuade transit companies to replace streetcars with buses, but could not persuade the power companies that owned the streetcar operations to motorize. GM decided to form a new subsidiary—United Cities Motor
Transport (UCMT)—to finance the conversion of
2803:
The Dual Contracts doubled the size of the current system, pushing Manhattan's population northward and fostering residential growth in Brooklyn, the Bronx, and Queens. The new lines connected the beaches of Coney Island with the theaters of Times Square, and the citizens of Queens with the
896:
There is no question that a GM-controlled entity called National City Lines did buy a number of municipal trolley car systems. And it's beyond doubt that, before too many years went by, those street car operations were closed down. It's also true that GM was convicted in a post-war trial of
1726:
Soon, Kane uses the paper to attack trusts, Thatcher and others among America's financial elite. Headlines of the Inquirer blare out the exposé in a montage of early Inquirer newspaper headlines: "TRACTION TRUST EXPOSED," "TRACTION TRUST BLEEDS PUBLIC WHITE," and "TRACTION TRUST SMASHED BY
3025:
Minimum parking requirements subsidize driving by shifting the costs of car use onto development and the non-driving public.. There is a growing realization that the dysfunction caused by poorly conceived parking policies is a major impediment to creating an effective and balanced urban
2590:"Clearly, GM waged a war on electric traction. It was indeed an all out assault, but by no means the single reason for the failure of rapid transit. Also, it is just as clear that actions and inactions by government contributed significantly to the elimination of electric traction."
1744:
The five Fitzgerald brothers, who in 24 years ran a secondhand bus into a transportation system extending from Michigan to Texas... The five brothers started on the well known shoestring and ran a second hand bus into a monster transportation system which spreads from Michigan to
2998:
increasing automobile traffic led to decreasing Red Car speeds on much of its trackage. At its nadir, the busy Santa Monica Boulevard line, which connected Los Angeles to Hollywood and on to Beverly Hills and Santa Monica, had an average speed of 13 miles per hour (20.9 km/h)
2575:"One of the most recent villains is Bradford C. Snell, a researcher whose delusions of paranoia seem nearly limitless (at least in print) ... Snell’s 1974 report goes on to craft a plausible case for a vast conspiracy to destroy clean, economic, and user-friendly streetcars"
874:
Recent journalistic analysis question the idea that GM had a significant impact on the decline of streetcars, suggesting rather that they were setting themselves up to take advantage of the decline as it occurred. Guy Span suggested that Snell and others fell into simplistic
887:
Clearly, GM waged a war on electric traction. It was indeed an all out assault, but by no means the single reason for the failure of rapid transit. Also, it is just as clear that actions and inactions by government contributed significantly to the elimination of electric
2534:
National mass transportation assistance act of 1977: hearing before the Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs of the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, Ninety-fifth Congress, first session, on S. 208 ... February 23, 24, and 24,
983:
which approved the expenditure of $ 25 billion of public money for the creation of a new 41,000 miles (66,000 km) interstate road network. Streetcar operators were occasionally required to pay for the reinstatement of their lines following the construction of the
3045:"Members of GM's special unit went to, among others, the Southern Pacific, owner of Los Angeles' Pacific Electric, the world's largest interurban, with 1,500 miles of track, reaching 75 miles from San Bernardino, north to San Fernando, and south to Santa Ana; the
2919:
nearby suburbs... Race also played a significant role in suburban expansion. In selected inner-city neighborhoods Blacks moved into the housing market. The resultant White flight to the suburbs was reinforced by urban renewal and integration of the school system.
799:
GM published a rebuttal the same year titled "The Truth About American Ground Transport". The Senate subcommittee printed GM's work in tandem with Snell's as an appendix to the hearings transcript. GM explicitly did not address the specific allegations that were
921:
The streetcars' contracts in many cities required them to keep the pavement on the roads surrounding the tracks in good shape. Such conditions, previously agreed to in exchange for the explicit right to operate as a monopoly in that city, became an expensive
907:
was one of many contributing factors in the elimination of electric traction. Cliff Slater suggested that the regulatory framework in the US actually protected the electric streetcars for longer than would have been the case if there was less regulation.
897:
conspiring to monopolize the market for transportation equipment and supplies sold to local bus companies. What's not true is that the explanation for these events is a nefarious plot to trade private corporate profits for viable public transportation.
608:. Under the new public authority, the final remaining streetcars in Los Angeles were phased out, with the final Red Car (Los Angeles to Long Beach Line) making its last service on April 9, 1961 and the last Yellow Car (V Line) on March 31, 1963.
2112:. "No one sought an answer to Quinby’s most penetrating question (referring to the 1935 Public Utility Holding Company Act), "Who Is Behind This Campaign To Separate The Obviously Economical Combination Of Electric Railway And Its Power Plant?""
210:
The story as an urban legend has been written about by Martha Bianco, Scott Bottles, Sy Adler, Jonathan Richmond, Cliff Slater, and Robert Post. It has been depicted several times in print, film, and other media, notably in the fictional film
2385:, p. 2. "it demonstrates General Motors to be a sovereign economic state, whose common control of auto, truck, bus and locomotive production was a major factor in the displacement of rail and bus transportation by cars and trucks"
1034:(NH) in New York and Connecticut was profitable until it was acquired and converted to diesel trains. The New Haven's main line between New York City and New Haven, Connecticut, remained electrified, and continues as such under
713:
operated by the Baltimore Transit Company was purchased by NCL in 1948 and started converting the system to buses. Overall Baltimore Transit ridership then plummeted by double digits in each of the following three years. The
3313:
Hearings before the Sub-Committee on Antitrust and Monopoly of the Committee on the Judiciary United States Senate, Ninety-third Congress, Second Session on S.1167 Part 4 Ground Transportation Industries, April 4, 9, 10 and
600:, and the San Fernando Valley, closed in 1955. In 1945, ACL acquired Los Angeles Railway at a price of about $ 13,000,000. Soon after, the company announced it would scrap all but three of the existing Yellow Car lines.
784:", adding that GM "has carried on a deliberate concerted action with the oil companies and tire companies...for the purpose of destroying a vital form of competition; namely, electric rapid transit". Los Angeles mayor
701:
was sold to Western Transit Company, owned by J. L. Haugh, for $ 5.5 million. Haugh was also president of the Key System, and later was involved in Metropolitan Coach Line's purchase of the passenger operations of the
648:
968:
By 1916, street railroads nationwide were wearing out their equipment faster than they were replacing it. While operating expenses were generally recovered, money for long-term investment was generally diverted
660:
477:
in New Jersey to develop the "All-Service Vehicle", a bus also capable of working as a trackless trolley, allowing off-wire passenger collection in areas too lightly populated to pay for wire infrastructure.
1665:
789:
which Snell himself had been "instrumental in bringing"; all had a direct or indirect financial interest. (The lawsuit was eventually dropped, the plaintiffs conceding they had no chance of winning.)
659:" and "conspiring to monopolize sales of buses and supplies to companies owned by National City Lines" In 1948, the venue was changed from the Federal District Court of Southern California to the
573:. The attempt was temporarily blocked by a syndicate of Key System insiders, with controlling interest secured on January 8, 1941. By 1946, PCL had acquired 64% of the stock in the Key System.
718:'s struggling passenger operations were purchased by Metropolitan Coach Lines in 1953 and were taken into public ownership in 1958 after which the last routes were converted to bus operation.
3264:
3288:
5530:
1826:, para 6 "At the time the indictment was returned, the City Lines defendants had expanded their ownership or control to 46 transportation systems located in 45 cities across 16 states."
953:, restricted the ability of private mass transit operators to increase fares at a time of high inflation, allowed the city to take over them, or to operate competing subsidized transit.
3195:
1597:
The New York Omnibus Corporation, successor to the New York Railways Corporation commenced the operation of bus route in 1936. In all but one year since then it has been profitable
2936:
In low-density areas the car dominates the choice of transport, and the cost of providing public transport in high. In these sprawling cities almost all journeys are made by car
2804:
shopkeepers of Manhattan. But the terms of the contracts, particularly the fares and how they would be divided, would later cripple the system and threaten its continued growth.
2466:
transportation assistance act of 1977: hearing before the Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs of the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate
1143:
claimed that GM had "conduct a campaign of intimidation against him in order to 'suppress plaintiff's criticism of and prevent his disclosure of information' about its products"
1799:
3059:
366:
net); such arrangements, when combined with fixed fares, created gradual impossible financial pressures. Early electric cars generally had a two-man crew, a holdover from
4761:
5661:
5434:
5474:
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264:, have surviving legacy rail urban transport systems based on streetcars, although their systems are significantly smaller than they once were. Other cities, such as
1013:
Increased traffic congestion often reduced service speeds and thereby increased their operational costs and made the services less attractive to the remaining users.
481:
Opposition to traction interests and their influence on politicians was growing. For example, in 1922, New York Supreme Court Justice John Ford came out in favor of
1190:
1777:, Para 8 "Pacific City Lines was organized for the purpose of acquiring local transit companies on the Pacific Coast and commenced doing business in January 1938."
1185:
514:
to other parties, forced electricity generator companies to divest from trolley, streetcar, electric suburban, and interurban transit operators that they used to
422:
in 1926 with "plans embracing the extension of motor coach operation to urban and rural communities in every part of the United States" that then purchased the
5229:
816:. Most transit scholars disagree, suggesting that transit system changes were brought about by other factors; economic, social, and political factors such as
433:
358:
risk, and carcass disposal of horses eliminated entirely. Streetcars were later seen as obstructions to traffic, but for nearly 20 years they had the highest
5550:
1126:
2234:
1615:. International texts in electrical engineering: E. E. Dreese ... Consulting editor (1 ed.). Scranton, PA: International textbook company. p. 40.
3988:
740:
1151:
946:
5543:
5536:
4846:
1166:
Contracts between New York City and subway operators which restricted fares, enforced share profits and allowed the city to 'recapture' and operate lines
926:
829:
632:
605:
503:
144:(NCL) and subsidiaries, as well as to the allegations that the defendants conspired to own or control transit systems, in violation of Section 1 of the
1060:(which operated the "red cars") was hemorrhaging routes as traffic congestion worsened with growing car ownership levels after the end of World War II.
207:
interstate commerce in the sale of buses, fuel, and supplies to NCL subsidiaries, but were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the transit industry.
3078:
1031:
3654:
1467:
5626:
4751:
3689:
3272:
3522:
3010:
2498:
5333:
4580:
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1981:"Plan for Public Purchase of Transit Lines Revealed: Legislature Will Get Bill to Legalize Agreements on Sale With Metro and LATL Transit Lines".
3928:
2948:
5371:
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1854:
1179:
1169:
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1272:
The Industrial Reorganization Act: Hearings, Ninety-third Congress, First Session [-Ninety-fourth Congress, First Session], On S. 1167
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The strongest rebuttal came from transit scholar George Hilton (on whose work Snell had ironically relied) in his own 1974 Senate testimony
1890:
A history of the rail passenger service operated by the Pacific Electric Railway Company since 1911 : and by its successors since 1953
1527:
Bianco, Martha J. (Winter 1997). "The Decline of Transit—Corporate Conspiracy or Failure of Public Policy?: The Case of Portland, Oregon".
5274:
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5666:
5656:
5651:
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5439:
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2788:"And once separated from their subsidies, many died on their own at the end of the depression, without any further assistance from GM."
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2005:
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in 1944 when all but one route had already been withdrawn, and the withdrawal of this last line had been approved three years earlier.
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finding that, without GM and other companies' efforts, the streetcar would not "have been driven to the verge of extinction by 1968".
664:
415:
5002:
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3244:
A report presented to the Committee of the Judiciary, Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly, United States Senate, February 26, 1974
2531:
United States. Congress. Senate. Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs. Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs (1977).
2207:
5586:
3435:
3383:
785:
731:
470:
160:
86:
5484:
5138:
3340:
The Transformation of the Pacific Electric Railway: Bradford Snell, Roger Rabbit, and the Politics of Transportation in Los Angeles
3139:
1010:, created low-density land use patterns which are not easily served by streetcars, or indeed by any public transport, to this day.
750:
Study Group Report on Land Use in California, alleging a wider conspiracy to dismantle U.S. streetcar systems, first published in
5424:
5168:
4927:
4778:
4642:
3993:
3254:
2742:
812:
Quinby and Snell held that the destruction of streetcar systems was integral to a larger strategy to push the United States into
3663:
Yellow Coach – 1923-1943- GMC Truck & Coach Division, General Motors Corp. – 1943–present – Detroit, Michigan
706:. The last San Diego streetcars were converted to buses by 1949. Haugh sold the bus-based San Diego system to the city in 1966.
5558:
4632:
3645:
1468:"Coach line ready to rip up car tracks in a wide bus plan; Fifth Av. Company Promises Quick Start if the city Approves Project"
1131:
980:
758:
643:
On April 9, 1947, nine corporations and seven individuals (officers and directors of certain of the corporate defendants) were
584:(known as the "Yellow Cars"). In 1940, PCL acquired Pacific Electric's operations in Glendale, Burbank, and Pasadena. Lines to
237:
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585:
410:, better remembered for his car rental business, was also an early motorbus manufacturer and operator. In 1917 he founded the
299:
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2486:
635:, which had caused such difficulty for streetcar operations, He was later to write a history of North Jersey Rapid Transit.
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of conspiring to monopolize the sale of buses and related products to local transit companies controlled by NCL; they were
5509:
3170:"Kennedy, 60 Minutes, and Roger Rabbit: Understanding Conspiracy-Theory Explanations of The Decline of Urban Mass Transit"
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1136:
1050:
466:
427:
269:
195:
operations in that period, although electric traction was preserved or expanded in some locations. Other systems, such as
4992:
3210:
403:, 1899 illustration by George Luks depicting the new electric subway system in New York City as an octopus ("the menace")
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was too close to the "traction interests". In 1925, Hearst complained about Smith in a similar way. In the 1941 film
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5264:
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which could only fund highway construction (until 1983 when some 10% was diverted into a new Mass Transit Account).
867:
in 1997 by Cliff Slater. A significant rebuttal to Slater's article was published about one year later in the 1998
698:
535:
462:, system with a similar proposal. The UCMT was censured by the American Transit Association and dissolved in 1935.
423:
180:
164:
91:
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4997:
4972:
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2304:"Transit Authority Begins Operating LATL and Metro: Public Now Owns Big Bus Lines MTA TAKES OVER LATL AND METRO".
597:
593:
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5163:
4832:
4813:
4726:
4538:
4066:
3046:
2842:
1409:
1046:
976:
793:
617:
241:
5123:
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Tunnel project, the opening of 5th Street, the Pacific Electric tunnel, and plans for a Union Passenger Station.
625:
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5386:
5239:
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1175:
1057:
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703:
373:
Many electric lines—especially in the West—were tied into other real estate or transportation enterprises. The
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in New York. The same year, the Fifth Avenue Coach Company acquired a majority of the stock in the struggling
3376:
Internal Combustion: How Corporations and Governments Addicted the World to Oil and Derailed the Alternatives
2976:
discussion of traffic conditions, estimated the present yearly losses due to congestion, as being $ 8,365,800
2819:
2601:
1803:
1430:
1063:
The Salt Lake City system is mentioned in the 1949 court papers. However, the city's system was purchased by
199:'s, were converted by outgrowths of the City Lines. Most of the companies involved were convicted in 1949 of
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4296:
4264:
3840:
3675:
1270:
1245:
937:
In New York City, and other North American cities, the presence of restrictive legal agreements such as the
710:
482:
474:
446:
streetcar systems to buses in small cities. The new subsidiary made investments in small transit systems in
419:
213:
176:
1932:
1610:
1405:
5133:
4987:
4977:
4478:
4470:
4182:
4094:
3535:
2463:
Subcommittee on Housing and Urban Affairs of the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs (1977).
1789:"National City Lines and Pacific City Lines merged in 1948 and continued their practice of 'bustitution.'"
961:
Streetcar lines were built using funds from private investors and were required to pay numerous taxes and
857:
2029:
863:
The accuracy of significant elements of Snell's 1974 testimony was challenged in an article published in
5444:
5429:
5143:
5118:
5073:
5068:
4376:
4360:
4288:
3835:
3779:
3643:"Taken for a Ride", Jim Klein and Martha Olson – a 55-minute film first shown on PBS in August 1996
3017:
2798:
2318:
pp. 410–12, compiled by Robert C. Fellmeth, Center for Study of Responsive Law, Grossman Publishers
1986:
813:
762:
359:
257:
145:
116:
3235:
American ground transport: a proposal for restructuring the automobile, truck, bus, and rail industries
2397:"Statement of Bradford C. Snell Before the United States Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly"
140:(GM) and related companies that were involved in the monopolizing of the sale of buses and supplies to
1308:
441:
By 1930, most streetcar systems were aging and losing money. Service to the public was suffering; the
5479:
5289:
5189:
5032:
5012:
4917:
4617:
4488:
4384:
4328:
4190:
3978:
3855:
3850:
3794:
2549:
1113:
1035:
950:
743:(1974) which allowed funds to support transit operating costs as well as capital construction costs.
1640:
1374:
Smerk, George M. (Fall 1986). "Urban Mass Transportation: From Private to Public to Privatization".
910:
Some regulations and regulatory changes have been linked directly to the decline of the streetcars:
41:
5514:
5396:
4952:
4501:
4493:
1064:
972:
The U.S. government responded to the Great Depression with massive subsidies for road construction.
845:
671:) which felt that there was evidence of conspiracy to monopolize the supply of buses and supplies.
581:
570:
527:
515:
447:
378:
335:
225:
188:
141:
3289:"Paving the Way for Buses – The Great GM Streetcar Conspiracy, Part II – The Plot Clots"
3191:
2827:
funds for road building being advanced as a means of giving work to unemployed men in every state.
674:
In 1949, Firestone Tire, Standard Oil of California, Phillips Petroleum, GM, and Mack Trucks were
5597:
5569:
5469:
5409:
5204:
5098:
4942:
4647:
4522:
4462:
4211:
4141:
4059:
4045:
4017:
3410:
3239:
3104:
1859:
1855:"Pacific Electric Ry. Sells Local Services; Bus and Rail Lines Conveyed by Southern Pacific Unit"
1544:
1383:
1146:
988:
880:
841:
652:
555:
539:
339:
200:
168:
156:
96:
2687:
152:
systems in many cities in the United States as an attempt to monopolize surface transportation.
17:
3265:"Paving the Way for Buses – The Great GM Streetcar Conspiracy, Part I – The Villains"
918:
and tight regulation of fares, routes, and schedules took their toll on city streetcar systems.
576:
Beginning in the 1940s, NCL and PCL slowly took control of Los Angeles' two streetcar systems:
5158:
5113:
5063:
5027:
5022:
4932:
4670:
4652:
4251:
4206:
4031:
3611:
3590:
3571:
3565:
3550:
3498:
3475:
3471:
3465:
3450:
3431:
3393:
Fischel, W.A (2004). "An Economic History of Zoning and a Cure for its Exclusionary Effects".
3379:
3354:
3187:
2907:
2877:
2850:
2747:
2666:
2626:
2360:
2278:
2272:
2061:
2055:
1903:
1864:
1690:
1616:
1569:
1042:. In reality, the line was in financial difficulty for years and filed for bankruptcy in 1935.
876:
455:
451:
249:
245:
148:. This suit created lingering suspicions that the defendants had in fact plotted to dismantle
1684:
5414:
4860:
4856:
4514:
4424:
4235:
4219:
4080:
4073:
3920:
3402:
2973:. University of California, Institute of Transportation and Traffic Engineering. p. 1.
2878:"The PCC Era in Detroit – Part 5 (The Ending of an Era in Detroit and The México City Sale)"
1536:
1099:
1085:
931:
825:
589:
577:
507:
459:
442:
374:
219:
965:. By contrast, new roads were constructed and maintained by the government from tax income.
934:
then left many streetcar operators short of funds for maintenance and capital improvements.
473:, which shared management with The Omnibus Corporation. During this period, GM worked with
354:. Electric traction was faster, more sanitary, and cheaper to run; with the cost, excreta,
5591:
5381:
5234:
5199:
5103:
5093:
4947:
4702:
4681:
4588:
4454:
3875:
3649:
3317:
2219:
2057:
Suburbanizing the masses: public transport and urban development in historical perspective
1079:
999:
915:
682:
of conspiring to monopolize the ownership of these companies. The verdicts were upheld on
308:
1219:
See elsewhere in this article for cited sources for all of these claims, notably in the '
155:
Between 1938 and 1950, National City Lines and its subsidiaries, American City Lines and
3638:"Did General Motors destroy the LA mass transit system?", The Straight Dope, 10-Jan-1986
5419:
5366:
5269:
5209:
5088:
5078:
5007:
4902:
4892:
4622:
4272:
4198:
3944:
3904:
3870:
3698:
3605:
1163:
938:
837:
780:
testified that "General Motors and the automobile industry generally exhibit a kind of
543:
531:
137:
81:
46:
2968:"Study and Plan of Relief of the Street Traffic Congestion in the City of Low Angeles"
2181:
2169:
2139:
1823:
1774:
396:
290:
5620:
5391:
5304:
5173:
5128:
4982:
4562:
4408:
4304:
4243:
3845:
3607:
The Passenger Train in the Motor Age: California's Rail and Bus Industries, 1910–1941
3544:
3491:
3424:
3414:
3370:
1548:
1154:(A corporation that was "recaptured" by the city using the Dual Contracts provisions)
852:, tax policies favoring private vehicle ownership, taxation of fixed infrastructure,
840:
including declining industries' difficulty in attracting capital, rapidly increasing
817:
777:
773:
496:
407:
370:
days, which created financial problems in later years as salaries outpaced revenues.
343:
68:
3642:
3348:
3250:"The StreetCar Conspiracy: How General Motors Deliberately Destroyed Public Transit"
856:, franchise repair costs for co-located property, wide diffusion of driving skills,
4432:
3804:
3736:
3637:
1007:
1003:
849:
833:
821:
491:
469:
began conversion to buses in 1935, with the new bus services being operated by the
323:
In the latter half of the 19th century, transit systems were generally rail, first
265:
175:—gained control of additional transit systems in about 25 cities. Systems included
3169:
1486:
2620:
2532:
2464:
1590:
1563:
5284:
5194:
4967:
4907:
4320:
3513:
3406:
1990:
1836:
1739:
1140:
1026:
Some of the specific allegations which have been argued over the years include:
995:
Other issues which made it harder to operate viable streetcar services include:
853:
747:
691:
547:
511:
382:
328:
184:
172:
101:
1376:
Transportation Journal (American Society of Transportation & Logistics Inc)
5299:
5017:
4707:
4676:
4416:
4352:
4336:
4039:
4011:
3799:
3774:
3753:
3741:
3546:
The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of America's Man-Made Landscape
3523:"Be Careful How You Refer to the So-Called 'Great American Streetcar Scandal'"
3426:
Getting There: The Epic Struggle between Road and Rail in the American Century
3221:
2499:"Be Careful How You Refer to the So-Called 'Great American Streetcar Scandal'"
1540:
1331:
Getting There: The Epic Struggle Between Road and Rail in the American Century
1075:
675:
655:
to acquire control of a number of transit companies, forming a transportation
644:
566:
458:, where they were successful in conversion to buses. UCMT then approached the
2854:
2751:
1868:
5563:
4686:
4109:
4088:
3731:
3662:
3632:
3467:
Politics of land: Ralph Nader's study group report on land use in California
3321:
3249:
752:
Politics of Land: Ralph Nader's Study Group Report on Land Use in California
679:
355:
196:
2123:"Interurban interlude: A history of the North Jersey Rapid Transit Company"
1295:
Transport of Delight The Mythical Conception of Rail Transit in Los Angeles
362:
of anything commonly found on the road, and the lowest rolling resistance.
2949:"1922 Los Angeles: Unprecedented Growth, Congestion And A Plan For Relief"
4554:
3912:
3726:
2404:
Hearings on the Ground Transportation Industries in Connection with S1167
1933:"From the Archives: Did Auto, Oil Conspiracy Put the Brakes on Trolleys?"
962:
656:
621:
562:
486:
367:
351:
324:
204:
27:
Alleged conspiracy by GM and others to replace streetcar lines with buses
2715:
2550:"Transportation quarterly / Eno Foundation for Transportation v.52 1998"
2371:
The centerpiece of the hearings was a study written by Bradford C. Snell
2126:
1387:
746:
In 1970, Harvard Law student Robert Eldridge Hicks began working on the
4280:
3936:
3769:
1620:
347:
317:
Fltr: Horse-drawn, electric, and cable street cars in the United States
2688:"The real story behind the demise of America's once-mighty streetcars"
769:
Committee's Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly as a staff member.
518:
in order to increase the basis of their limited return on investment.
506:, which made it illegal for a single private business to both provide
4437:
4312:
4151:
3953:
3809:
3789:
3746:
1711:
1039:
683:
2006:"Tracking the slow decline of the Pacific Electric Railway Red Cars"
1049:
entered receivership in 1919, six years before it was bought by the
3633:"The Great GM Conspiracy Legend: GM and the Red Cars", Stan Schwarz
5318:
4575:
4506:
4256:
3721:
2902:
Hanlon, Bernadette; Short, John Rennie; Vicino, Thomas J. (2009).
1160:
A bus transit company established by John Hertz in Chicago in 1917
620:, founder of the Electric Railroaders' Association in 1934 (which
551:
432:
395:
253:
3667:
4546:
3587:
Fighting Traffic: The Dawn of the Motor Age in the American City
3536:"The Great Transportation Conspiracy: a juggernaut named desire"
2357:
Alfred P. Sloan: Critical Evaluations in Business and Management
2274:
Not in My Neighborhood: How Bigotry Shaped a Great American City
331:
261:
149:
4828:
3671:
2737:
1406:"CTA Marks 50 Years as Chicago's Major Public Transit Provider"
485:, a newspaper magnate, for mayor of New York, complaining that
414:, which operated buses in Chicago, and in 1923, he founded the
2773:
The Great Transportation Conspiracy: A juggernaut named desire
2469:. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. p. 193
1958:"From Railway to Freeway Pacific Electric and the Motor Coach"
1957:
1449:"Guide to the Fifth Avenue Coach Company Collection 1895–1962"
624:
on behalf of rail users and services), and former employee of
499:, complains about the influence of the '"traction interests".
192:
3011:"U.S. Parking Policies: An Overview of Management Strategies"
987:
Federal fuel taxes, introduced in 1956, were paid into a new
350:
and horse-drawn streetcars were generally a step up from the
2030:"1948 and 1963: Coverage of the demise of L.A.'s streetcars"
1839:. San Bernardino Sun. United Press. 1941-01-09. p. 17.
522:
National City Lines, Pacific City Lines, American City Lines
2182:
United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit 1951
2170:
United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit 1951
2153:"United States v. National City Lines, 334 U.S. 573 (1948)"
2140:
United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit 1951
1902:"L.A. Subway Closes After Special Trolley Car Trip" (PDF).
1824:
United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit 1951
1775:
United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit 1951
1361:
Henry E. Huntington and the Creation of Southern California
1269:
U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Antitrust and Monopoly (1973).
3238:. Washington: U.S. Government Print Office. Archived from
2951:. Dorothy Peyton Gray Transportation Library. 2010-07-06.
2824:. CQ Researcher Online. CQ Press. 1932. pp. 425–443.
1589:
Securities And Exchange Commission, United States (1945).
1172:(Details of a system that was already in public ownership)
495:, the lead character, who was loosely based on Hearst and
3140:"Who's really to blame for the death of LA's streetcars?"
1510:
1508:
1506:
722:
Urban Mass Transportation Act and 1974 Antitrust hearings
388:
By 1918, half of US streetcar mileage was in bankruptcy.
2932:"Urban density is more cost-effective than urban sprawl"
1800:
U.S. House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce
437:
A Chicago Motor Coach Company double decker bus in 1936
4711:(1999–2012 under all of GM, Chevrolet only since 2012)
3196:
United States Court of Appeals for the Seventh Circuit
1755:
1753:
1045:"GM killed the New York street cars": In reality, the
631:
He also questioned who was behind the creation of the
2326:
2324:
1246:"Problems in public utility economics and management"
957:
Different funding models have also been highlighted:
3079:"U.S. Court Makes Hedges Receiver for N.Y. Railways"
2518:
2423:
5579:
5523:
5502:
5453:
5359:
5352:
5326:
5182:
5056:
4880:
4869:
4719:
4695:
4661:
4608:
4171:
4134:
4002:
3965:
3897:
3818:
3762:
3714:
3705:
3192:"United States v. National City Lines, Inc., et al"
2487:
In Memoriam: Transportation economist George Hilton
2235:"San Diego streetcar will take a route to the past"
1804:"Hearings: Seventy-seventh Congress, First Session"
1740:"The Nebraska State Journal from Lincoln, Nebraska"
1139:A court case in which consumer protection activist
761:and formerly, for a brief time, a scholar with the
616:In 1946, Edwin Jenyss Quinby, an activated reserve
569:, which operated electric trains and streetcars in
122:
110:
74:
64:
56:
3490:
3423:
3369:
3097:
3077:
2622:Urban Mass Transit: The Life Story of a Technology
2458:
2456:
1466:
1346:Urban Mass Transit: The Life Story of a Technology
860:buses, and general enthusiasm for the automobile.
3570:. Constable & Robinson Ltd. pp. 152–62.
2714:. National Capital Trolley Museum. Archived from
2602:"The GM Trolley Conspiracy: What Really Happened"
1641:"Ford says Smith too close to traction interests"
385:for property development and long haul shipping.
5475:Ontario and San Antonio Heights Railroad Company
2208:"Transit in San Diego: ASCE Anniversary Project"
1191:List of trolleybus systems in the United States
894:
885:
561:From 1939 through 1940, NCL or PCL attempted a
2277:. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 220–221.
1906:. June 20, 1955. p. 8. Retrieved May 24, 2023.
1333:. University of Chicago Press. pp. 69–70.
1264:
1262:
1186:List of streetcar systems in the United States
757:During 1973, Bradford Snell, an attorney with
5485:Santa Ana, Orange & Tustin Street Railway
4840:
3683:
3211:"General Motors and the Demise of Streetcars"
2665:(3rd ed.). Guilford Press. p. 315.
1595:. University of Michigan Press. p. 238.
1348:. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 75–77.
1309:"General Motors and the Demise of Streetcars"
649:Federal District Court of Southern California
167:(through a subsidiary), Federal Engineering,
8:
3514:"What Did We Give Up With the Big Red Cars?"
2837:
2835:
2814:
2812:
1127:Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 (Phipps Act)
32:
3493:The Electric Interurban Railways in America
2661:Hanson, Susan; Giuliano, Genevieve (2004).
2625:. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 156.
2054:Divall, Colin; Bond, Winstan, eds. (2003).
1363:. Ohio State University Press. p. 104.
1032:New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad
820:, fixed fares during inflation, changes in
741:National Mass Transportation Assistance Act
661:Federal District Court in Northern Illinois
5356:
4877:
4847:
4833:
4825:
3971:
3711:
3690:
3676:
3668:
3655:United States v. National City Lines, Inc.
1400:
1398:
927:Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
830:Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
633:Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
606:Los Angeles Metropolitan Transit Authority
504:Public Utility Holding Company Act of 1935
418:, a manufacturer of buses. He then formed
40:
31:
5285:Seal Beach–Huntington Beach–Newport Beach
3610:. Columbus: Ohio State University Press.
2656:
2654:
1056:"GM Killed the Red cars in Los Angeles":
669:United States v. National City Lines Inc.
338:. Rail was more comfortable and had less
236:Only a handful of U.S. cities, including
5662:Automotive industry in the United States
5460:Los Angeles Inter-Urban Electric Railway
3342:. Vol. 27. Urban Affairs Quarterly.
3060:"New Haven Railway files for bankruptcy"
3038:
3036:
3034:
2583:
2581:
1770:
1768:
3445:Hanson, S.; Giuliano, G., eds. (2004).
2060:. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. p. 192.
1689:. Oxford University Press. p. 93.
1686:Orson Welles's Citizen Kane: A Casebook
1437:. 1924-07-16 – via Coachbult.com.
1236:
1202:
892:In 2010, CBS's Mark Henricks reported:
534:, Federal Engineering, a subsidiary of
3538:. Harper's. pp. 14–15, 18, 20–21.
3489:Hilton, George W; Due, John F (1960).
3449:(Third ed.). The Guilford Press.
3099:"New York Railways Plan Now Effective"
2989:"Pacific Electric Railway (1901–1965)"
2821:Federal Highway Aid and the Depression
2645:
2447:
2435:
2330:
2266:
2264:
1759:
1514:
1170:Transportation in metropolitan Detroit
1152:Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation
947:Brooklyn–Manhattan Transit Corporation
5490:Los Angeles and Independence Railroad
3447:The Geography of Urban Transportation
3125:
3042:
2785:
2663:The Geography of Urban Transportation
2587:
2572:
2382:
2342:
2255:
2193:
2109:
2097:
2086:
1926:
1924:
1914:
1912:
1786:
737:Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1970
728:Urban Mass Transportation Act of 1964
7:
4809:
1030:According to Snell's testimony, the
191:. NCL often converted streetcars to
5344:General Motors streetcar conspiracy
134:General Motors streetcar conspiracy
4653:General Motors Research Laboratory
3353:. University of California Press.
2538:. U.S. Government Printing Office.
1918:Quinby, Edwin J. Pamphlet. (1947).
1592:Securities and Exchange Commission
1329:Goddard, Stephen B. (1996-11-15).
1220:
943:Interborough Rapid Transit Company
639:Court cases, conviction, and fines
604:respectively, to the newly formed
416:Yellow Coach Manufacturing Company
25:
5587:Culver Boulevard Median Bike Path
3929:Industries Mécaniques Maghrébines
2233:Hawkins, Robert J. (2011-05-30).
1931:Rasmussen, Cecilia (2003-03-23).
1837:"Control of Rail System:Acquired"
1275:. U.S. Government Printing Office
808:Role in decline of the streetcars
732:Urban Mass Transit Administration
471:New York City Omnibus Corporation
272:, have re-introduced streetcars.
5425:Pacific Electric Railroad Bridge
5317:
4855:
4808:
4799:
4798:
4779:Commercial Utility Cargo Vehicle
3888:
3567:The Mammoth Book of Conspiracies
3470:. Grossman Publishers. pp.
3255:The New Electric Railway Journal
3220:. pp. 45–66. Archived from
2743:The New Electric Railway Journal
2686:Stromberg, Joseph (2015-05-07).
2212:The Journal of San Diego History
1106:
1092:
1078:
588:were phased out in 1941 and the
307:
298:
289:
18:Great American Streetcar Scandal
5627:Streetcars in the United States
5109:Redondo Beach via Playa del Rey
3543:Kunstler, James Howard (1994).
3248:Snell, Bradford (Autumn 1995).
2801:. Public Broadcasting Service.
1132:Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
981:Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956
824:and automotive technology, the
772:At the hearings in April 1974,
735:transit was increased with the
381:were especially so, in essence
5465:Monrovia Rapid Transit Company
5230:La Habra–Fullerton–Yorba Linda
3604:Thompson, Gregory Lee (1993).
3350:Los Angeles and the Automobile
3138:Chiland, Elijah (2017-09-20).
2395:Snell, Bradford (1974-02-26).
2004:Harrison, Scott (2016-01-03).
1359:Friedricks, William B (1992).
580:(known as the "Red Cars") and
1:
5510:Glendale and Montrose Railway
3497:. Stanford University Press.
3311:United States Senate (1974).
2600:Henricks, Mark (2010-09-02).
1683:Naremore, James, ed. (2004).
1609:Thompson, Francis R. (1940).
1137:Nader v. General Motors Corp.
1051:New York Railways Corporation
776:mayor and antitrust attorney
475:Public Service Transportation
467:New York Railways Corporation
428:New York Railways Corporation
136:refers to the convictions of
5495:Los Angeles Pacific Railroad
3422:Goddard, Stephen B. (1994).
2882:Detroit Transit History.info
2736:Wilkins, Van (Summer 1995).
1888:Vessey, Laurence R. (1958).
1297:. University of Akron Press.
1122:Federal Aid Road Act of 1916
759:Pillsbury, Madison and Sutro
739:and further extended by the
217:, documentary films such as
5169:Western & Franklin Ave.
3407:10.1080/0042098032000165271
3258:– via Coachbuilt.com.
3232:Snell, Bradford C. (1974).
2239:The San Diego Union-Tribune
1892:. Los Angeles: Interurbans.
1813:– via Hathitrust.org.
1666:"Smith Hearst battle a wow"
1282:– via Hathitrust.org.
1255:– via Hathitrust.org.
1158:Chicago Motor Coach Company
1006:, exacerbated in the US by
665:United States Supreme Court
663:following an appeal to the
538:(now Chevron Corporation),
412:Chicago Motor Coach Company
5683:
5667:Anti-competitive practices
5657:1950s in the United States
5652:1940s in the United States
5647:1930s in the United States
5275:Santa Ana–Huntington Beach
5043:Upland–San Antonio Heights
4785:Concept of the Corporation
4742:Motors Liquidation Company
4228:Chevrolet-Saturn of Harlem
3521:Jaffe, Eric (2013-06-03).
3347:Bottles, Scott L. (1987).
2738:"The Conspiracy Revisited"
1568:. MIT Press. p. 365.
975:Later construction of the
818:unrealistic capitalization
711:Baltimore Streetcar system
699:San Diego Electric Railway
626:North Jersey Rapid Transit
536:Standard Oil of California
424:Fifth Avenue Coach Company
165:Standard Oil of California
159:—with investment from GM,
92:Standard Oil of California
5377:Pacific Electric Building
5315:
5250:Redondo Beach via Gardena
5225:Huntington Beach–La Bolsa
4794:
3974:
3886:
3585:Norton, Peter D. (2008).
3534:Kwitny, Jonathan (1981).
3464:Fellmeth, Robert (1973).
3047:New York Central Railroad
2906:. Routledge. p. 49.
2771:Kwitny, Jonathan (1981).
2519:United States Senate 1974
2424:United States Senate 1974
2308:. 1958-03-04. p. B1.
1742:. 1943-10-19. p. 5.
1541:10.1017/S0898030600006175
1529:Journal of Policy History
1410:Chicago Transit Authority
1318:. US: 45–66. Summer 1997.
1180:much of the rolling stock
1047:New York Railways Company
977:Interstate Highway System
39:
5387:Subway Terminal Building
5124:Santa Monica local lines
5003:San Bernardino–Riverside
3218:Transportation Quarterly
3108:. 1925-04-28. p. 27
3086:. 1919-03-21. p. 1.
2966:Terrass, John M (1922).
2843:"The Cracks are Showing"
2619:Post, Robert C. (2007).
2271:Pietila, Antero (2012).
1647:. 1922-09-03. p. A5
1645:The Brooklyn Daily Eagle
1562:Flink, James J. (1990).
1453:New York History Society
1316:Transportation Quarterly
1176:Toronto streetcar system
1058:Pacific Electric Railway
869:Transportation Quarterly
865:Transportation Quarterly
828:, antitrust action, the
716:Pacific Electric Railway
704:Pacific Electric Railway
578:Pacific Electric Railway
51:building as seen in 1981
5605:Who Framed Roger Rabbit
5260:San Pedro via Dominguez
5139:South Hollywood–Sherman
4737:Ignition switch recalls
4628:GM Building (Manhattan)
4531:North American Aviation
4447:Holden Special Vehicles
4297:Electronic Data Systems
4265:Delta Motor Corporation
3564:Lewis, John E. (2012).
3168:Bianco, Martha (1998).
2866:(subscription required)
2775:. Harper's. p. 14.
1612:Electric transportation
1487:"Coachbult.com - Hertz"
879:thinking, bordering on
592:, which ran lines from
483:William Randolph Hearst
420:The Omnibus Corporation
342:than street traffic on
214:Who Framed Roger Rabbit
5240:Long Beach local lines
4958:Pasadena via Oak Knoll
4732:Companion make program
4618:GM Building (Broadway)
4471:Hughes Network Systems
3209:Slater, Cliff (1997).
2355:Wood, John C. (2003).
1668:. 1925. Archived from
979:was authorized by the
899:
890:
858:automatic transmission
686:in 1951. GM was fined
438:
404:
401:The Menace of the Hour
325:horse-drawn streetcars
5445:West Santa Ana Branch
5430:Redlands Trolley Barn
5339:1919 streetcar strike
5265:San Pedro via Gardena
5255:San Pedro local lines
5119:Santa Monica Air Line
5048:Upland–San Bernardino
4923:El Monte–Baldwin Park
4623:GM Building (Detroit)
4289:Electro-Motive Diesel
3871:GM Specialty Vehicles
3780:Chevrolet Performance
3657:, 186 F.2d 562 (1951)
3378:. St. Martins Press.
3368:Black, Edwin (2006).
3026:transportation system
2426:, pp. 2325–2326.
1344:Post, Robert (2007).
1182:from affected systems
814:automobile dependency
763:Brookings Institution
550:(now a subsidiary of
436:
399:
360:power-to-weight ratio
146:Sherman Antitrust Act
117:Sherman Antitrust Act
49:, the GM headquarters
5480:Pasadena and Pacific
5245:Long Beach–San Pedro
5220:Hawthorne–El Segundo
5164:Venice via Hollywood
5154:Venice–Playa del Rey
5033:South Pasadena Local
4988:Redlands local lines
4963:Pasadena local lines
4888:Alhambra–San Gabriel
4757:Streetcar conspiracy
4489:Kettering University
4345:Ghandhara Industries
4329:Fleetwood Metal Body
4191:Allison Transmission
3795:GM Certified Service
2406:. S.C.R.T.D. Library
2206:Holle, Gena (2002).
1293:Richmond, Jonathan.
1114:United States portal
1036:Metro-North Railroad
951:New York City Subway
35:streetcar conspiracy
5594:(Disneyland Resort)
5515:Los Angeles Railway
5503:Connecting services
5094:Lankershim–Van Nuys
4993:Riverside–Arlington
4953:Pasadena Short Line
4633:GM Technical Center
4502:National City Lines
3819:Global subsidiaries
2218:(1). Archived from
1065:National City Lines
846:Good Roads Movement
730:(UMTA) created the
582:Los Angeles Railway
571:Oakland, California
528:National City Lines
379:Los Angeles Railway
231:Internal Combustion
226:The End of Suburbia
142:National City Lines
36:
5598:Waterfront Red Car
5570:Waterfront Red Car
5470:Mount Lowe Railway
5440:Sub-Station No. 14
5410:Hill Street Tunnel
4978:Pomona local lines
4648:Renaissance Center
4638:GM Proving Grounds
4571:Rochester Products
4463:Hughes Electronics
4369:GM Diesel Division
3648:2008-12-16 at the
3512:Hilton, George W.
3338:Adler, Sy (1991).
3287:Span, Guy (2003).
3263:Span, Guy (2003).
3105:The New York Times
3084:The New York Times
2904:Cities and Suburbs
2712:"Regional History"
1860:The New York Times
1565:The automobile age
1491:www.coachbuilt.com
1473:The New York Times
1147:Highway Trust Fund
989:Highway Trust Fund
881:paranoid delusions
842:traffic congestion
556:Pacific City Lines
540:Phillips Petroleum
439:
405:
340:rolling resistance
169:Phillips Petroleum
157:Pacific City Lines
97:Phillips Petroleum
5642:Former monopolies
5614:
5613:
5405:
5404:
5313:
5312:
5215:Hawthorne–El Nido
5183:Southern Division
5159:Venice Short Line
4938:Monrovia–Glendora
4881:Northern Division
4822:
4821:
4712:
4671:William C. Durant
4601:
4593:
4585:
4581:United Australian
4567:
4559:
4551:
4543:
4535:
4527:
4519:
4511:
4498:
4483:
4475:
4467:
4459:
4449:
4442:
4429:
4421:
4413:
4405:
4397:
4389:
4381:
4373:
4365:
4357:
4349:
4341:
4333:
4325:
4317:
4309:
4301:
4293:
4285:
4277:
4269:
4261:
4252:Delco Electronics
4248:
4240:
4224:
4216:
4215:(24%) (1924–1948)
4207:Atlantic Aircraft
4203:
4195:
4187:
4172:Former divisions,
4167:
4166:
4125:
4118:
4104:
4097:
4083:
4076:
4069:
4062:
4055:
4048:
4034:
4027:
4020:
3956:
3949:
3941:
3933:
3925:
3917:
3909:
3884:
3883:
3617:978-0-8142-0609-6
3596:978-0-262-14100-0
3556:978-0-671-88825-1
3504:978-0-8047-4014-2
3481:978-0-670-56326-5
3456:978-1-59385-055-5
3360:978-0-520-05795-1
3175:. pp. 98–110
2672:978-1-59385-055-5
2632:978-0-313-33916-5
2306:Los Angeles Times
2067:978-0-7546-0775-5
2010:Los Angeles Times
1983:Los Angeles Times
1937:Los Angeles Times
1904:Los Angeles Times
1575:978-0-262-56055-9
1178:, which received
877:conspiracy theory
456:Springfield, Ohio
452:Saginaw, Michigan
130:
129:
16:(Redirected from
5674:
5435:Substation No. 8
5415:Hollywood Subway
5357:
5321:
5280:Santa Ana–Orange
5149:Venice–Inglewood
5144:Venice Boulevard
5084:Glendale–Burbank
5074:Echo Park Avenue
5069:Coldwater Canyon
5057:Western Division
4998:Riverside–Rialto
4973:Pomona–Claremont
4898:Arlington–Corona
4878:
4873:
4863:
4862:Pacific Electric
4859:
4849:
4842:
4835:
4826:
4812:
4811:
4802:
4801:
4710:
4643:Factories (list)
4599:
4591:
4583:
4565:
4557:
4549:
4541:
4533:
4525:
4518:(36%, 1990–2002)
4517:
4515:New Venture Gear
4509:
4496:
4481:
4473:
4465:
4457:
4445:
4440:
4433:GMC Heavy Trucks
4427:
4425:GMAC Real Estate
4419:
4411:
4403:
4395:
4387:
4379:
4371:
4363:
4355:
4347:
4339:
4331:
4323:
4315:
4307:
4299:
4291:
4283:
4275:
4267:
4259:
4246:
4238:
4236:Cleveland Diesel
4232:
4222:
4220:Chevrolet Europe
4214:
4201:
4193:
4185:
4176:and subsidiaries
4121:
4114:
4100:
4093:
4079:
4072:
4065:
4058:
4051:
4044:
4030:
4023:
4016:
3972:
3952:
3947:
3939:
3931:
3923:
3921:HRL Laboratories
3915:
3907:
3892:
3891:
3712:
3692:
3685:
3678:
3669:
3621:
3600:
3581:
3560:
3539:
3530:
3517:
3508:
3496:
3485:
3460:
3441:
3429:
3418:
3389:
3373:
3364:
3343:
3325:
3307:
3305:
3304:
3295:. Archived from
3293:baycrossings.com
3283:
3281:
3280:
3271:. Archived from
3269:baycrossings.com
3259:
3243:
3228:
3226:
3215:
3205:
3203:
3202:
3183:
3181:
3180:
3174:
3154:
3153:
3151:
3150:
3135:
3129:
3123:
3117:
3116:
3114:
3113:
3101:
3094:
3088:
3087:
3081:
3074:
3068:
3067:
3064:Montreal Gazette
3056:
3050:
3040:
3029:
3028:
3022:
3016:. Archived from
3015:
3007:
3001:
3000:
2991:. Archived from
2985:
2979:
2978:
2972:
2963:
2957:
2956:
2945:
2939:
2938:
2928:
2922:
2921:
2899:
2893:
2892:
2890:
2889:
2874:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2862:
2861:
2839:
2830:
2829:
2816:
2807:
2806:
2799:"Beyond the IRT"
2795:
2789:
2783:
2777:
2776:
2768:
2762:
2761:
2759:
2758:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2699:
2698:
2683:
2677:
2676:
2658:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2616:
2610:
2609:
2597:
2591:
2585:
2576:
2570:
2564:
2563:
2561:
2560:
2546:
2540:
2539:
2528:
2522:
2516:
2510:
2509:
2495:
2489:
2484:
2478:
2477:
2475:
2474:
2460:
2451:
2445:
2439:
2433:
2427:
2421:
2415:
2414:
2412:
2411:
2401:
2392:
2386:
2380:
2374:
2373:
2352:
2346:
2340:
2334:
2328:
2319:
2316:
2310:
2309:
2301:
2295:
2294:
2292:
2291:
2268:
2259:
2253:
2247:
2246:
2241:. Archived from
2230:
2224:
2223:
2203:
2197:
2191:
2185:
2179:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2160:
2149:
2143:
2137:
2131:
2130:
2125:. Archived from
2119:
2113:
2107:
2101:
2095:
2089:
2084:
2078:
2077:
2075:
2074:
2051:
2045:
2044:
2042:
2041:
2026:
2020:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2001:
1995:
1994:
1978:
1972:
1971:
1969:
1968:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1928:
1919:
1916:
1907:
1900:
1894:
1893:
1885:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1875:
1851:
1845:
1844:
1833:
1827:
1821:
1815:
1814:
1812:
1811:
1796:
1790:
1784:
1778:
1772:
1763:
1757:
1748:
1747:
1736:
1730:
1729:
1723:
1722:
1707:
1701:
1700:
1680:
1674:
1673:
1662:
1656:
1655:
1653:
1652:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1606:
1600:
1599:
1586:
1580:
1579:
1559:
1553:
1552:
1524:
1518:
1517:, pp. 9–10.
1512:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1470:
1463:
1457:
1456:
1445:
1439:
1438:
1427:
1421:
1420:
1418:
1417:
1402:
1393:
1391:
1371:
1365:
1364:
1356:
1350:
1349:
1341:
1335:
1334:
1326:
1320:
1319:
1313:
1305:
1299:
1298:
1290:
1284:
1283:
1281:
1280:
1266:
1257:
1256:
1254:
1253:
1241:
1224:
1217:
1211:
1207:
1116:
1111:
1110:
1109:
1102:
1100:Companies portal
1097:
1096:
1095:
1088:
1086:Transport portal
1083:
1082:
1022:Counterarguments
941:, signed by the
932:Great Depression
826:Great Depression
689:
590:Hollywood Subway
563:hostile takeover
508:public transport
460:Portland, Oregon
443:Great Depression
375:Pacific Electric
329:electric powered
311:
302:
293:
220:Taken for a Ride
126:GM fined $ 5,000
114:Violation of the
44:
37:
21:
5682:
5681:
5677:
5676:
5675:
5673:
5672:
5671:
5632:Corporate crime
5617:
5616:
5615:
5610:
5592:Red Car Trolley
5575:
5519:
5498:
5449:
5401:
5348:
5322:
5309:
5290:Terminal Island
5190:American Avenue
5178:
5052:
5013:San Dimas Local
4918:East Washington
4871:
4865:
4861:
4853:
4823:
4818:
4790:
4715:
4703:World of Motion
4691:
4682:Alfred P. Sloan
4657:
4604:
4455:Hughes Aircraft
4393:GM South Africa
4230:
4175:
4173:
4163:
4130:
3998:
3967:
3961:
3893:
3889:
3880:
3876:Cadillac Europe
3814:
3758:
3707:
3701:
3696:
3650:Wayback Machine
3629:
3624:
3618:
3603:
3597:
3584:
3578:
3563:
3557:
3542:
3533:
3520:
3511:
3505:
3488:
3482:
3463:
3457:
3444:
3438:
3430:. Basic Books.
3421:
3392:
3386:
3367:
3361:
3346:
3337:
3333:
3331:Further reading
3328:
3310:
3302:
3300:
3286:
3278:
3276:
3262:
3247:
3231:
3224:
3213:
3208:
3200:
3198:
3188:Lindley, Walter
3186:
3178:
3176:
3172:
3167:
3163:
3158:
3157:
3148:
3146:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3124:
3120:
3111:
3109:
3096:
3095:
3091:
3076:
3075:
3071:
3058:
3057:
3053:
3041:
3032:
3023:on 2011-11-12.
3020:
3013:
3009:
3008:
3004:
2995:on 2011-03-15.
2987:
2986:
2982:
2970:
2965:
2964:
2960:
2947:
2946:
2942:
2930:
2929:
2925:
2914:
2901:
2900:
2896:
2887:
2885:
2876:
2875:
2871:
2865:
2859:
2857:
2841:
2840:
2833:
2818:
2817:
2810:
2797:
2796:
2792:
2784:
2780:
2770:
2769:
2765:
2756:
2754:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2721:
2719:
2710:
2709:
2705:
2696:
2694:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2673:
2660:
2659:
2652:
2644:
2640:
2633:
2618:
2617:
2613:
2599:
2598:
2594:
2586:
2579:
2571:
2567:
2558:
2556:
2548:
2547:
2543:
2530:
2529:
2525:
2521:, p. 2204.
2517:
2513:
2497:
2496:
2492:
2485:
2481:
2472:
2470:
2462:
2461:
2454:
2446:
2442:
2434:
2430:
2422:
2418:
2409:
2407:
2399:
2394:
2393:
2389:
2381:
2377:
2367:
2359:. p. 385.
2354:
2353:
2349:
2341:
2337:
2329:
2322:
2317:
2313:
2303:
2302:
2298:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2270:
2269:
2262:
2254:
2250:
2232:
2231:
2227:
2205:
2204:
2200:
2192:
2188:
2180:
2176:
2168:
2164:
2151:
2150:
2146:
2138:
2134:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2108:
2104:
2096:
2092:
2085:
2081:
2072:
2070:
2068:
2053:
2052:
2048:
2039:
2037:
2028:
2027:
2023:
2014:
2012:
2003:
2002:
1998:
1980:
1979:
1975:
1966:
1964:
1955:
1954:
1950:
1941:
1939:
1930:
1929:
1922:
1917:
1910:
1901:
1897:
1887:
1886:
1882:
1873:
1871:
1853:
1852:
1848:
1835:
1834:
1830:
1822:
1818:
1809:
1807:
1798:
1797:
1793:
1785:
1781:
1773:
1766:
1758:
1751:
1738:
1737:
1733:
1720:
1718:
1709:
1708:
1704:
1697:
1682:
1681:
1677:
1664:
1663:
1659:
1650:
1648:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1625:
1623:
1608:
1607:
1603:
1588:
1587:
1583:
1576:
1561:
1560:
1556:
1526:
1525:
1521:
1513:
1504:
1495:
1493:
1485:
1484:
1480:
1465:
1464:
1460:
1447:
1446:
1442:
1429:
1428:
1424:
1415:
1413:
1404:
1403:
1396:
1373:
1372:
1368:
1358:
1357:
1353:
1343:
1342:
1338:
1328:
1327:
1323:
1311:
1307:
1306:
1302:
1292:
1291:
1287:
1278:
1276:
1268:
1267:
1260:
1251:
1249:
1243:
1242:
1238:
1233:
1228:
1227:
1218:
1214:
1208:
1204:
1199:
1112:
1107:
1105:
1098:
1093:
1091:
1084:
1077:
1074:
1024:
1000:Suburbanization
916:labor relations
904:
810:
724:
687:
641:
614:
612:Edwin J. Quinby
524:
516:cross-subsidize
394:
321:
320:
319:
318:
314:
313:
312:
304:
303:
295:
294:
283:
278:
115:
106:
52:
50:
34:
33:General Motors
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
5680:
5678:
5670:
5669:
5664:
5659:
5654:
5649:
5644:
5639:
5637:General Motors
5634:
5629:
5619:
5618:
5612:
5611:
5609:
5608:
5601:
5595:
5589:
5583:
5581:
5577:
5576:
5574:
5573:
5566:
5561:
5556:
5555:
5554:
5547:
5540:
5527:
5525:
5521:
5520:
5518:
5517:
5512:
5506:
5504:
5500:
5499:
5497:
5492:
5487:
5482:
5477:
5472:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5455:
5451:
5450:
5448:
5447:
5442:
5437:
5432:
5427:
5422:
5420:Ivy Substation
5417:
5412:
5406:
5403:
5402:
5400:
5399:
5394:
5389:
5384:
5379:
5374:
5369:
5363:
5361:
5354:
5353:Infrastructure
5350:
5349:
5347:
5346:
5341:
5336:
5334:Strike of 1903
5330:
5328:
5324:
5323:
5316:
5314:
5311:
5310:
5308:
5307:
5302:
5297:
5292:
5287:
5282:
5277:
5272:
5267:
5262:
5257:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5227:
5222:
5217:
5212:
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5134:Soldiers' Home
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5079:Edendale Local
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5038:Upland–Ontario
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4762:1945–46 strike
4759:
4754:
4752:Reorganization
4749:
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4720:Related topics
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4273:Detroit Diesel
4270:
4262:
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4241:
4233:
4225:
4217:
4209:
4204:
4199:Ally Financial
4196:
4188:
4183:Allison Engine
4179:
4177:
4174:joint ventures
4169:
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4165:
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3945:SAIC-GM-Wuling
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3715:Vehicle brands
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3699:General Motors
3697:
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3628:
3627:External links
3625:
3623:
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3601:
3595:
3582:
3577:978-1849017305
3576:
3561:
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3549:. Free Press.
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3242:on 2007-11-20.
3229:
3227:on 2012-04-25.
3206:
3190:(1951-01-03).
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2913:978-1134004096
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2849:. 2008-06-26.
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2505:. 2013-06-03.
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2366:978-0415248327
2365:
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2296:
2284:978-1566638432
2283:
2260:
2248:
2245:on 2015-03-12.
2225:
2222:on 2012-10-04.
2198:
2186:
2174:
2162:
2144:
2132:
2129:on 2012-03-09.
2114:
2102:
2090:
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1996:
1985:. 1955-05-06.
1973:
1948:
1920:
1908:
1895:
1880:
1863:. 1940-06-06.
1846:
1828:
1816:
1806:. p. 1124
1791:
1779:
1764:
1749:
1731:
1712:"Citizen Kane"
1702:
1696:978-0195158915
1695:
1675:
1672:on 2015-12-22.
1657:
1632:
1601:
1581:
1574:
1554:
1535:(4): 461–464.
1519:
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1478:
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1440:
1435:New York Times
1422:
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1244:Ruggles, C.O.
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1164:Dual Contracts
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1103:
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939:Dual Contracts
935:
923:
919:
903:
900:
809:
806:
723:
720:
651:on counts of "
640:
637:
613:
610:
586:San Bernardino
544:ConocoPhillips
532:Firestone Tire
523:
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161:Firestone Tire
138:General Motors
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82:General Motors
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47:Cadillac Place
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14:
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5205:Catalina Dock
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5099:Laurel Canyon
5097:
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4563:Remy Electric
4561:
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4409:GM Uzbekistan
4407:
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4399:
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4346:
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4338:
4335:
4330:
4327:
4322:
4319:
4314:
4311:
4306:
4305:Euclid Trucks
4303:
4298:
4295:
4290:
4287:
4282:
4279:
4274:
4271:
4266:
4263:
4258:
4255:
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4244:Dayton-Wright
4242:
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4019:
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4013:
4010:
4009:
4007:
4005:
4001:
3995:
3992:
3990:
3987:
3985:
3984:Transmissions
3982:
3980:
3977:
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3970:
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3955:
3951:
3950:
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3900:
3898:Shareholdings
3896:
3877:
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3735:
3733:
3730:
3728:
3725:
3723:
3720:
3719:
3717:
3713:
3710:
3706:Divisions and
3704:
3700:
3693:
3688:
3686:
3681:
3679:
3674:
3673:
3670:
3664:
3661:
3659:
3658:
3653:
3651:
3647:
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3641:
3639:
3636:
3634:
3631:
3630:
3626:
3619:
3613:
3609:
3608:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3589:. MIT Press.
3588:
3583:
3579:
3573:
3569:
3568:
3562:
3558:
3552:
3548:
3547:
3541:
3537:
3532:
3528:
3527:Bloomberg.com
3524:
3519:
3515:
3510:
3506:
3500:
3495:
3494:
3487:
3483:
3477:
3473:
3469:
3468:
3462:
3458:
3452:
3448:
3443:
3439:
3437:9780465026395
3433:
3428:
3427:
3420:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3404:
3401:(2): 317–40.
3400:
3396:
3395:Urban Studies
3391:
3387:
3385:9780312359072
3381:
3377:
3372:
3366:
3362:
3356:
3352:
3351:
3345:
3341:
3336:
3335:
3330:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3309:
3299:on 2004-07-02
3298:
3294:
3290:
3285:
3275:on 2016-04-03
3274:
3270:
3266:
3261:
3257:
3256:
3251:
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3166:
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3160:
3145:
3141:
3134:
3131:
3127:
3122:
3119:
3107:
3106:
3100:
3093:
3090:
3085:
3080:
3073:
3070:
3066:. 1935-10-24.
3065:
3061:
3055:
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3048:
3044:
3039:
3037:
3035:
3031:
3027:
3019:
3012:
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2999:
2994:
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2909:
2905:
2898:
2895:
2883:
2879:
2873:
2870:
2856:
2852:
2848:
2847:The Economist
2844:
2838:
2836:
2832:
2828:
2823:
2822:
2815:
2813:
2809:
2805:
2800:
2794:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2779:
2774:
2767:
2764:
2753:
2749:
2745:
2744:
2739:
2732:
2729:
2718:on 2009-05-31
2717:
2713:
2707:
2704:
2693:
2689:
2682:
2679:
2674:
2668:
2664:
2657:
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2639:
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2545:
2542:
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2536:
2527:
2524:
2520:
2515:
2512:
2508:
2504:
2503:Bloomberg.com
2500:
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2332:
2327:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2312:
2307:
2300:
2297:
2286:
2280:
2276:
2275:
2267:
2265:
2261:
2257:
2252:
2249:
2244:
2240:
2236:
2229:
2226:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2199:
2195:
2190:
2187:
2183:
2178:
2175:
2171:
2166:
2163:
2158:
2154:
2148:
2145:
2141:
2136:
2133:
2128:
2124:
2118:
2115:
2111:
2106:
2103:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2080:
2069:
2063:
2059:
2058:
2050:
2047:
2035:
2031:
2025:
2022:
2011:
2007:
2000:
1997:
1992:
1988:
1984:
1977:
1974:
1963:
1959:
1952:
1949:
1938:
1934:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1899:
1896:
1891:
1884:
1881:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1861:
1856:
1850:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1832:
1829:
1825:
1820:
1817:
1805:
1801:
1795:
1792:
1788:
1783:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1741:
1735:
1732:
1728:
1717:
1713:
1706:
1703:
1698:
1692:
1688:
1687:
1679:
1676:
1671:
1667:
1661:
1658:
1646:
1642:
1636:
1633:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1613:
1605:
1602:
1598:
1594:
1593:
1585:
1582:
1577:
1571:
1567:
1566:
1558:
1555:
1550:
1546:
1542:
1538:
1534:
1530:
1523:
1520:
1516:
1511:
1509:
1507:
1503:
1492:
1488:
1482:
1479:
1475:. 1926-05-24.
1474:
1469:
1462:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1444:
1441:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1423:
1411:
1407:
1401:
1399:
1395:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1377:
1370:
1367:
1362:
1355:
1352:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1332:
1325:
1322:
1317:
1310:
1304:
1301:
1296:
1289:
1286:
1274:
1273:
1265:
1263:
1259:
1248:. McGraw Hill
1247:
1240:
1237:
1230:
1222:
1221:Other factors
1216:
1213:
1206:
1203:
1196:
1192:
1189:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1177:
1174:
1171:
1168:
1165:
1162:
1159:
1156:
1153:
1150:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1133:
1130:
1128:
1125:
1123:
1120:
1119:
1115:
1104:
1101:
1090:
1087:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1066:
1062:
1059:
1055:
1052:
1048:
1044:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1029:
1028:
1027:
1021:
1015:
1012:
1009:
1005:
1001:
998:
997:
996:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
971:
967:
964:
960:
959:
958:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
933:
928:
924:
920:
917:
913:
912:
911:
908:
902:Other factors
901:
898:
893:
889:
884:
882:
878:
872:
870:
866:
861:
859:
855:
851:
847:
843:
839:
838:market forces
835:
831:
827:
823:
819:
815:
807:
805:
803:
797:
795:
794:George Hilton
790:
787:
783:
782:monopoly evil
779:
778:Joseph Alioto
775:
774:San Francisco
770:
766:
764:
760:
755:
753:
749:
744:
742:
738:
733:
729:
721:
719:
717:
712:
707:
705:
700:
697:In 1948, the
695:
693:
685:
681:
677:
672:
670:
666:
662:
658:
654:
650:
646:
638:
636:
634:
629:
627:
623:
619:
611:
609:
607:
601:
599:
595:
591:
587:
583:
579:
574:
572:
568:
564:
559:
557:
553:
549:
545:
542:(now part of
541:
537:
533:
529:
521:
519:
517:
513:
509:
505:
500:
498:
497:Samuel Insull
494:
493:
488:
484:
479:
476:
472:
468:
463:
461:
457:
453:
449:
444:
435:
431:
429:
425:
421:
417:
413:
409:
408:John D. Hertz
402:
398:
391:
389:
386:
384:
380:
376:
371:
369:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
344:granite block
341:
337:
333:
330:
326:
310:
301:
292:
280:
275:
273:
271:
267:
266:Washington DC
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
238:San Francisco
234:
232:
229:and the book
228:
227:
222:
221:
216:
215:
208:
206:
202:
198:
194:
190:
186:
182:
178:
174:
170:
166:
162:
158:
153:
151:
147:
143:
139:
135:
125:
121:
118:
113:
109:
103:
100:
98:
95:
93:
90:
88:
85:
83:
80:
79:
77:
73:
70:
69:United States
67:
63:
59:
55:
48:
43:
38:
30:
19:
5603:
5568:
5549:
5542:
5535:
5454:Predecessors
5343:
5114:San Fernando
5064:Brush Canyon
5028:Sierra Vista
5023:Sierra Madre
4933:Lamanda Park
4783:
4756:
4597:Yellow Coach
4095:High Feature
3968:technologies
3966:Products and
3805:GM Financial
3708:subsidiaries
3656:
3606:
3586:
3566:
3545:
3526:
3492:
3472:410–414, 488
3466:
3446:
3425:
3398:
3394:
3375:
3349:
3339:
3312:
3301:. Retrieved
3297:the original
3292:
3277:. Retrieved
3273:the original
3268:
3253:
3240:the original
3234:
3222:the original
3217:
3199:. Retrieved
3177:. Retrieved
3161:Bibliography
3147:. Retrieved
3143:
3133:
3121:
3110:. Retrieved
3103:
3092:
3083:
3072:
3063:
3054:
3024:
3018:the original
3005:
2996:
2993:the original
2983:
2974:
2961:
2952:
2943:
2935:
2926:
2917:
2903:
2897:
2886:. Retrieved
2884:. 2009-03-30
2881:
2872:
2858:. Retrieved
2846:
2825:
2820:
2802:
2793:
2781:
2772:
2766:
2755:. Retrieved
2741:
2731:
2720:. Retrieved
2716:the original
2706:
2695:. Retrieved
2691:
2681:
2662:
2641:
2621:
2614:
2605:
2595:
2568:
2557:. Retrieved
2553:
2544:
2533:
2526:
2514:
2506:
2502:
2493:
2482:
2471:. Retrieved
2465:
2443:
2438:, p. 7.
2431:
2419:
2408:. Retrieved
2403:
2390:
2378:
2370:
2356:
2350:
2338:
2314:
2305:
2299:
2288:. Retrieved
2273:
2251:
2243:the original
2238:
2228:
2220:the original
2215:
2211:
2201:
2189:
2177:
2165:
2156:
2147:
2135:
2127:the original
2117:
2105:
2093:
2082:
2071:. Retrieved
2056:
2049:
2038:. Retrieved
2036:. 2014-09-03
2033:
2024:
2013:. Retrieved
2009:
1999:
1982:
1976:
1965:. Retrieved
1962:www.erha.org
1961:
1951:
1940:. Retrieved
1936:
1898:
1889:
1883:
1872:. Retrieved
1858:
1849:
1840:
1831:
1819:
1808:. Retrieved
1794:
1782:
1762:, p. 4.
1743:
1734:
1725:
1719:. Retrieved
1715:
1710:Dirks, Tim.
1705:
1685:
1678:
1670:the original
1660:
1649:. Retrieved
1644:
1635:
1624:. Retrieved
1611:
1604:
1596:
1591:
1584:
1564:
1557:
1532:
1528:
1522:
1494:. Retrieved
1490:
1481:
1472:
1461:
1452:
1443:
1434:
1425:
1414:. Retrieved
1412:. 2002-10-01
1382:(1): 83–91.
1379:
1375:
1369:
1360:
1354:
1345:
1339:
1330:
1324:
1315:
1303:
1294:
1288:
1277:. Retrieved
1271:
1250:. Retrieved
1239:
1215:
1205:
1025:
1008:white flight
1004:urban sprawl
994:
956:
909:
905:
895:
891:
886:
873:
868:
864:
862:
850:urban sprawl
834:labor unrest
811:
801:
798:
791:
781:
771:
767:
756:
751:
745:
725:
708:
696:
673:
668:
642:
630:
615:
602:
575:
560:
525:
501:
492:Citizen Kane
490:
480:
464:
440:
406:
400:
387:
383:loss leaders
372:
364:
327:, and later
322:
254:Philadelphia
235:
230:
224:
218:
212:
209:
154:
133:
131:
29:
5600:(San Pedro)
5397:Yorba Linda
4772:2019 strike
4767:2007 strike
4696:Sponsorship
4600:(1925–1943)
4592:(1926–2017)
4584:(1989–1996)
4566:(1918–1994)
4558:(1995–2003)
4550:(1931–2017)
4542:(1997–2008)
4534:(1933–1948)
4526:(2009–2010)
4510:(1984–2009)
4497:(2016–2020)
4482:(1996–2003)
4474:(1987–2003)
4466:(1985–1997)
4458:(1985–1997)
4441:(1948–2020)
4428:(1998–2008)
4420:(1993–2018)
4412:(2008–2019)
4404:(2000–2020)
4401:GM Thailand
4396:(1913–2017)
4388:(1995–2020)
4380:(1986–2017)
4372:(1938–1987)
4364:(1949–1969)
4356:(2001–2019)
4348:(1953–1963)
4340:(1919–1980)
4332:(1925–1984)
4324:(1925–1984)
4321:Fisher Body
4316:(2009–2019)
4308:(1953–1968)
4300:(1984–1996)
4292:(1930–2004)
4284:(1994–2003)
4276:(1938–1988)
4268:(1997-2004)
4260:(1994–1999)
4247:(1919–1923)
4239:(1938–1962)
4231:(2006–2011)
4223:(2005-2016)
4202:(1919-2013)
4194:(1929–2007)
4186:(1929–1995)
3866:New Zealand
2646:Slater 1997
2448:Slater 1997
2436:Bianco 1998
2331:Slater 1997
2034:latimes.com
1956:Bail, Eli.
1760:Bianco 1998
1515:Bianco 1998
1141:Ralph Nader
854:consumerism
786:Tom Bradley
748:Ralph Nader
692:bench trial
548:Mack Trucks
546:), GM, and
512:electricity
510:and supply
392:Early years
242:New Orleans
185:Los Angeles
173:Mack Trucks
102:Mack Trucks
5621:Categories
5524:Successors
5235:Long Beach
5200:Bellflower
5104:Owensmouth
4948:North Lake
4943:Mount Lowe
4708:Test Track
4677:Mary Barra
4610:Facilities
4417:GM Vietnam
4353:GM-AvtoVAZ
4337:Frigidaire
3800:GM Defense
3775:BrightDrop
3754:BrightDrop
3303:2004-09-22
3279:2006-05-24
3201:2009-04-05
3179:2008-09-23
3149:2019-12-18
3126:Span 2003a
3112:2015-06-03
3043:Snell 1995
2888:2010-08-16
2860:2008-10-23
2786:Span 2003b
2757:2011-05-27
2722:2009-05-27
2697:2021-08-28
2588:Span 2003b
2573:Span 2003a
2559:2023-11-27
2554:HathiTrust
2473:2015-12-06
2410:2012-08-22
2383:Snell 1974
2343:Snell 1974
2290:2020-05-18
2256:Holle 2002
2194:Snell 1974
2110:Span 2003b
2098:Span 2003b
2087:Span 2003b
2073:2011-04-08
2040:2023-05-25
2015:2023-05-25
1967:2023-05-22
1942:2023-05-22
1874:2023-05-22
1810:2015-02-02
1787:Span 2003b
1727:INQUIRER."
1721:2022-08-17
1651:2017-03-04
1626:2015-03-11
1621:B003IH9ZNA
1496:2024-03-01
1431:"Untitled"
1416:2012-04-29
1392:See p. 85.
1279:2014-11-18
1252:2014-11-19
1231:References
1223:' section.
969:elsewhere.
914:Difficult
888:traction."
802:sub judice
653:conspiring
567:Key System
336:cable cars
332:streetcars
281:Background
258:Pittsburgh
205:monopolize
201:conspiracy
5564:Omnitrans
5270:Santa Ana
5210:Fullerton
5089:Hollywood
5008:San Dimas
4903:Arrowhead
4893:Annandale
4687:Tim Solso
4673:(Founder)
4479:HughesNet
4377:GM Europe
4361:GM Diesel
4123:Gemini V8
4074:Family II
4060:Family 1
3979:Platforms
3826:Argentina
3732:Chevrolet
3415:221013040
3322:13510163M
3144:Curbed LA
2855:0013-0613
2752:1048-3845
1991:166781491
1869:0362-4331
1549:154495266
984:freeways.
963:dividends
883:stating,
792:However,
680:acquitted
676:convicted
618:commander
526:In 1936,
454:, and in
448:Kalamazoo
356:epizootic
250:Cleveland
197:San Diego
181:Baltimore
177:St. Louis
150:streetcar
87:Firestone
60:1938–1951
5531:LA Metro
5367:Etiwanda
5360:Stations
5305:Whittier
5295:Torrance
5174:Westgate
5129:Sawtelle
4983:Redlands
4928:Highland
4804:Category
4747:Motorama
4589:Vauxhall
4555:PanAmSat
4385:GM India
4135:Electric
4046:Family 0
4018:Family 0
3994:Vehicles
3913:GM Korea
3846:Colombia
3727:Cadillac
3646:Archived
2934:. UITP.
2606:CBS News
1987:ProQuest
1802:(1941).
1716:Filmsite
1388:20712890
1210:systems.
1072:See also
657:monopoly
645:indicted
598:Glendale
487:Al Smith
377:and the
368:horsecar
352:horsebus
65:Location
5382:Picover
5372:Lynwood
5327:History
4814:Commons
4727:History
4523:Nexteer
4281:DirecTV
4032:E-Turbo
4004:Engines
3989:Hybrids
3937:SAIC-GM
3770:ACDelco
2159:. 1948.
2157:FindLaw
949:of the
922:burden.
688:$ 5,000
647:in the
622:lobbied
594:Burbank
565:of the
348:macadam
276:History
270:Norfolk
189:Oakland
123:Verdict
111:Charges
75:Accused
5580:Legacy
5195:Balboa
4968:Pomona
4913:Covina
4908:Colton
4872:Routes
4663:People
4539:Nuvell
4438:Holden
4313:FAW-GM
4257:Delphi
4212:Bendix
4152:Ultium
4081:Ecotec
3954:Baojun
3861:Mexico
3836:Canada
3831:Brazil
3810:OnStar
3790:Dexron
3785:Cruise
3747:Hummer
3742:Denali
3614:
3593:
3574:
3553:
3501:
3478:
3453:
3434:
3413:
3382:
3357:
3320:
2910:
2853:
2750:
2669:
2629:
2363:
2281:
2064:
1989:
1867:
1745:Texas.
1693:
1619:
1572:
1547:
1386:
1040:Amtrak
1017:modes.
844:, the
822:paving
684:appeal
268:, and
262:Boston
260:, and
246:Newark
187:, and
171:, and
5551:LACTC
5392:Watts
5300:Watts
5018:Shorb
4576:Terex
4507:NUMMI
4494:Maven
4116:Gen V
4102:Gen V
3948:(44%)
3940:(50%)
3932:(20%)
3924:(50%)
3916:(77%)
3908:(60%)
3856:Japan
3851:Egypt
3841:Chile
3722:Buick
3411:S2CID
3225:(PDF)
3214:(PDF)
3173:(PDF)
3021:(PDF)
3014:(PDF)
2971:(PDF)
2400:(PDF)
1545:S2CID
1384:JSTOR
1312:(PDF)
1197:Notes
552:Volvo
5559:OCTA
4547:Opel
4157:BEV3
4147:BEV2
3905:DMAX
3612:ISBN
3591:ISBN
3572:ISBN
3551:ISBN
3499:ISBN
3476:ISBN
3451:ISBN
3432:ISBN
3380:ISBN
3371:"10"
3355:ISBN
2908:ISBN
2851:ISSN
2748:ISSN
2667:ISBN
2627:ISBN
2535:1977
2361:ISBN
2279:ISBN
2062:ISBN
1865:ISSN
1691:ISBN
1617:ASIN
1570:ISBN
1038:and
1002:and
945:and
925:The
726:The
709:The
667:(in
502:The
465:The
450:and
334:and
223:and
132:The
57:Date
5544:RTD
5537:MTA
4142:EV1
4067:MGE
4053:SGE
4025:SGE
3737:GMC
3403:doi
2692:Vox
1537:doi
554:).
346:or
203:to
193:bus
5623::
4110:V8
4089:V6
4040:I4
4012:I3
3525:.
3474:.
3409:.
3399:41
3397:.
3374:.
3318:OL
3316:.
3314:11
3291:.
3267:.
3252:.
3216:.
3194:.
3142:.
3102:.
3082:.
3062:.
3033:^
2916:.
2880:.
2845:.
2834:^
2811:^
2746:.
2740:.
2690:.
2653:^
2604:.
2580:^
2552:.
2501:.
2455:^
2402:.
2369:.
2323:^
2263:^
2237:.
2216:48
2214:.
2210:.
2155:.
2032:.
2008:.
1960:.
1935:.
1923:^
1911:^
1857:.
1767:^
1752:^
1724:.
1714:.
1643:.
1543:.
1531:.
1505:^
1489:.
1471:.
1451:.
1433:.
1408:.
1397:^
1380:26
1378:.
1314:.
1261:^
848:,
836:,
832:,
804:.
754:.
694:.
596:,
256:,
252:,
248:,
244:,
240:,
233:.
183:,
179:,
163:,
4848:e
4841:t
4834:v
3691:e
3684:t
3677:v
3620:.
3599:.
3580:.
3559:.
3529:.
3516:.
3507:.
3484:.
3459:.
3440:.
3417:.
3405::
3388:.
3363:.
3324:.
3306:.
3282:.
3204:.
3182:.
3152:.
3115:.
2891:.
2863:.
2760:.
2725:.
2700:.
2675:.
2635:.
2608:.
2562:.
2476:.
2413:.
2345:.
2333:.
2293:.
2076:.
2043:.
2018:.
1993:.
1970:.
1945:.
1877:.
1699:.
1654:.
1629:.
1578:.
1551:.
1539::
1533:9
1499:.
1455:.
1419:.
1390:.
1053:.
20:)
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