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telescopes. Whereas in the modern era aperture and location are important, the older style observatories were often located near towns because astronomy was only one function; major tasks were simply to record the weather, make accurate determinations of location, and to determine the local time. In modern times many of these functions are performed elsewhere and communicated locally.
73:). They were often the largest in the world, or largest in a region. Despite typical designs having smaller apertures than reflectors, great refractors offered a number of advantages and were popular for astronomy. It was also popular to exhibit large refractors at international exhibits, and examples of this include the Trophy Telescope at the
421:
in 1892. That was the first new moon of
Jupiter to be found since Galileo. In addition, they were used for groundbreaking work on astrophotography and spectroscopy. The discovery of interstellar calcium in 1904, by the Potsdam great refractor, rounded out their discoveries. However, through this time
320:
A 25-inch (63.5 cm) objective refractor was installed in the Newall telescope. This had an objective made by the makers Chance, with the overall telescope made by Thomas Cooke. The telescope was made for Robert
Stirling Newall, and when completed in 1869 was the largest refracting telescope in
111:
since it opened in 1935; this is the most people to have viewed through any telescope. In modern times many large refractors have become important historical items, and are often used for public astronomy outreaches. However, many have also been shut down or moved due to their difficulty of use as
506:
The advent of chemical-based astrophotography in the late 19th century brought difficulties in adapting great refractors to this application. Achromatic lenses were color corrected for what the human eye was sensitive to, yellow light, while photography plates at that time were more sensitive to
528:
in Paris, which was finished in 1891. This had a visual objective lens of 32.7 inches on one tube, and alongside it another tube with a lens of 24.4 inches intended for photographic work. An example of converting to photographic work with a third corrector lens is the Lick telescope. A 33-inch
386:
to the correct shape. This sometimes proved so difficult, that a telescope mirror was abandoned. In the mid-19th century a technique for coating glass with metal offered a major advantage and this technology became more common in the following decades. In the 21st century metal-coated glass
123:
in the mid-1800s. As telescopes became larger and longer, the relatively modest increases in aperture belied their enormous size, with moving weights in the multiple tons in domes several stories tall; physically many of the biggest were larger than even some modern reflecting telescopes.
1225:
The Paris exhibition scope, besides from using a mirror to aim, was not really an observatories 'great' refractor in that sense, but its possible it might have been and both the enormous Yerkes and
Treptow refractors actually debuted at exhibitions, which were major events of the period.
373:
The choice between large refractors or reflectors was driven by the technology of the time. For refractors, the difficulties of fabricating two disks of optical glass for a large achromatic lens were formidable. For reflectors in much of the 19th century, the preferred material of a
358:, who had made the Yerkes 40-inch objective, said a 45-inch (114 cm) would be possible before he died. In addition to the lens, the rest of the telescope needed to be a practical and highly precise instrument, despite the size. For example, the Yerkes tube alone weighed 75
458:
introduced a process of depositing a layer of silver on glass telescope mirrors. Silvered glass mirrors were a vast improvement over speculum metal and made reflectors a practical instrument. The era of large reflectors had begun, with telescopes such as the 36-inch (91 cm)
175:
donated a
Cauchoix of Paris objective lens to establish a large telescope for the new Observatory of Northumberland. The telescope was used for over a century with some updates, but the original was an "achromatic doublet of 11.6 inches clear aperture and focal length 19ft 6in".
1302:
568:
Great refractors were admired for their quality, durability, and usefulness which correlated to features such as lens quality, mount quality, aperture, and also length. Length was important because unlike reflectors (which can be folded and shortened), the
337:
40-inch (1 meter) aperture of 1895. This great refractor pushed the limits of technology of the day; the fabrication of the two element achromatic lens (the largest lens ever made at the time), required 18 attempts and cooperation between
321:
the world. In the 1950s the
University of Cambridge donated the Newall telescope to the National Observatory of Athens, who accepted the gift and it has been there ever since. In Greece, it was installed in new custom dome building near the
1246:
2069:, page 515 Since a lens can only be held in place by its edge, the center of a large lens will sag due to gravity, distorting the image it produces. The largest practical lens size in a refracting telescope is around 1 meter,
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1247:
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Some noted accomplishments of refractors were the discovery of
Neptune, the discovery of the Moons of Mars, and the compilation of various star catalogs. A derivative instrument of refractors, the
306:
At the 1861 International
Exhibit, the size increased to showing a telescope with 21-inch objective lens. The Buckingham or Walworth Common telescope's objective was manufactured by William Wray.
313:
first observed the faint companion, which is now called Sirius B, or affectionately "the Pup". This happened during testing of an 18.5-inch (470 mm) aperture great refractor telescope for
299:
in Hyde Park, one of the noted exhibits was telescope with 5 m (16 feet) long tube, called the "Trophy telescope" and was featured in the exhibition. The telescope was placed by the astronomer
160:, with an objective of 13.3 inches (~34.8 cm) for 1200 pounds, and he placed it as the centerpiece of the observatory. By 1834 it was mounted on an equatorial mounting supplied by
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Hale telescope of 1908, and the 100-inch (2.5 m) Mount Wilson Hooker telescope in 1917. Two other big telescopes that surpassed the largest refractors in aperture were the
346:
of Paris. To achieve its optical aperture it was actually slightly bigger physically, at 41 3/8 in. Refractors had reached their technological limit; the problems of
365:
581:
The progression of largest refracting telescopes in the 19th century, including some telescopes at private observatories that were not really used very much or had problems.
132:
2458:
264:
type called a "German equatorial mount" developed by
Fraunhofer, a mount that became standard for most large refractors from then on. A Fraunhofer "9-inch" (24 cm) at
2700:
A High-school
Astronomy: In which the Descriptive, Physical, and Practical are Combined : with Special Reference to the Wants of Academies and Seminaries of Learning
61:. The preeminence and success of this style in observational astronomy defines an era in modern telescopy in the 19th and early 20th century. Great refractors were large
1468:
1234:
156:
built in
Ireland one of the most richly furnished astronomical observatories of the period. Cooper had acquired the largest lens in the world, made by Cauchoix of
84:
A great refractor was often the centerpiece of a new 19th century observatory, but was typically used with an entourage of other astronomical instruments such as a
560:
276:. There is tendency to round apertures to the nearest large figure, which can create a sort of drift when conversions are made; the Fraunhofer "9-inch" were nine
1359:
1248:
1271:
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2148:
482:
at Meudon (later part of Paris Observatory). This was manufactured by the Henry Brothers and Gautier, who had also made the big Expo telescope of 1900.
244:
in the early 1820s. The first of these was the Dorpat Great Refractor, also known as the Fraunhofer 9-inch, at what was then Dorpat Observatory in the
1205:
905:
395:
222:
invented and created an achromatic object glass and lens which permitted achromatic telescopes up to 3–5 in (8–13 cm) aperture. The Swiss
184:
260:(about 9.6 in (24 cm)) aperture achromatic lens and a 4 m (13.4 ft) focal length. It was also equipped with the first modern
507:
light at the blue end of the spectrum, requiring a lens with a different color correction and focal plane. Solutions to this problem included:
172:
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407:
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was fixed in a horizontal position to overcome gravitational distortion on its 1.25 m (49.2 in) lens and was aimed with a 2 m
2507:
333:
Refracting telescopes would quadruple in size by the end of the century, culminating with the largest practical refractor ever built, the
280:
which is about 9.6 in or about 24 cm, not exactly nine English inches, and closer to ten inches. (Paris inches are also called
478:
The largest refractor in Europe, with the exhibition scope dismantled, would be the double telescope, with 33-inch (84 cm) primary,
2714:
1403:
537:
1772:
1528:
468:
382:, a substance that reflected up to 66 percent of the light that hit it and tarnished in months. They had to be removed, polished, and
1798:
520:
make special objective lenses that could be reversed, one way it was a visual objective, flipped over it was a photographic objective
2230:
2214:
2176:
2066:
107:
An example of prime achievements of refractors, over 7 million people have been able to view through the 12-inch Zeiss refractor at
317:, which was one of the largest refracting telescope lens in existence at the time, and the largest telescope in the United States.
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2749:
2037:
300:
1976:
1027:
78:
1834:
226:(1748–1824) discovered and developed a way to make much larger crown and flint glass blanks. He worked with instrument maker
2358:"BARDOU : Established in Paris in 1818 by D.F. Bardou, then run by his son P.G. Bardou, and grandson, Albert D. Bardou"
195:
in the daytime from the observer's chair of the 24-inch (61 cm) Alvan Clark refracting telescope in Flagstaff, Arizona.
2166:
759:
564:
Modern astrophotograph of the moon with a refractor (27 cm ~10.6 inch) aperture at Kuffner Observatory of Vienna, Austria.
517:
creating objective lenses for visual use which had an additional correcting lens that could be added for photographic work
2149:
https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:DqLUutQdc2gJ:www.astrosurf.com/re/building_large_telescopes_refractors.pdf
2204:
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of glass lens correlated to the physical length of the telescope and offered some optical and image quality advantages.
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of Dublin. This was the largest refractor in the world in the early 1830s, and Cooper used the telescope to sketch
413:
In the late 19th century, the big refractors reached some of their great successes including the discovery of the
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988:
472:
464:
423:
201:
2378:
Dictionary of National Biography, 1885–1900, Volume 53, "South, James", by Agnes Mary Clerke (WikiSource 2010)
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1032:
652:
612:
2331:
1308:
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16:
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https://web.archive.org/web/20100325215726/http://www.ast.cam.ac.uk/about_ioa/history/northumberland.php
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983:
241:
227:
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mounting two telescopes side by side, one with a visual objective and one with a photographic objective
450:
The era slowly came to end as large reflecting telescopes superseded the great refractors. In 1856–57,
339:
767:
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1901:
1868:
1704:
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mounting a single telescope but having an interchangeable visual objective and photographic objective
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62:
47:
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343:
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2001:
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946:
877:
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634:
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502:(France), is a double refractor with both a 83 cm and 62 cm on one shaft and came online in 1891.
499:
460:
443:
427:
355:
334:
310:
265:
208:
57:
refers to a large telescope with a lens, usually the largest refractor at an observatory with an
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100:
or Equatorial. Great refractors were often used for observing double stars and equipped with a
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249:
165:
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2168:
Chronicling the Golden Age of Astronomy: A History of Visual Observing from Harriot to Moore
2006:
1712:
1625:
1489:
1344:
1325:
1138:
1073:
Approximate historical progression of some of the Great refactors of the late 19th century:
861:
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261:
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101:
74:
58:
43:
36:
1821:
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2033:
1339:
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1020:
778:
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188:
85:
66:
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403:
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2135:
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1905:
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1708:
1621:
1485:
1446:"Zeiss Telescopes - Griffith Observatory - Southern California's gateway to the cosmos!"
430:
and increasingly larger silver-and-glass mirrors marked large refractors' obsolescence.
2056:
379:
375:
24:) did away with a dome, and the telescope tube extends above the building in this image
2733:
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1856:
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140:
815:
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216:
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97:
28:
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119:
was used to measure for the first time the distance to another star by geometric
2547:"28-inch telescope : Scenic attractions : Visit the museum : NMM"
2357:
1511:
2691:
2687:"The History of the Development of the Telescope", Authors: Schirach, W. F. H.
1716:
1692:
1349:
399:
257:
116:
93:
89:
2480:
1920:
1583:
1494:
1463:
303:, and it had an 11-inch aperture (280mm) and a 16 feet (4.88m) focal length.
2719:
1643:
1424:
359:
240:
started with the first modern, achromatic, refracting telescopes built by
1667:
Resolute and Undertaking Characters: The Lives of Wilhelm and Otto Struve
383:
347:
120:
1214:
As long as these were, they were actually much shorter than the longest
1952:
351:
322:
253:
1629:
104:. Pioneering work on astrophotography was done with great refractors.
2043:
Six Thousand Years of History: Achievements of the nineteenth century
1238:
Dome of the Royal Observatory Greenwich 28-inch refractor, circa 1900
362:, and had to track stars just as accurately as a smaller instrument.
2416:
1953:"Newall Refractor | The Hellenic Archives of Scientific Instruments"
2642:
2617:
529:
corrector lens was used to convert this telescope for photography.
1464:"Report of the Council to the Thirty-first Annual General Meeting"
1324:
1233:
559:
544:
536:
489:
437:
364:
286:
233:
to use this technology for instruments in the early 19th century.
192:
183:
157:
139:
136:
An observer looking through the Markree's Cauchoix great telescope
131:
42:
27:
15:
2618:"Focal length of the 40-inch telescope of the Yerkes Observatory"
1315:
refracting telescope (from "Smith's Illustrated Astronomy" 1848).
354:
meant refractors would not exceed around 1 meter, although
1919:
Craig, John; Gravatt, William; Slater, Thomas; Rennie, George.
387:
mirrors remain popular, including on space telescopes like the
1892:
Flammarion, Camille (August 1877). "The Companion of Sirius".
1558:"History – British History in depth: The Airy Transit Circle"
915:
Some of the second-largest refractors, or otherwise notable.
309:
On January 31, 1862, American telescope-maker and astronomer
1081:
Selected Longest 19th Century Great Refractors after 1873
1822:
http://www.mbgrg.org/newsletters/newsletter20_July13.pdf
1799:"This week in art history: The Great Exhibition of 1851"
144:
Fraunhofer refractor of 1824, now an exhibit at the old
422:
they were overshadowed by large reflectors such as the
2576:"The 28-inch photo-visual refractor : : RMG"
1375:
List of largest optical telescopes in the 20th century
1370:
List of largest optical telescopes in the 19th century
1365:
List of largest optical telescopes in the 18th century
589:
Selected Largest 19th Century Great Refractors by Year
402:. This demonstration telescope was scrapped after the
168:
in 1835 and to view the solar eclipse of 15 May 1836.
2417:"Welcome to the Online Museum of the Craig Telescope"
1670:. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 45.
2122:
Pettit, Edison (1956). "1956ASPL 7..249P Page 255".
2095:
Pettit, Edison (1956). "1956ASPL 7..249P Page 253".
446:, the largest by famed lens makers Alvin & Clark
1836:
Dictionary of National Biography: Index and Epitome
1529:"Northumberland Telescope | Institute of Astronomy"
1457:
1455:
1329:
The Moon through a 10-inch aperture Grubb refractor
1739:
256:). This telescope made by Fraunhofer had a 9
200:Although there had been very large (and unwieldy)
1469:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
556:("Great Refractor") of 1880, with 69 cm aperture
475:in Canada, which came online in the early 1900s.
2605:. Editors of the Observatory. 1881. p. 192.
2725:Modern Day Image of the Harvard Great Refractor
2320:"The Refracting Telescopes of the 19th Century"
2481:"Harvard College Observatory: Great Refractor"
2392:Stargazer: The Life and Times of the Telescope
1425:"Harvard College Observatory: Great Refractor"
1262:of 1896 at Treptow Observatory, later renamed
1360:List of largest optical refracting telescopes
923:Other & Double Telescope Great Refractors
8:
2124:Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets
2097:Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets
2028:
2026:
2024:
1507:
1505:
406:closed. The Treptow refractor was built for
2663:. Cambridge University Press. p. 181.
2292:
2290:
2288:
1606:"Fraunhofer and the Great Dorpat Refractor"
2641:
2326:. Reed Business Information. p. 573.
2261:. Reed Business Information. p. 573.
2130:(331). Articles.adsabs.harvard.edu: 249.
2103:(331). Articles.adsabs.harvard.edu: 249.
1773:"Berlin – History of Astronomy in Berlin"
1693:"The great nineteenth century refractors"
1493:
541:Dome of Greenwich 28 inch Great refractor
1995:
1993:
1206:Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900
1076:
918:
584:
442:The 40-inch (1.02 m) Refractor, at
396:Great Paris Exhibition Telescope of 1900
77:, and the Yerkes Great Refractor at the
2578:. Nmm.ac.uk. 1944-07-15. Archived from
1775:. Bdaugherty.tripod.com. Archived from
1578:
1576:
1574:
1390:
1241:
211:and others had experimented with small
2528:
2517:
2339:
2329:
2274:
2264:
1188:Alvan Clark & Sons's Biggest Lens
2703:. F.J. Huntington and Mason Brothers.
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
2160:
2158:
2156:
2000:Misch, Tony; Remington Stone (1998).
1977:"Telescope: Yerkes 40-inch Refractor"
1947:
1945:
1943:
1941:
1850:
1848:
1846:
1398:
1396:
1394:
1289:Four astronomical instruments of the
524:An example of the first case was the
408:Great Industrial Exposition of Berlin
7:
2395:. Perseus Books Group. p. 200.
1523:
1521:
96:, and a smaller refractor such as a
2692:"The Great 19th Century Refractors"
2551:webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk
2318:Reed Business Information (1982).
2255:Reed Business Information (1982).
2002:"The Building of Lick Observatory"
469:Dominion Astrophysical Observatory
369:Observer end of the Lick telescope
152:In the early 19th century a young
14:
1513:History of the Cauchoix objective
1028:Astrophysical Observatory Potsdam
1301:
1282:
1270:
1244:
291:Refractor at an exhibition, 1851
2459:"Kavli Institute for Cosmology"
1277:Newall refractor (1870 diagram)
1078:
920:
586:
1857:"2000IrAJ...27..150A Page 150"
1797:Stimson, Thomas (2018-05-04).
1311:, Illustration of the 11 inch
248:(Estland) (which later became
207:of the late 17th century, and
69:(as opposed to the mirrors of
1:
2300:. Articles.adsabs.harvard.edu
2203:King, Henry C. (2003-01-01).
1839:. Smith, Elder & Company.
1427:. Cfa.harvard.edu. 2012-11-21
1061:Henry Brothers & Gautier
463:(1895), 60-inch (1.5 m)
2231:"World's Biggest Refractors"
2206:The History of the Telescope
2165:English, Neil (2018-10-31).
1742:Firefly Astronomy Dictionary
908:telescope; Used 1 Year Only
417:in 1877 and the Jovian moon
79:1893 World's Fair in Chicago
50:of 1888, with 91 cm aperture
39:of 1886, with 76 cm aperture
2298:"1914Obs 37..245H Page 248"
1610:American Journal of Physics
1604:Waaland, J. Robert (1967).
1005:Royal Greenwich Observatory
965:Harvard College Observatory
2766:
1861:Irish Astronomical Journal
1478:Royal Astronomical Society
2081:The Massachusetts Teacher
2036:; John Porter Lamberton;
1979:. Amazing-space.stsci.edu
1894:The Astronomical Register
1746:. Firefly Books. p.
1717:10.1007/s10686-009-9154-9
1406:. Amazing-space.stsci.edu
1355:Extremely large telescope
1079:
989:Northumberland Equatorial
921:
587:
452:Carl August von Steinheil
2622:The Astronomical Journal
2438:"How it was constructed"
2046:. T. Nolan. p. 286.
1833:Lee, Sir Sidney (1903).
473:David Dunlap Observatory
465:Mount Wilson Observatory
424:Leviathan of Parsonstown
2750:19th century in science
2697:Hiram Mattison (1856).
2657:Peter L. Manly (1995).
2616:Barnard, E. E. (1917).
2419:. Craig-telescope.co.uk
2209:. Courier Corporation.
1855:Andrews, A. D. (2000).
1691:Lequeux, James (2009).
1644:"Fraunhoferi refraktor"
1404:"Era: Great Refractors"
1380:List of telescope types
1193:(Exhibition scope only)
1055:83 cm + 62 cm
1037:80 cm + 50 cm
1033:Potsdam Große Refraktor
1010:28-inch Grubb Refractor
969:Harvard Great Refractor
888:Alvan Clark & Sons
872:Alvan Clark & Sons
799:Alvan Clark & Sons
783:Hardly used until 1891
613:Capodimonte Observatory
486:Photographic vs. Visual
20:Treptow telescope (aka
2720:Fraunhofer's refractor
1738:John Woodruff (2003).
1697:Experimental Astronomy
1495:10.1093/mnras/11.4.67a
1330:
1309:Cincinnati Observatory
1291:Strasbourg Observatory
1264:Archenhold Observatory
1239:
1105:U.S. Naval Observatory
833:Alvan Clark & Sons
789:U.S. Naval Observatory
738:Alvan Clark & Sons
653:Kensington Observatory
565:
557:
542:
526:Meudon Great Refractor
503:
447:
404:Exposition Universelle
389:Hubble Space Telescope
370:
340:Alvan Clark & Sons
292:
270:Johann Gottfried Galle
246:Governorate of Estonia
196:
180:Refractors come of age
173:Duke of Northumberland
149:
137:
51:
40:
25:
2440:. The Craig Telescope
2010:. Univ. of California
1925:craig-telescope.co.uk
1921:"The Craig Telescope"
1586:. The Craig Telescope
1328:
1237:
984:Cambridge Observatory
902:Gautier & Mantois
666:Defunct 1836 or 1838
563:
548:
540:
493:
441:
368:
290:
242:Joseph von Fraunhofer
228:Joseph von Fraunhofer
215:in the 18th century,
213:achromatic telescopes
187:
143:
135:
75:1851 Great Exhibition
71:reflecting telescopes
63:refracting telescopes
46:
31:
19:
2715:Great Refractors Era
2389:Fred Watson (2006).
2084:. 1848. p. 367.
1664:A.H. Batten (1988).
1258:Modern day video of
727:Dearborn Observatory
426:, and work with the
315:Dearborn Observatory
274:discovery of Neptune
224:Pierre-Louis Guinand
154:Edward Joshua Cooper
109:Griffith Observatory
48:James Lick telescope
2634:1917AJ.....31...24B
2485:www.cfa.harvard.edu
2136:1956ASPL....7..249P
2109:1956ASPL....7..249P
2061:By Stan Gibilisco,
2058:Physics Demystified
1906:1877AReg...15..186F
1873:2000IrAJ...27..150A
1709:2009ExA....25...43L
1622:1967AmJPh..35..344W
1486:1851MNRAS..11..104D
1199:125 cm (49.2")
1165:68 cm (26.77")
1158:Treptow Observatory
851:Gautier & Henry
823:Pulkovo observatory
742:Smaller than Craig
690:Pulkovo observatory
672:Markree Observatory
301:James William Grant
2660:Unusual Telescopes
2514:on March 25, 2010.
2469:on March 16, 2010.
2463:www.kicc.cam.ac.uk
2342:has generic name (
2277:has generic name (
1331:
1240:
1146:77 cm (30.3")
1121:Vienna Observatory
947:Berlin Observatory
878:Yerkes Observatory
805:Vienna Observatory
768:Newall Observatory
635:Dorpat Observatory
566:
558:
550:Vienna Observatory
543:
504:
500:Meudon Observatory
461:Crossley Reflector
448:
444:Yerkes Observatory
428:Crossley Reflector
371:
335:Yerkes Observatory
311:Alvan Graham Clark
293:
266:Berlin Observatory
209:Chester Moore Hall
197:
150:
148:museum in Estonia.
138:
52:
41:
26:
2670:978-0-521-48393-3
2527:Missing or empty
2505:www.ast.cam.ac.uk
2402:978-0-306-81483-9
1771:Brian Daugherty.
1757:978-1-55297-837-5
1677:978-90-277-2652-0
1630:10.1119/1.1974076
1533:www.ast.cam.ac.uk
1462:Drew, J. (1851).
1313:"Merz and Mahler"
1253:
1220:aerial telescopes
1211:
1210:
1182:102 cm (40")
1128:69 cm (27" )
1065:
1064:
1046:Paris Observatory
912:
911:
760:London Exhibition
480:La Grande Lunette
250:Tartu Observatory
232:
221:
205:aerial telescopes
146:Tartu Observatory
67:achromatic lenses
2757:
2740:Great refractors
2704:
2675:
2674:
2654:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2597:
2591:
2590:
2588:
2587:
2572:
2566:
2565:
2563:
2562:
2553:. Archived from
2543:
2537:
2536:
2530:
2525:
2523:
2515:
2510:. Archived from
2501:
2495:
2494:
2492:
2491:
2477:
2471:
2470:
2465:. Archived from
2455:
2449:
2448:
2446:
2445:
2434:
2428:
2427:
2425:
2424:
2413:
2407:
2406:
2386:
2380:
2375:
2369:
2368:
2366:
2365:
2354:
2348:
2347:
2341:
2337:
2335:
2327:
2315:
2309:
2308:
2306:
2305:
2294:
2283:
2282:
2276:
2272:
2270:
2262:
2252:
2246:
2245:
2243:
2242:
2233:. Archived from
2227:
2221:
2220:
2200:
2183:
2182:
2162:
2151:
2146:
2140:
2139:
2119:
2113:
2112:
2092:
2086:
2085:
2076:
2070:
2054:
2048:
2047:
2030:
2019:
2018:
2016:
2015:
2007:Lick Observatory
1997:
1988:
1987:
1985:
1984:
1973:
1967:
1966:
1964:
1963:
1949:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1931:
1916:
1910:
1909:
1900:(176): 186–189.
1889:
1883:
1882:
1880:
1879:
1852:
1841:
1840:
1830:
1824:
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1809:
1794:
1788:
1787:
1785:
1784:
1768:
1762:
1761:
1745:
1735:
1729:
1728:
1688:
1682:
1681:
1661:
1655:
1654:
1652:
1651:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1601:
1595:
1594:
1592:
1591:
1580:
1569:
1568:
1566:
1565:
1554:
1548:
1547:
1545:
1544:
1535:. Archived from
1525:
1516:
1509:
1500:
1499:
1497:
1459:
1450:
1449:
1442:
1436:
1435:
1433:
1432:
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1400:
1345:Aerial telescope
1305:
1295:Großer Refraktor
1293:, including its
1286:
1274:
1260:Großer Refraktor
1255:
1254:
1139:Nice Observatory
1112:66 cm (26")
1077:
978:Merz and Mahler
959:Merz and Mahler
919:
906:Paris Exhibition
862:Lick Observatory
841:Nice Observatory
700:Merz and Mahler
585:
554:Großer Refraktor
297:Great Exhibition
295:In 1851, at the
262:equatorial mount
238:great refractors
230:
219:
102:Filar micrometer
59:equatorial mount
37:Nice Observatory
2765:
2764:
2760:
2759:
2758:
2756:
2755:
2754:
2745:Telescope types
2730:
2729:
2711:
2696:
2683:
2681:Further reading
2678:
2671:
2656:
2655:
2651:
2615:
2614:
2610:
2602:The Observatory
2599:
2598:
2594:
2585:
2583:
2574:
2573:
2569:
2560:
2558:
2545:
2544:
2540:
2526:
2516:
2503:
2502:
2498:
2489:
2487:
2479:
2478:
2474:
2457:
2456:
2452:
2443:
2441:
2436:
2435:
2431:
2422:
2420:
2415:
2414:
2410:
2403:
2388:
2387:
2383:
2376:
2372:
2363:
2361:
2356:
2355:
2351:
2338:
2328:
2317:
2316:
2312:
2303:
2301:
2296:
2295:
2286:
2273:
2263:
2254:
2253:
2249:
2240:
2238:
2229:
2228:
2224:
2217:
2202:
2201:
2186:
2179:
2164:
2163:
2154:
2147:
2143:
2121:
2120:
2116:
2094:
2093:
2089:
2078:
2077:
2073:
2055:
2051:
2034:Edgar Sanderson
2032:
2031:
2022:
2013:
2011:
1999:
1998:
1991:
1982:
1980:
1975:
1974:
1970:
1961:
1959:
1951:
1950:
1939:
1929:
1927:
1918:
1917:
1913:
1891:
1890:
1886:
1877:
1875:
1854:
1853:
1844:
1832:
1831:
1827:
1820:
1816:
1807:
1805:
1796:
1795:
1791:
1782:
1780:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1758:
1737:
1736:
1732:
1703:(1–3): 43–61 .
1690:
1689:
1685:
1678:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1649:
1647:
1642:
1641:
1637:
1603:
1602:
1598:
1589:
1587:
1582:
1581:
1572:
1563:
1561:
1556:
1555:
1551:
1542:
1540:
1527:
1526:
1519:
1510:
1503:
1461:
1460:
1453:
1444:
1443:
1439:
1430:
1428:
1423:
1422:
1418:
1409:
1407:
1402:
1401:
1392:
1388:
1340:Achromatic lens
1336:
1323:
1316:
1306:
1297:
1287:
1278:
1275:
1266:
1256:
1245:
1232:
1212:
1071:
1066:
1021:Chance Brothers
913:
779:Chance Brothers
720:Craig telescope
715:Chance Brothers
579:
535:
488:
436:
331:
199:
189:Percival Lowell
182:
130:
86:Meridian Circle
55:Great refractor
12:
11:
5:
2763:
2761:
2753:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2732:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2722:
2717:
2710:
2709:External links
2707:
2706:
2705:
2694:
2689:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2676:
2669:
2649:
2643:10.1086/104239
2608:
2592:
2567:
2538:
2496:
2472:
2450:
2429:
2408:
2401:
2381:
2370:
2349:
2310:
2284:
2247:
2222:
2215:
2184:
2177:
2152:
2141:
2114:
2087:
2071:
2049:
2038:Charles Morris
2020:
1989:
1968:
1937:
1911:
1884:
1842:
1825:
1814:
1789:
1763:
1756:
1730:
1683:
1676:
1656:
1635:
1596:
1570:
1549:
1517:
1501:
1451:
1437:
1416:
1389:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1382:
1377:
1372:
1367:
1362:
1357:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1335:
1332:
1322:
1319:
1318:
1317:
1307:
1300:
1298:
1288:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1269:
1267:
1257:
1243:
1231:
1228:
1218:refractors in
1209:
1208:
1203:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1189:
1186:
1183:
1180:
1177:
1173:
1172:
1169:
1166:
1163:
1160:
1154:
1153:
1152:Biscoffscheim
1150:
1147:
1144:
1141:
1135:
1134:
1132:
1129:
1126:
1123:
1117:
1116:
1113:
1110:
1107:
1101:
1100:
1097:
1094:
1091:
1088:
1084:
1083:
1075:
1070:
1067:
1063:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1051:Meudon 33-inch
1048:
1042:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1030:
1024:
1023:
1018:
1015:
1012:
1007:
1001:
1000:
997:
994:
991:
986:
980:
979:
976:
973:
970:
967:
961:
960:
957:
954:
951:
949:
943:
942:
939:
936:
933:
930:
926:
925:
917:
910:
909:
903:
900:
897:
894:
890:
889:
886:
883:
880:
874:
873:
870:
867:
864:
858:
857:
855:Grande Lunette
852:
849:
846:
843:
837:
836:
834:
831:
828:
825:
819:
818:
813:
810:
807:
801:
800:
797:
794:
791:
785:
784:
781:
776:
773:
770:
764:
763:
756:
754:
751:
748:
744:
743:
740:
735:
732:
729:
723:
722:
717:
712:
709:
706:
702:
701:
698:
695:
692:
686:
685:
683:
680:
677:
674:
668:
667:
664:
661:
658:
655:
649:
648:
646:
643:
640:
637:
631:
630:
624:
621:
618:
615:
609:
608:
605:
602:
599:
596:
592:
591:
583:
578:
575:
534:
531:
522:
521:
518:
515:
512:
496:Grande Lunette
487:
484:
435:
434:End of the era
432:
380:speculum metal
376:primary mirror
356:Alvan G. Clark
330:
329:The Golden era
327:
202:Non-achromatic
181:
178:
166:Halley's comet
129:
126:
33:Grande Lunette
13:
10:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
2762:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2737:
2735:
2726:
2723:
2721:
2718:
2716:
2713:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2701:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2680:
2672:
2666:
2662:
2661:
2653:
2650:
2644:
2639:
2635:
2631:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2612:
2609:
2604:
2603:
2596:
2593:
2582:on 2011-10-24
2581:
2577:
2571:
2568:
2557:on 2008-11-14
2556:
2552:
2548:
2542:
2539:
2534:
2521:
2513:
2509:
2506:
2500:
2497:
2486:
2482:
2476:
2473:
2468:
2464:
2460:
2454:
2451:
2439:
2433:
2430:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2404:
2398:
2394:
2393:
2385:
2382:
2379:
2374:
2371:
2359:
2353:
2350:
2345:
2340:|author=
2333:
2332:cite magazine
2325:
2324:New Scientist
2321:
2314:
2311:
2299:
2293:
2291:
2289:
2285:
2280:
2275:|author=
2268:
2260:
2259:
2258:New Scientist
2251:
2248:
2237:on 2006-10-03
2236:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2218:
2216:9780486432656
2212:
2208:
2207:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2185:
2180:
2178:9783319977072
2174:
2170:
2169:
2161:
2159:
2157:
2153:
2150:
2145:
2142:
2137:
2133:
2129:
2125:
2118:
2115:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2098:
2091:
2088:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2072:
2068:
2067:0-07-138201-1
2064:
2060:
2059:
2053:
2050:
2045:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2021:
2009:
2008:
2003:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1978:
1972:
1969:
1958:
1954:
1948:
1946:
1944:
1942:
1938:
1926:
1922:
1915:
1912:
1907:
1903:
1899:
1895:
1888:
1885:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1858:
1851:
1849:
1847:
1843:
1838:
1837:
1829:
1826:
1823:
1818:
1815:
1804:
1800:
1793:
1790:
1779:on 2011-07-19
1778:
1774:
1767:
1764:
1759:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1743:
1734:
1731:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1702:
1698:
1694:
1687:
1684:
1679:
1673:
1669:
1668:
1660:
1657:
1645:
1639:
1636:
1631:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1600:
1597:
1585:
1579:
1577:
1575:
1571:
1559:
1553:
1550:
1539:on 2019-07-22
1538:
1534:
1530:
1524:
1522:
1518:
1515:
1514:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1496:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1471:
1470:
1465:
1458:
1456:
1452:
1447:
1441:
1438:
1426:
1420:
1417:
1405:
1399:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1378:
1376:
1373:
1371:
1368:
1366:
1363:
1361:
1358:
1356:
1353:
1351:
1348:
1346:
1343:
1341:
1338:
1337:
1333:
1327:
1320:
1314:
1310:
1304:
1299:
1296:
1292:
1285:
1280:
1273:
1268:
1265:
1261:
1242:
1236:
1229:
1227:
1223:
1221:
1217:
1207:
1204:
1201:
1198:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1187:
1184:
1181:
1178:
1175:
1174:
1170:
1167:
1164:
1161:
1159:
1156:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1136:
1133:
1130:
1127:
1124:
1122:
1119:
1118:
1114:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1102:
1098:
1095:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1082:
1074:
1068:
1060:
1057:
1054:
1052:
1049:
1047:
1044:
1043:
1039:
1036:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1011:
1008:
1006:
1003:
1002:
998:
995:
992:
990:
987:
985:
982:
981:
977:
974:
971:
968:
966:
963:
962:
958:
955:
952:
950:
948:
945:
944:
940:
937:
934:
931:
928:
927:
924:
916:
907:
904:
901:
898:
895:
892:
891:
887:
884:
881:
879:
876:
875:
871:
868:
865:
863:
860:
859:
856:
853:
850:
847:
844:
842:
839:
838:
835:
832:
829:
826:
824:
821:
820:
817:
814:
811:
808:
806:
803:
802:
798:
795:
792:
790:
787:
786:
782:
780:
777:
774:
771:
769:
766:
765:
761:
757:
755:
752:
749:
746:
745:
741:
739:
736:
733:
730:
728:
725:
724:
721:
718:
716:
713:
710:
707:
704:
703:
699:
696:
693:
691:
688:
687:
684:
681:
678:
675:
673:
670:
669:
665:
662:
659:
656:
654:
651:
650:
647:
644:
641:
638:
636:
633:
632:
629:
625:
622:
619:
616:
614:
611:
610:
606:
603:
600:
597:
594:
593:
590:
582:
576:
574:
572:
562:
555:
551:
547:
539:
532:
530:
527:
519:
516:
513:
510:
509:
508:
501:
497:
492:
485:
483:
481:
476:
474:
470:
466:
462:
457:
456:Léon Foucault
453:
445:
440:
433:
431:
429:
425:
420:
416:
415:moons of Mars
411:
409:
405:
401:
397:
392:
390:
385:
381:
377:
367:
363:
361:
357:
353:
349:
345:
341:
336:
328:
326:
324:
318:
316:
312:
307:
304:
302:
298:
289:
285:
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
263:
259:
255:
251:
247:
243:
239:
234:
229:
225:
218:
214:
210:
206:
203:
194:
190:
186:
179:
177:
174:
169:
167:
163:
159:
155:
147:
142:
134:
127:
125:
122:
118:
113:
110:
105:
103:
99:
95:
91:
87:
82:
80:
76:
72:
68:
64:
60:
56:
49:
45:
38:
34:
30:
23:
22:Himmelskanone
18:
2699:
2659:
2652:
2625:
2621:
2611:
2601:
2595:
2584:. Retrieved
2580:the original
2570:
2559:. Retrieved
2555:the original
2550:
2541:
2529:|title=
2512:the original
2504:
2499:
2488:. Retrieved
2484:
2475:
2467:the original
2462:
2453:
2442:. Retrieved
2432:
2421:. Retrieved
2411:
2391:
2384:
2373:
2362:. Retrieved
2360:. Europa.com
2352:
2323:
2313:
2302:. Retrieved
2257:
2250:
2239:. Retrieved
2235:the original
2225:
2205:
2171:. Springer.
2167:
2144:
2127:
2123:
2117:
2100:
2096:
2090:
2080:
2074:
2057:
2052:
2042:
2012:. Retrieved
2005:
1981:. Retrieved
1971:
1960:. Retrieved
1956:
1928:. Retrieved
1924:
1914:
1897:
1893:
1887:
1876:. Retrieved
1864:
1860:
1835:
1828:
1817:
1806:. Retrieved
1802:
1792:
1781:. Retrieved
1777:the original
1766:
1741:
1733:
1700:
1696:
1686:
1666:
1659:
1648:. Retrieved
1638:
1613:
1609:
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1562:. Retrieved
1552:
1541:. Retrieved
1537:the original
1532:
1512:
1473:
1467:
1440:
1429:. Retrieved
1419:
1408:. Retrieved
1321:Observations
1294:
1259:
1224:
1213:
1080:
1072:
1069:Focal length
922:
914:
854:
617:17,5 cm
588:
580:
571:focal length
567:
553:
523:
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495:
479:
477:
449:
412:
393:
372:
348:lens sagging
344:Charles Feil
332:
319:
308:
305:
294:
281:
278:paris inches
277:
268:was used by
252:in southern
237:
235:
231:(1787–1826)
220:(1706–1761)
217:John Dollond
198:
171:In 1833 the
170:
162:Thomas Grubb
151:
114:
106:
98:Comet Seeker
83:
54:
53:
32:
21:
1957:www.hasi.gr
1480:: 104–105.
1087:Observatory
941:Lens Maker
935:Aperture(s)
929:Observatory
896:125 cm
882:102 cm
758:Buckingham
595:Observatory
236:The era of
2734:Categories
2586:2014-03-01
2561:2019-10-25
2490:2019-10-25
2444:2014-03-01
2423:2014-03-01
2364:2014-02-28
2304:2014-03-01
2241:2009-08-14
2014:2008-06-30
1983:2014-03-01
1962:2019-10-24
1878:2019-10-24
1808:2019-10-24
1783:2014-03-01
1650:2014-03-01
1616:(4): 344.
1590:2014-03-01
1584:"the lens"
1564:2014-03-01
1543:2019-10-05
1431:2014-03-01
1410:2014-03-01
1386:References
1350:Apochromat
1014:71 cm
993:30 cm
972:38 cm
953:24 cm
866:91 cm
845:77 cm
827:76 cm
809:69 cm
793:66 cm
772:64 cm
762:telescope
750:53 cm
731:47 cm
708:61 cm
694:38 cm
676:34 cm
657:30 cm
645:Fraunhofer
639:24 cm
623:Fraunhofer
604:Lens Maker
400:siderostat
384:re-figured
325:mountain.
258:Paris inch
191:observing
128:Beginnings
117:heliometer
94:Astrograph
90:Heliometer
2267:cite book
1930:3 January
1725:119885380
999:Cauchoix
711:1852–1857
660:1829–1838
410:of 1896.
2520:cite web
2040:(1910).
1646:. Obs.ee
1334:See also
1171:No dome
1093:Aperture
682:Cauchoix
663:Cauchoix
626:see the
598:Aperture
577:Aperture
533:Examples
471:and the
419:Amalthea
121:parallax
2630:Bibcode
2132:Bibcode
2105:Bibcode
1902:Bibcode
1869:Bibcode
1867:: 150.
1705:Bibcode
1618:Bibcode
1482:Bibcode
1230:Gallery
1216:singlet
1096:Year(s)
601:Year(s)
352:gravity
323:Pendeli
272:in the
254:Estonia
2667:
2628:: 24.
2399:
2213:
2175:
2065:
1803:Medium
1754:
1723:
1674:
1176:Yerkes
1143:17.9 m
1125:10.5 m
1090:Length
628:record
282:pouces
65:using
1721:S2CID
1560:. BBC
1476:(4).
1115:1873
1109:9.9 m
1099:Note
1058:1891
1040:1899
816:Grubb
607:Note
350:from
193:Venus
158:Paris
92:, an
2665:ISBN
2533:help
2397:ISBN
2344:help
2279:help
2211:ISBN
2173:ISBN
2063:ISBN
1932:2011
1752:ISBN
1672:ISBN
1202:1900
1196:57 m
1185:1897
1179:19 m
1168:1896
1162:21 m
1149:1886
1131:1880
1017:1893
996:1835
975:1847
956:1835
938:Year
932:Name
899:1900
885:1897
869:1888
848:1886
830:1885
812:1880
796:1873
775:1871
753:1862
734:1862
697:1839
679:1834
642:1826
620:1814
494:The
454:and
394:The
378:was
360:tons
342:and
88:, a
2638:doi
1713:doi
1626:doi
1490:doi
552:'s
498:of
35:of
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1992:^
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1940:^
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